Module 4 Social Problems in India

Social Problem:
Social change creates so many social problems in a functional society. The norms,
values, customs, traditions, mores and law of the society get changes as the changes are
occurring inside the society. It means that the society disturbed by external or internal forces
of social change. A changing society inevitably develops problems, either the conditions
themselves change and become unacceptable (population growth, soil erosion, and
deforestation create a conservation problem) or the society's changing values define an old
condition as no longer tolerable (child labor, poverty, racism. or sex inequality). Social
problem is part of the price of social change. In the coming pages we are discussing various
dimensions created by social change.
 Definition:
 Social Problem:
 It is often defined as a condition which many people consider undesirable and wish to correct.

Characteristics of Social Problems:

1. All social problems are situations which have injurious consequences for society.
2. All social problems are deviations from the ‘ideal’ situation.
3. All social problems have some common basis of origin.
4. All social problems are social in origin.
5. All social problems are caused by pathological social conditions.
6. All social problems are interconnected.
7. All social problems are social in their results, that is, they affect all sections of society.
8. The responsibility for social problems is social, that is, they require a collective approach
for their solution.
9. Social Problems occur in all societies.

Causes of Social Problems:

Social problems arise out of pathological social conditions. They occur in all societies—

simple (that is, small, isolated and homogeneous with a strong sense of group solidarity, and

which change slowly) as well as in complex (which are characterized by impersonal

secondary relations, anonymity, loneliness, high mobility and extreme specialization, and

where change is faster), that is, wherever and whenever a relationship is affected between a

group of individuals leading to maladjustments and conflicts.

 Causes of Social Problems

 Unemployment.
 Poverty.
 Rapid population growth.
 Urbanization.
 Lack of education.
 Superstitious beliefs.

Unemployment:
Unemployment occurs when a person who is actively searching for employment is unable
to find work. Unemployment is one of the causes of social problems. It leads to the
frustration .Due to unemployment, problems like burglary, loot, murder, theft arises.
Poverty:
Poverty is the lack of a certain amount of material possessions or money. It includes social,
economic and political elements. Poverty causes lack of food, health services and others.
Rapid population growth
Rapid population growth is the increase in the number of individuals. Over –population is
caused by the number of factors. It leads to the unemployment and poverty.
Urbanization

Urbanization is the population shift from rural to urban areas. Urbanization creates enormous
social, economic and environmental changes, which provide an opportunity for sustainability
with the potential to use resources more efficiently. It is the cause of social problems. It is
believed that living in a city can provide opportunities; diversity and market place
competition .As against this, there may be stress, increased cost of living and negative social
aspects that result from a mass.
Lack of education
Lack of education is one of the causes of social problems. People without good education
are at risk from a lifetime of poor diet, long manual working and worsening mental health.
Lack of education can have serious effects on children and adults and can affect health, living
conditions and social institutions .Due to lack of education, people do not take care of
themselves because they are less educated about topics such as family planning and proper
hygiene.
Superstitious beliefs:
The superstitious beliefs which are deeply rooted in societies are also promoting
socialproblems.People believe in various traditions which would not let an individual to
progress. This happens because people are innocent. They are not conscious about the
consequences of their beliefs and practices.

Types of Social Problems:

Unemployment:
Unemployment refers to a situation in which the workers who are capable of working and
willing to work do not get employment.

Unemployment vs Underemployment
Unemployment refers to the economic situation in which an individual who is actively
searching for employment is unable to find work. Underemployment is a situation where
there is a mismatch between the employment opportunities and the skills
and education level of the employees

Causes of Unemployment:

(i)Caste System:
In India caste system is prevalent. The work is prohibited for specific castes in some
areas.In many cases, the work is not given to the deserving candidates but given to the
person belonging to a particular community. So this gives rise to unemployment.
ii) Slow Economic Growth:
Indian economy is underdeveloped and role of economic growth is very slow. This slow
growth fails to provide enough unemployment opportunities to the increasing population.
(iii) Increase in Population:
Constant increase in population has been a big problem in India. It is one of the main causes
of unemployment. The rate of unemployment is 11.1% in 10th Plan.
(iv) Agriculture is a Seasonal Occupation:
Agriculture is underdeveloped in India. It provides seasonal employment. Large part of
population is dependent on agriculture. But agriculture being seasonal provides work for a
few months. So this gives rise to unemployment.
(v) Fall of Cottage and Small industries:
The industrial development had adverse effect on cottage and small industries. The
production of cottage industries began to fall and many artisans became unemployed.
(vi) Slow Growth of Industrialisation:
The rate of industrial growth is slow. Though emphasis is laid on industrialisation yet the
avenues of employment created by industrialisation are very few.
(v)Causes of Under Employment:
Inadequate availability of means of production is the main cause of under employment.
People do not get employment for the whole year due to shortage of electricity, coal and raw
materials.
(vi)Expansion of Universities:
 • The number of universities has increased manifold. There are 385 universities. As a
result of this educated unemployment or white collar unemployment has increased.
(vii)Inadequate Irrigation Facilities:
• Even after the completion of 9th five plans, 39% of total cultivable area could get
irrigation facilities.
• Due to lack of irrigation, large area of land can grow only one crop in a year. Farmers
remain unemployed for most time of the year.
(viii)Immobility of labour:
• Mobility of labour in India is low. Due to attachment to the family, people do not go
to far off areas for jobs. Factors like language, religion, and climate are also
responsible for low mobility. Immobility of labour adds to unemployment.

The various types of unemployment may be classified as follows:

1. Voluntary Unemployment:

In every society, there are some people who are unwilling to work at the prevailing

wage rate, and there are some who are lucky enough to get a continuous flow of unearned

income from their unemployed status. Jobs are available for them but they do not want to

accept them. Voluntary unemployment may be a national waste of human energy, but it is not

a serious economic problem with any social repercussions. Voluntary unemployment is

consistent with the state of full employment.

2. Frictional Unemployment:
Frictional unemployment is a temporary phenomenon. It may take place in various

ways. When some workers are temporarily out of work while changing jobs, it is called

“frictional unemployment.” Similarly, strikes and lockouts may result in the suspension of

work, and there may exist some frictional unemployment for the time being. To some extent,

frictional unemployment is also caused by the imperfect mobility of labour. Factors inhibiting

the geographical or occupational movement of unemployed workers into vacant jobs, thus,

cause frictional unemployment.

3. Casual Unemployment:

In industries such as building construction, catering or agriculture, where workers are

employed on a day- to-day basis, there are chances of casual unemployment occurring due to

short-term contracts, which are terminable any time. Thus, when a worker’s contract ends
after the completion of work, he has to find a job elsewhere, which he is likely to get

depending on circumstances or he may get a fresh contract with the same firm when some

new work is started.

4. Seasonal Unemployment:

There are some industries and occupations such as agriculture, the catering

trade in holiday resorts, some agro-based industrial activities, like sugar mills and rice mills,

etc., in which production activities are seasonal in nature. So, they offer employment for only

a certain period of time in a year. For instance, work in sugar mills lasts for about six months.

Rice mills work for only a few weeks.

Unemployment caused by the fact that certain activities can be pursued only during

specified periods, e.g., The demand for agricultural labour increases at the time of sowing and

harvesting. During the interval between sowing and harvesting, there is a fall in employment.

It is also found in seasonal industries like ice factories.

5. Structural Unemployment:

Due to structural changes in the economy, structural unemployment may take place.

Structural unemployment is caused by a decline in demand for production in a particular

industry, and consequent disinvestment and reduction in its manpower requirements.

In fact, structural unemployment is a natural concomitant of economic progress

and innovation in a complex industrial economy of modem times. For instance, with the

economic expansion of a town, tongas may tend to go out of date with the introduction of

autorickshaws. Consequently, tonga operators may become unemployed.

Unemployment caused by the fact that the economy fails to generate enough jobs. It is the

result ofthe backwardness and low rate of economic development of a country. It is generally

witnessed in the underdeveloped countries, e.g., A change of energy use from coal to electric

power is bound to curtail coal mining activity and cause unemployment there.
 Occupational immobilities. This refers to the difficulties in learning new skills
applicable to a new industry, and technological change, e.g. an unemployed farmer may
struggle to find work in high tech industries.
 Geographical immobilities. This refers to the difficulty in moving regions to get a
job, e.g. there may be jobs in London, but it could be difficult to find suitable accommodation
or schooling for their children.

 Technological change. If there is the development of labour saving technology in

some industries, then there will be a fall in demand for labour.

 Structural change in the economy. The decline of the coal mines due to a lack of
competitiveness meant that many coal miners were unemployed. However, they found it
difficult to get jobs in new industries such as computers.

6. Technological Unemployment:

A kind of structural unemployment may take place in an economy as a result of

technological improvement. Such unemployment may be described as technological

unemployment. Due to the introduction of new machinery, improvement in methods of

production, labour-saving devices etc., some workers tend to be replaced by machines. Their

unemployment is termed as “technological unemployment.”

7. Cyclical Unemployment:

Capitalist-biased, advanced countries are subject to trade cycles. Trade cycles —

especially recessionary and depressionary phases — cause cyclical unemployment in these

countries. During the contraction phase of a trade cycle in an economy, aggregate demand

falls and this leads to disinvestment, decline in production, and unemployment. Lerner calls it

“deflationary unemployment.” Keynes emphasised that depressionary unemployment is

caused by the insufficiency of effective demand.

8. Chronic Unemployment:

When unemployment tends to be a long-term feature of a country it is called

“chronic unemployment.” Underdeveloped countries suffer from chronic unemployment on

account of the vicious circle of poverty. Lack of developed resources and their
underutilisation, high population growth, backward, even primitive state of technology, low

capital formation, etc. are the major causes of chronic unemployment in underdeveloped

economies.

9. Disguised Unemployment:

Unemployment may be classified into: (i) open, and (ii) disguised.

The term “disguised unemployment” commonly refers to a situation of employment

with surplus manpower, in which some workers have zero marginal productivity so that their

removal will not affect the volume of total output. Suppose a given land can properly be

organised and cultivated by four persons very effectively.

A situation in which more persons are employed on a job than are optimally required. If a

part of the labour force is withdrawn and the total production remains unchanged, this

withdrawn labour will be known as disguised unemployed labour.

OVER POPULATION CAUSES & EFFECTS

Every nook and corner of India is a clear display of increasing population. Whether
you are in a metro station, airport, railway station, road, highway, bus stop, hospital,
shopping mall, market, temple, or even in a social/ religious gathering, we see all these
places are overcrowded at any time of the day. This is a clear indication of overpopulation in
the country.

According to the Indian census, carried out in 2011, the population of India was
exactly 1,210,193,422, which means India has crossed the 1-billion mark. This is the second
most populous country of the world after China and the various studies have projected that
India will be world’s number-1 populous country, surpassing China, by 2025. Inspite of the
fact that the population policies, family planning and welfare programmes undertaken by the
Govt. of India have led to a continuous decrease in the fertility rate, yet the actual
stabilisation of population can take place only by 2050.

Causes of Over Population

The two main common causes leading to over population in India are:

 The birth rate is still higher than the death rate. We have been successful in declining
the death rates but the same cannot be said for birth rates.
 The fertility rate due to the population policies and other measures has been falling
but even then it is much higher compared to other countries.
The above causes are interrelated to the various social issues in our country which are
leading to over population.
 Early Marriage and Universal Marriage System: Even though legally the
marriageable age of a girl is 18 years, the concept of early marriage still prevails and
getting married at an young age prolongs the child bearing age. Also, in India, marriage is
a sacred obligation and a universal practice, where almost every woman is married at the
reproductive age.

 Poverty and Illiteracy: Another factor for the rapid growth of population is poverty.
Impoverished families have this notion that more the number of members in the family,
more will be the numbers to earn income. Some feel that more children are needed to
look after them in their old age. Also hunger can be cause of death of their children and
hence the need for more children. Strange but true, Indian still lag behind the use of
contraceptives and birth control methods. Many of them are not willing to discuss or are
totally unaware about them. Illiteracy is thus another cause of over population

 Age old cultural norm: Sons are the bread earners of the families in India. This age
old thought puts considerable pressure on the parents to produce children till a male child
is born. More the better.

 Illegal migration: Last but not the least, we cannot ignore the fact that illegal
migration is continuously taking place from Bangladesh, Nepal leading to increased
population density.

Effects of Over Population

Even after 67 years of independence, the scenario of our country is not good, due to over
population. Some major impacts of high population are as follows:
 Pressure on food, clothing & housing : A country with fast growing population has
to face a serious problem of scarcity of necessary food, minimum clothing & proper
housing facilities, which are basic needs of human life. Thus, it affects the life style
and results slum areas, starvation etc
 Unemployment: Generating employment for a huge population in a country like
India is very difficult. The number of illiterate persons increases every year.
Unemployment rate is thus showing an increasing trend.
 Standard of living : The overpopulation creates or give rise to large families with
low income reducing the standard of persons living therein. The slum areas, starvation
and frequently epidemics are the results affecting health and standard of persons
within such nation.
 Manpower utilisation: The number of jobless people is on the rise in India due to
economic depression and slow business development and expansion activities.
 Pressure on infrastructure: Development of infrastructural facilities is unfortunately
not keeping pace with the growth of population. The result is lack of transportation,
communication, housing, education, healthcare etc. There has been an increase in the
number of slums, overcrowded houses, traffic congestion etc.
 Resource utilisation: Land areas, water resources, forests are over exploited. There is
also scarcity of resources.
 Environmental pollution : Over populated passion creates a large affect on the
environment by exhausting a large proportion of waste. On the other hand reducing
forest which results the growth of pollution.
  Decrease of forest area : The basic made of the growing population is of residence
and shelter. To construct houses and place of shelter, man is greatly cutting and
reducing forest to make a place to live.
 Education : The low income of large family dose not afford to provide education to
their children. Which results into creating a problem of illiteracy and again none
awareness among the class.
 Decreased production and increased costs: Food production and distribution have
not been able to catch up with the increasing population and hence the costs of
production have increased. Inflation is the major consequence of over population.
 Inequitable income distribution: In the face of an increasing population, there is an
unequal distribution of income and inequalities within the country widen.
 Energy crisis : Population explosion accompanied with rapid industrialization and
urbanization has led to greater demand for already deficient energy (fuel wood, fossil
fuel and electricity).
 Hygienic condition : More people in a small area breed unhygienic condition which
has ill effects on human health.
 Eco-degradation : Overpopulation leads to eco-degradation by increasing air, water,
soil and noise pollution, unhygienic condition, deforestation leading to flood and soil
erosion. So rapid human population growth is creating increased pressure on the
infrastructure, economy, environment, availability of primary health care and
nutrition.

Steps to Control Population in India

The Government of India, politicians, policy makers should initiate a bold population policy
so that the economic growth of the country can keep pace with the demands of a growing
population. Major steps which have been already implemented but still need to be
emphasised more to control population. Increasing the welfare and status of women and
girls, spread of education, increasing awareness for the use of contraceptives and family
planning methods, sex education, encouraging male sterilisation and spacing births, free
distribution of contraceptives and condoms among the poor, encouraging female
empowerment, more health care centres for the poor , to name a few, can play a major role
in controlling population.
India’s strengths in the global world in various fields cannot be ignored, whether in science &
technology, medicine and health care, business and industry, military, communication,
entertainment, literature and many more. Experts are hopeful that by increasing public
awareness and enlisting strict population control norms by the Government will definitely
lead the way for the country’s economic prosperity and control of population.
Child Labour:

According to Indian Constitution , Child labour may be defined as a person who is below
the age of 14 years and working for earnings,these children wont go to school because of
certain social issues like unemployment in family,low income jobs,Alcohol Drinking, this list
includes all problems.International labor organization looks afters the All concerned Issues of
Child Labour and also labor problems.

Causes

Child labour is caused by several factors. Some of them include:

1. Poverty: Children who come from poor families may be forced to work to support their
siblings and parents or supplement the household income when expenses are more than the
parents’ earnings. It is a huge problem especially in developing countries where parents are
unable to generate income due to the lack of employment opportunities or education.
Children can be found employed in mines or hawking in the streets to earn money that is used
to provide basic necessities such as food and clothing for the family. Children may also be
employed in factories to generate income for the family instead of attending school. Such a
practice is a common phenomenon in poverty-stricken regions with large factories set up by
international companies.

2. Low Aspiration: It is important for parents and children to understand that they can work
hard and make something great of themselves. Low aspirations by parents and children is a
major cause of child labour because in such a situation, being employed in a local factory, or
selling grocery in the streets is the normal way of life. To these types of children and parents,
success only belongs to a certain region or group of people. They do not aspire to become
professionals in the society or great entrepreneurs. It is a mindset that forms the very
foundation of child labour.

3. Huge demand for unskilled labourers: The demand for unskilled labourers is another
cause of child labour. Children are mostly unskilled and provide a cheap source of labour,
making them an attractive option for many greedy employers. Child labour, by virtue of
being cheap, increases the margin of profits for such entrepreneurs whose only objective is
profit maximization even if it comes at the expense of ethics and good business practices.
These types of employers can also force children to work under unfavorable conditions
through manipulation or blatant threats.

4. Illiteracy: A society with many educated people understands the importance of going to
school and pursuing dreams. Children have the ability and time to become whatever they
aspire to be. Illiteracy, on the other hand, makes it difficult for many people to understand the
importance of education. Illiterate people view education as a preserve of the privileged in
the society. They will therefore not provide support to children so that they can go to school
and build solid foundations for future success. The same view of life is seen among illiterate
parents who prioritize children contributing to the upkeep of the family over going to school.
5. Early Marriages: Marrying at an early age is a major contributing factor to
overpopulation. Young parents are able to sire a lot of children because they remain fertile for
a long time. Having many children with little or no resources to support them leads to child
labour. Older children are forced to work in order to help their parents support the family.

6. High cost of education: Quality education is expensive. To many parents who live in abject
poverty, priority is given to providing food for the family because education is too expensive to
afford especially when there are many children to pay school fees for. Instead of letting children stay
at home because there is lack of money to send them to school, parents opt to have them working
as unskilled labourers to help support the family. Some parents can also only afford basic education
which means that children will be forced to look for work since they cannot pursue their education
further.

Types of child labour

1.Domestic Non-Monetary Work

In India this type of work done by girls at home ,like cooking,washing clothes, take care their
younger siblings, and all ,here they dont get any payment ,simply they maintain the house,for
time intensive.

2.Non-Domestic and Non-Monetary Work

proctecting crops,tending of livestock are the two examples for Non-Domestic and Non-
Monetary Work,In this type Work child wont get any payment and it also for time intensive .

3.Wage Labour

Newspaper Vendors ,hawkers, Working in hotels are the few examples ,children works as a
labourers both in organised and unorganised sectors for earnings,here they dont get full
payemnt though work done as sama as adults.

4.Bonded Labour

Here Child Should work for certain period under the money lender,beacause there is an
agrrement between parents and Money lender ,againt a debt,this thing mainly happens in
rural areas,its happening even today because of problems like crop failures,unempoyment,
Girl Dowry issues and all.

.Consequences / Effects:

Child labour has several negative impacts. Some of them include:

1. Loss of Quality childhood: It is important for human beings to enjoy every stage of their
development. A child should play with friends and make memories for a lifetime. Youths
should explore life and form strong foundations that would define their adult lives. Child
labour, therefore, leads to loss of quality childhood as children will be deprived of the
opportunity to enjoy the amazing experiences that come with being young. Children are often
encouraged to play because it helps in their growth and development. A child forced to work
will miss many of the good things associated with childhood.

2. Health issues: Child labour can also lead to health complications due to undernourishment
and poor working conditions. It is highly unlikely that people who employ children also have
the moral capacity to ensure that they have good working conditions. Working in places such
as mines and badly conditioned factories may result in lifetime health issues for children
employed to work in these places. A child assigned physically demanding duties may suffer
physical trauma that may scar him or her for life.

3. Mental trauma: It is not a pleasant experience to be kept working as a child while your
age-mates are out playing and going to school. Children also lack the ability to shield
themselves from most of the challenges that occur in the workplace. Issues such as bullying,
sexual exploitation, and unfavorable working hours may result in mental trauma in these
children. They will find it hard to forget the past and may become societal misfits because of
bad childhood experiences. Child labour may also result in the lack of emotional growth and
thus insensitivity.

4. Illiteracy: Children that are employed do not have the time to go to school. They spend a
lot of time in their workstations as the days and years go by. The lack of education and
illiteracy makes them individuals with limited opportunities as far as employment is
concerned. Education also prepares a person for several challenges in the society and without
it, one may turn out to lack the basic skills required to overcome many of life’s problems. An
individual who has gone to school may be aware of how to approach certain situations in life
without resorting to brute force. An illiterate person, on the other hand, considers force to be
the only answer to nearly all of the challenges experienced.

WOMEN AND SOCIETY

Status of Women in Indian Society

The focus on the status of women in India was drawn by the submission of the report titled
‘Towards Equality’ by the Committee on the Status of Women in India. This Committee, which was
set up by the Government of India at the request of the United Nations, looked into various status
indicators to evaluate the status of women in India. The report had made shocking revelations of the
regressive changes that women are faced as against the progressive changes that took place in various
sectors of the country. Similar disclosures from other parts of the world made the United Nations
declare the year 1975 as the Women’s Year and the Decade 1975-85 for women.

INDICATORS OF WOMEN’S STATUS

Ironical1y, in the Indian situation where women goddesses are worshipped, women are denied an
independent identity and status. This is strongly ingrained in the social fabric, the culture, the
economy and the polity. As the code of Manu states: ‘A woman should never be independent. Her
father has authority over her in childhood, her husband in youth, and her son in old age.’
(Manusmriti, Dharmashastra, IX, 3). Women’s identity, freedom, access to resources, opportunities,
etc., are determined by the caste and class status of-the family. Marital status and their fertility
provide an identity to women. In general, the status of women is evaluated in comparison to the
status of men. The major empirical indicators that are utilised for this evaluation are the demographic
status, the health status, the literacy status, the employment rates and patterns and the political status.

1. Demographic Status

The indicators like the sex ratio, the mortality and morbidity patterns and life expectancy enable the
evaluation of the demographic status of a population. For purposes of understanding the demographic
status of women, we will elaborate on sex ratio and mortality patterns. The sex ratio indicates the
proportion of females for 1000 males in the population. In India, since the beginning of this century,
the proportion of women in the population has been declining.

According to 1981 Census the proportion bas slightly increased, however, the provisional figures

Of the 1991 Census indicate a decline again, with a magical increase in 2001.

Sex Ratio in India & Some States

State 2011Census 2001Census Differences

India 940 933 +7
Kerala 10,84 10,58 +26
Haryana 877 861 +16
Tamil Nadu 995 986 +9
2. Health Status

Discrimination against women prevails in providing health care. Studies on hospital admissions and
records have shown that men and boys get more medical care compared to women and girls. It is said
that women and girls are taken to “hospitals at much latest stages of ill-health compared to men and
boys. Moreover, majorities of Indian women are anaemic. They expend higher levels of energy
performing innumerable activities like cooking, cleaning, washing, fetching water, collecting
firewood, taking care of the young and old, tending cattle, and working in agriculture field. However,
their calorie intake is not commensurate with the energy expenditure. The calorie deficit takes a toll
on women’s health in general and reproductive health in particular.

3 Literacy Statuses

Education is regarded as an important instrument to bring about social change. Apart from its
potential to bring about personality development, it also is a means to achieve financial independence
and status mobility. In India, from the post-independence period young women and girls are attaining
higher education and entering male dominated fields. However, the overall literacy rates and the
relative literacy rates are lower in comparison with male literacy rates.

Literacy Rate in India

2001Census 2011Census
Male 75.25% 80.89%
Female 53.67 64.64
Total 64.84 72.99
There are several factors that cause this situation. Firstly, due to low socioeconomic status of the
household, children are not sent to school. Even if children are admitted to school, daughters are
withdrawn and are given the responsibility of the care of siblings and domestic work. The economic
necessity, which compels households to send their children to perform labour, also deprives children
of education. A high value is attached to daughter’s marriage and motherhood; therefore, families are
unwilling to invest scarce resources in daughter’s education. Boys are more likely to receive such
investments in order to improve their chances of employment.

4 Employment Status

The large majority of Indian women participate in innumerable activities for the survival of their
families. However, definitions of ‘work’ and ‘worker’ fall short of capturing the variety of women’s
work and its importance to the family. According to 2001 census 25.7% of the female and 39.3% of
the males are workers. Of the total female workers 32.5% are cultivators, 39.4% are agricultural
labours, and 6.4% in the household industry and 21.7% belong to the other category of workers. The
majority of these are involved in agriculture, plantations and mines. Despite the Equal Remuneration
Act, 1976, women are paid lower wages, occupy lower skilled jobs, have less access to skill training
and promotion. Employed women in the urban areas occupy stereotyped jobs like that of teachers,
nurses, doctors, clerks and typists. Women are also making inroads into predominantly male oriented
occupations like engineering, architecture, aeronautics, manufacturing, police services and
management. But cultural barriers, which view women as ‘weaker sex’, discriminate against theirs
election, training and promotion. Moreover, women have to work doubly hard to prove their worth.

5 Political Status

Unlike many Western countries where women had to put up organised struggles to acquire the right to
vote, women in India have the right to vote as citizens of this nation. Though India had a woman
Prime Minister, the Late Indira Gandhi, it cannot be said that women are fairly represented in the
Parliament and other State and local bodies. They occupy only 8.91% of the seats in the parliament.
By and large women have remained passive voters in elections and their polling behaviour is
determined by the decisions that the male members and the community take. The question of
reservation of 30% seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies was widely debated
recently. Though this bill has been placed in the parliament on several occasions, it has been
withdrawn in one plea or the other. However participation of women in the Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs) has been ensured in India with the 73rd constitutional amendment. Taking, the
advantage of 30% reservation the PRIs more than 30million women are actively participating in the
political decision-making process at the grass root.

VIOLENCE ON WOMEN

Definition

Violence - the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against
oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high
likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal development or deprivation.

There are different forms of violence on women which act as ideological threats for
establishing Women’s independent identity and dignity. The forms of violence that seek our attention
here are:
 i) Rape, Sexual Harassment and Abuse

In India, rape, sexual harassment, and the abuse of women are common occurrences
that go unspoken due to social stigma or fear. The problem of gender-based violence is
getting worse. National Crime Record Bureau statistics show crimes against women
increased by 7.1 percent nationwide since 2010.
In India, on December 16, 2012, 23-year-old young woman was beaten and gang-raped
so badly she spent several days in intensive care before being transferred to Singapore for
further medical treatment. She died from her injuries on December 29, 2012. Indian capital
witnessed mass protest and anti-rape protests broke out across India as citizens demanded
that rape cases be expedited and that parliament hold an emergency session to strengthen
laws against sexual assault.

ii) Domestic Violence and Dowry Deaths

Domestic violence, also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family
violence, dating abuse, and intimate partner violence (IPV), is a pattern of behaviour which
involves the abuse by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such
as marriage, cohabitation, dating or within the family. Domestic violence can take many
forms, including physical aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining,
slapping, throwing objects, battery), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; controlling or
domineering; intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (e.g., neglect); and economic
deprivation.

In modern Indian political discourse the custom of dowry is often represented as the
cause of serious social problems, including the neglect of daughters, sex-selective abortion,
female infanticide, and the harassment, abuse etc. The dowry system is so deeply rooted in
Indian culture, that sometimes one feels that there's going to be no way out - at least not for
another century

iii) Prostitution

India has a long recorded history and great store is set by tradition, therefore it is
important to face the history of prostitution to see how for practices in the past account for
the position of women in present day society and reinforced toleration of assaults on the
dignity of women by sexual violence and forced prostitution. India which is justly claimed to
be one of the most ancient civilizations of the world, presents an extensive account of the rise
and development of the prostitution.

iv) Media Violence

The subject of portrayal of women in Indian media has drawn the attention of media
critiques in the present times. Listening to radio programmes and watching the television and
reading the newspaper reports you may feel that issues, relating to women are now receiving
more attention. Whether it is a horrifying description, of a ‘dowry death’ or of atrocities
against a scheduled caste or tribal woman, of more girls going to school each year, there
seems to exist more information of what we can call gender issues. At the same time the
media through advertisements, television serials and other programmes continue to portray
women as either weak, defenceless creatures, or as bewitching maidens, out to win the hearts
of unsuspecting young men. Anything ranging from a motorcycle to soap is advertised with
an appealing woman model inviting us to buy the particular item. Women have been
portrayed as men would like to see them- beautiful creatures, submissive mothers of their
children, efficient house keepers, but nothing else.

(V)Abduction and kidnapping:

 Kidnapping is taking away or enticing of a minor girl (female of less than 18 years
and a male of less than 16 years of age) without the consent of the lawful guardian.
 Abduction is forcibly, fraudulently or deceitfully taking away of a woman with an
intent of seducing her to illicit sex or compelling her to marry a person against her
will. In kidnapping, the victim’s consent is immaterial but in abduction, the victim’s
voluntary consent condones the crime
(vi) Dowry-Deaths:
• Dowry-deaths either by way of suicide by a harassed wife or murder by the greedy
husband and in-laws.
• A girl being harassed, tortured, killed or driven to suicide because dowry.
• Though the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 has banned the practice of dowry but in
reality all that the law does is to recognize that the problem exists.
 • It is virtually unheard of for a husband or his family to be used for insisting on taking
a dowry.
• If anything, the demands for dowry have escalated over the years along with dowry
deaths.
Consequences:

These forms of violence can lead to depression, post-traumatic stress and other anxiety
disorders, sleep difficulties, eating disorders, and suicide attempts.

CORRUPTION

Corruption is both Historical and Universal

Corruption as a phenomenon is both Universal and historical. It is a fact of history that there
existed no society in the past in which corruption was totally absent. At the same time, corruption is
practiced in one way or another in one or another in all the existing societies of the world. Its
content and character, its forms and intensity, of course, may differ from society to society.

Corruption as a social Evil

Corruption is one of the social evils found in all the societies of the world. In some societies,
it is more rampant than in some others. Unfortunately, India is regarded as one of the countries
where corruption has become very much widespread during the recent years. Corruption is one of
the factors that has contributed to the degradation of the Indian politics. Corruption in India has
become deep-rooted and its growth is unchecked an unhindered. All those leaders who declared
war against corruption have either shamelessly succumbed to corruption or miserable lost the
battle. Tall claims made by political leaders to fight out corruption have proved to be shallow.

“Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. “That is what the events at the
national political scene seem to suggest, least during the last couple of year. Practice of corruption
at lower levels by some clerks, peons and attenders for some petty amount, ‘ is understandable and
tolerable. They may practice it due to tough financial conditions, excessive demands from family,
friend or society, health hazards, or some other kinds of pressures. What is more disturbing and
dangerous is the corruption at higher levels. Corruption in various forms has become the mainstay
of our national polity in the recent past. It is needless to say that the evil of corruption meaning
bribery and graft, I not conducive to social stability and equilibrium. It invariable involves negation
or betrayal of normative values of society, which are essential for the smooth functioning of society.

Definition of the Concept of corruption

The meaning of the concept of corruption can be made clearer by means of some
definitions.
1. In simple words, corruption refers to “an act of bribery.” It is abuse of political power or
public office for personal or private gain brushing aside all formal rules.

2. The dictionary defines corruption as “an inducement to wrong by bribery or other unlawful
means: a departure from what is pure and correct”.
3. According to D.H. Bailey, corruption can be understood as the “misuse of authority as a
result of consideration of personal gain which need not be monetary”.

4. Andriski considers it as “the use of public power for private advantage is ways which
transgress some formal rule or law”.

5. Bhargava says that an “act of commission or omission by a public servant for securing
pecuniary or other material advantage or indirectly for himself, his family or friends I corruption.

Main characteristics of Corruption

The above cited definition point out the following characteristics of corruption.

1. Corruption, as it is understood today refers to an irregular, illegal and immoral practice

associated with our public life.

2. An act of corruption involves dereliction of duty, moral and legal lapses.

3. Persons party to corruption tend to neglect their prescribed duty deliberately.

4. Individuals who are charged of corruption are those who deviate from their fixed official
duty in order to obtain some economic gains or to provide some physical comfort or convenience to
his family members.

5. Corruption involves the practice of receiving bribe not only for getting wrong things done,
but also getting right things done at the right time.

6. Corruption involves the abuse of power associated with a public office or public – life.

Corruption in Public Life and among public servants

Corruption has become a widespread practice today. It has percolated through almost all
the fields or our social life. No part of our public life is spared from it. A large number of public
servants are guilty of either practicing or supporting corruption. The term “corruption” has a very
wide meaning, and from the legal point of vie, the following behaviour patterns can be dubbed as
corrupt practices, according to Malhotra.

(1) Receiving some reward on the part of a public servant, for the work done by him in his
official capacity. Example: A doctor in a Government hospital receiving monetary reward from a
patient for having treated him.

(2) Obtaining any object or pecuniary advantage illegally. Example: Police officer receiving
“mamul” at the hands of mall vendors found in footpaths of busy areas of a city.

(3) Misappropriation of public property. Example: Government officers using their

departmental vehicles for their personal tours, family purpose.
(4) Possessing property or financial resources disproportionate to one’s declared sources of
income. Example: Clerk and officers in R.T.O. (Regional Transport Office) owing film theatres,
hotels, couple of acres of high yielding agricultural lands, etc.,

(5) Abuse or misuse of official position. Example: Police officer misusing their position to get
free supply of fruits, vegetables and daily required things from the petty businessmen.

(6) Disregard of rules purposefully to help citizens in avoiding dues / tax / duty to be paid to the
government. Example: Income tax, sales tax, commercial tax, and other tax officers favoring some
people either in reducing dues or in waiving of the same after obtaining some financial benefits from
them.

(7) Refusal to do duty on some plea which may benefit the other party. Example: Police Officer
not registering a case to protect a criminal.

(8) Accepting gifts (such as car, gold chain, fridge. Color T.V. etc.,) by “person of position” from
persons with who they have official dealing. Example: building contractors giving gifts to the
corruption commission, businessmen giving gifts to commercial tax officers with the expectation of
getting some favours which would cause loss to the government.

(9) Borrowing money for purchasing a costly thing from a person with whom one has official
dealings. Example: Income tax officer borrowing money from a businessman to purchase a house,
the act of which compels him to do some official favours to the lender of money.

Corruption is so rampant that it is found in all the ministries and departments of the central
and the state governments. In some ministries in the union government such as defence,
petroleum, power and communication, chance for “making money” through corrupt practices, are
more. In the same way, certain departments such as police, transport, income tax, sales tax,
commercial tax, revenue department, etc., provide not of opportunities for the public servants
working in them to make money in an illegal way.

Corruption is so widespread today that people have come to accept it as a commonly

approved practice. No wonder, if it becomes institutionalized in the days to come.

TYPES OF CORRUPTION

• Administrative Corruption
• Political Corruption
• Grand corruption
• Petty Corruption
• Public Corruption.
• Professional Corruption.
(i)Administrative Corruption includes persons like higher authorities, officers, police officers, clerks,
peons, etc.
 • For example, If we give money, then we can get anything difficult, easily. Give money no
need to visit the office, you will get driving licenses. By Bribe, a blind and handicap can
also get driving license.

(ii)Professional Corruption means related to .It includes duplicating medicines, duplicating

import items/theft items, duplicating hygienic , mixture in eatables etc. Mixture in spices, stones
in cereals, animal fats in ghee, kerosene in petrol etc. are under corruption.

(iii)Political corruption: This is a worst case of moral corruption. Here political parties do it in few
ways like
• Appease people of freebies or subsidies
• Appease minorities
• Buy votes and mandate.
• Any type of political corruption is a loss to the nation. But interestingly, not all the masses
will be able to read these intention of politicians and fall in their trap and give them votes.

(iv)Petty corruption occurs at a smaller scale and takes place at the implementation end of public
services when public officials meet the public. For example, in many small places such as
registration offices, police stations, state licensing boards, and many other private and
government sectors.

(v)Public corruption: Public office is misused for Private gain.Example-Police receive money for
personal gain and drop any criminal offence

(vi)Grand Corruption is defined as corruption occurring at the highest levels of government in a

way that requires significant subversion of the political, legal and economic systems. Example -Swiss
accounts case and Mehran bank scandal.

Causes of corruption

Corruption is like blood cancer. It has taken deep root in the country. It has percolated
through almost all fields. Corruption in Indian public life is “all pervasive” and that businessmen,
bureaucrats, contractors, industrialists, entrepreneurs, journalists, vice-chancellors, teachers,
doctors, nurses and the politicians all come under suspicion. As the time move more and more,
people are being swept by the move of corruption.

Corruption I a complex phenomenon and various factors and force have conspired to cause
it and spread it every where. The causes responsible for corruption a enlisted by C.B. Mamoria, may
be discussed here.

1. Economic Insecurity: This is regarded as the most important cause of corruption. The
poor people become corrupt in the hope of becoming rich. The rich indulge in it for fear
of losing what they have. The rich have a craving for luxurious goods and imported
commodities, such as dresses, telephone receivers, golden ornaments, cosmetics,
transistors, air conditioners, T.V.s, wrist watches, etc. This encourages smuggling on a
massive scale.
2. High Rate of Income Tax: Since tax rates are comparatively high in India even the honest
people are often tempted to escape from it by making false returns of their property and
income. Many of the officers in the Income Tax Department are also equally corrupt and
 they thrive on bribery. Income tax officers, policemen, sales tax officers, excise
inspectors and others started minting money not only from the black marketers and tax
evaders, but also from innocent people who gave bribes in order to avoid suffering and
humiliation at the hands of these officials.
3. Meagre Salary being paid to the Government Servants: Employees in some of the
government departments are paid comparatively very less salary. This situation is said to
be the cause of corruption in administration. Clerks in the court, peons and attenders in
all government departments, police constables and such other employees draw poor
salary. They expect tips and bribes even for doing their regular or routine duties. It has
been estimated that 60% to 70% of the officers are corrupt in one form or the other.
4. Emergence of New Sources of wealth and power: The modern political economic set up
provides a chance for the politicians in power to make money through illegal means.
5. The System of Democracy: The present style of functioning of democracy in India, also
contributes to corruption .All parties, especially the ruling party spends crores of rupees
on each election. This money comes from the big businessmen, industrialists and such
other rich men who have their own vested interests in financing the elections. They
supply money to the party elections in the form of “black money ‘’ .This in turn, gives
them license a moral justification for accumulating number-two money in different
forms.
6. The very presence of black Money: Existence of large amounts of unaccounted black
money is one of the main sources of corruption. This money is obtained by various ways,
namely tax evasion, smuggling, in immovable property , shares& stocks, receiving fees
and remuneration partly or wholly in cash without showing them in accounts etc..
7. Social and Economic Modernization: It is said that modernization breeds corruption in
industrial society, which “offers prizes for doing evil; money, position, power” besides
bringing about attitudinal changes in the system. New loyalties and new identifications
emerge among individuals and groups. This contributes to an increase in the incidence
of corruption.
Impact of Corruption:

• Hinders social and economic development and increases poverty by diverting

domestic and foreign investment away from where it are most needed

• Weakens education and health systems, depriving people of the basic building
blocks of a decent life.

• Undermines democracy by distorting electoral processes and undermining

government institutions, which can lead to political instability.

• Exacerbates inequality and injustice by perverting the rule of law and punishing
victims of crime through corrupt rulings

LAW AGAINST CORRUPTION IN INDIA:

• The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988

• The Foreign Exchange Management Act 1999

• The Prevention of Money Laundering Act 2002

• India and the United Nations Convention against Corruption 2003 (UNCAC)
• The Right to Information Act 2005

SECULARISM

Secularism in India means equal treatment of all religions by the state. Unlike the
Western concept of secularism which envisions a separation of religion and state, the
concept of secularism in India envisions acceptance of religious laws as binding on the
state, and equal

With the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976, the Preamble to
the Constitution asserted that India is a secular nation. However, neither India's
constitution nor its laws define the relationship between religion and state. The laws
implicitly require the state and its institutions to recognize and accept all religions,
enforce religious laws instead of parliamentary laws, and respect pluralism. India does not
have an official state religion. The people of India have freedom of religion, and the state
treats all individuals as equal citizens regardless of their religion. In matters of law in
modern India, however, the applicable code of law is unequal, and India's personal laws -
on matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, alimony - varies with an individual's
religion. Muslim Indians have sharia-based Muslim Personal Law, while Hindus,
Christians, Sikhs and other non-Muslim Indians live under common law. The attempt to
respect unequal, religious law has created a number of issues in India such as
acceptability of child marriage polygamy, unequal inheritance rights, extrajudicial
unilateral divorce rights favorable to some males, and conflicting interpretations of
religious books.

Secularism as practiced in India, with its marked differences with Western practice of
secularism, is a controversial topic in India. Supporters of the Indian concept of
secularism claim it respects Muslim men’s religious rights and recognizes that they are
culturally different from Indians of other religions. Supporters of this form of secularism
claim that any attempt to introduce a uniform civil code, that is equal laws for every
citizen irrespective of his or her religion, would impose majoritarian Hindu sensibilities
and ideals, something that is unacceptable to Muslim Indians. Opponents argue that
India's acceptance of Sharia and religious laws violates the principle of equal human
rights, discriminates against Muslim women, allows unelected religious personalities to
interpret religious laws, and creates plurality of unequal citizenship; they suggest India
should move towards separating religion and state.

Secularism is a divisive, politically charged topic in India.

COMMUNALISM

Concept of communalism:

Communalism is an ideology which states that society is divided into religious

communities whose interest differ and are, at times, even opposed to each other. The
antagonism practiced by the people of one community against the people of other
community and religion can be termed as ‘communalism’. This antagonism goes to the
extent of falsely accusing, harming and deliberately insulting a particular community and
may extend to looting, burning down the homes and shops of the helpless and the weak,
dishonoring women, and even homicide.

Definitions

Asghar Ali Engineer links communalism with the conflicts of the elites of communities.
Communalism is described as a tool of mobilize people for / against by raising an appeal
on communal lines.

Abdul Ahmed describes communalism as a social phenomenon characterized by the

religion of two communities, often leading to acrimony, tension and even riots between
them. In its latest manifestation, communalism amounts to discrimination against a
religious group in matters of employment, education, commerce, politics, etc.

Bipan Chandra holds that communalism is the product of a particular society, economy
and polity, which divides people on the basis of religious and economic differences. Thus,
communalism is an ideological tool for propagation of economic and political interests. It
is an instrument in the hands of the upper class to concentrate power by dividing people.

The Genesis and Growth of Communalism in India

It is widely realized that communalism in India was born, nurtured and promoted by the
British imperialism as a deliberate design to sow dissensions. It served the purpose of the
colonial administration to divide and rule. Thus, the prevailing religious differences were
first used to project the social and cultural variations and then to promote political
divisions by treating Indians not as Indians but as members of different religious
communities.

Growth of Communalism: Causes

Jawaharlal Nehru once described communalism as the Indian version of fascism. He said,
while all communalism is bad, we must remember that minority communalism is born out
of fear, while majority communalism takes the form of political reaction to assert
dominance. But he added: ‘there could be no compromise on the issue of communalism,
Hindu communalism or Muslim communalism, as it is a challenge to Indian nationhood
and Indian nationalism.’ The main forces, which have encouraged the growth of
communalism in contemporary India, are:

• Economic backwardness of Muslims

• Growth of communal parties and organizations
• Electoral compulsions of political parties
• Communal media, literature and text-books
• Separatism and isolation among Muslims

Following are the factors responsible for the growth of Communalism in India:

Divide and Rule Policy of the British:

The British rulers adopted the policy of 'Divide and Rule' to strengthen their roots while
living in India. They divided the people of various communities of India and spread the
feeling of distrust among them and hence they sowed the seeds of communalism in India.

(ii) Political Organisations:

Different communal organisations are found in India which have created hatred among
the people of various religious communities by propagating, and hence they are the root
cause of communalism.

(iii) Inertia indifferent Government:

When the government does not take proper action at the proper time, communalism
spreads among the subjects. Sometimes the government favours on the religion and leave
others which create differences.

(iv) Ineffective Handling of Communal Riots:

Sometimes the state governments have been proved ineffective to curb the communal
riots in their respective states. It also results in spreading the communalism.

As the result of the above factors, communalism is raising its ugly face in India after the
Independence and also creating great problems even in the working of Indian political
system.

Remedies:

The remedy of constitutional safeguards to root out the chronic malaise of communalism
and casteism shall not have desired effect unless it is tackled by society itself.

Efforts should be made by the enlightened citizens to discourage the communal and caste
based forces from the social, political and electoral process in order to make these forces
irrelevant. They are to be opposed not to be appeased.

Communal carnage and caste wars should be dealt strictly with new strategies.

To usher an era of social equity and sarva dharma sambhava the people of India should
not mix religion and caste with politics to attain the goal of common brotherhood for the
unity and integrity of the nation.