Enhancing Resilience:

Understanding the effects of Climate

Change on Small Livestock

Aanya Kataria
Aniket Dewangan
Anubhuti Mahanta
Jia Narayan
Karthikeyan Shiju
Tanya Zener

Written For
The Nudge Institute
Table of Contents

I. Introduction 3

II. Infrastructural Challenges involved with Small Livestock 3

Inadequate resources in rural communities 3
Access to healthcare for livestock 4

III. Climatic Changes to Rearing/Production of Small Livestock 5

Effect of water scarcity and increased drought frequency 5
Changes in forage availability and feeding patterns 5
Heat stress in livestock 6
Effects of climate change on breeding and reproduction 7
Effect of climate change on spread of disease 7

IV. Policies and Initiatives 8

National Policies 8
International Policies 9
Comparative Analysis 11

V. Mitigation Strategies 12
Shelter Management 12
Nutrition Management 13
Health Management 14

VI. Conclusion 14
 I. Introduction
India’s climate is steadily warming, and this has had a number of negative effects including heavier
rainfall, frequent heat waves, droughts, floods, hindered agricultural production due to temperature
changes and water scarcity. With these effects, a multitude of health and rearing related issues have
risen in small livestock, including malnutrition and stunted growth from inconsistent or insufficient
feed, heat stress which could lead to reproductive and breeding disorders or malfunction, and higher
exposure and susceptibility to diseases due to weakened immune systems.

Climate change negatively affects livestock production, one of the most important contributors to
sustainable food security in low-income areas like rural India. According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization, livestock is responsible for 40% of the global agricultural output, and directly supports
the livelihoods and nutritional security of close to 1.3 billion people globally1. As a result of poor
livestock production, livestock farmers are negatively impacted since suboptimal production curtails
their income and therefore threatens their own livelihoods and nutritional security as well.

With the current trajectory of climate change, the steadily increasing global average temperature could
cause heat extremes to reach critical tolerance thresholds for health of many animal species
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change2; this refers to the upper temperature limit that can be
tolerated without the animal experiencing heat stress or strokes. Livestock farmers also face
challenges from water scarcity, forage availability, and the spread of disease, issues that have been
exacerbated by climate change. Hence, it is vital that the adverse effects of climate change in the
context of small livestock be mitigated.

This paper will delve into the infrastructural challenges that climate change brings to livestock
farming, and will detail the direct and indirect effects of climate change on the health and production
of small livestock. Additionally, it will investigate some ways in which national and international
policies can be implemented to support livestock farmers and consequently maximise their income in
the face of challenges posed by climate change.

II. Infrastructural Challenges involved with Small Livestock

Inadequate resources in rural communities
Maintaining livestock holdings and ensuring the wellbeing of livestock animals come with its own
share of challenges. In rural areas, the effect of these infrastructural challenges are often aggravated
by the lack of awareness and the overall lack of resources.

The first infrastructural challenge that rural farmers often face is the regulation and maintenance of
the waste management systems within the livestock holdings. Livestock animals tend to produce
significant amounts of waste. For reference, even a small holding of 10 chickens and 4 goats can
produce up to 17 kgs of waste and manure per week. Now, if this waste is not disposed of properly, it
can lead to the rise of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases such as Salmonellosis, E. coli infections,
Campylobacteriosis, and Cryptosporidiosis within the livestock3. Furthermore, improper waste

1
World Bank Group. (2023, March 30). Moving towards sustainability: The livestock sector and the World
Bank. World Bank.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/moving-towards-sustainability-the-livestock-sector-and-th
e-world-bank
2
Climate change widespread, rapid, and intensifying – IPCC — IPCC. (n.d.). Retrieved July 16, 2023, from IPCC —
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change website: https://www.ipcc.ch/2021/08/09/ar6-wg1-20210809-pr/
3
Rahman, M. T., Sobur, M. A., Islam, M. S., Ievy, S., Hossain, M. J., El Zowalaty, M. E., … Ashour, H. M. (2020). Zoonotic
Diseases: Etiology, impact, and Control. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7563794/
disposal management also contributes to several environmental concerns. When nutrient-rich waste
such as manure, and livestock waste are not adequately managed, they can contaminate water bodies,
causing eutrophication, and can eventually lead to the death of the water bodies, both as an ecosystem
as well as a source of water in localities. Consumption of this eutrophicated water leads to an excess
of nitrate ions in organisms, which depletes oxygen hence causing death by hypoxia in livestock 4.
Lastly, the odour from accumulated livestock waste can also worsen the air quality in surrounding
areas, harming both humans and animals.

The second infrastructural challenge that comes about in livestock farming is determining an
adequate, reliable water source. This challenge is multi-faceted: it can often be a logistical challenge
as it requires large capacity plumbing systems to supply the daily water requirement of livestock,
which is easily 5 to 10 times that of humans per head5, in addition to which finding a clean source of
water can be difficult. The issue of water scarcity is exacerbated by nearby agricultural fields which
drain water bodies for irrigation and can cause eutrophication by seeping fertilisers and pesticides into
water bodies, making the water unfit for consumption. Additionally, most farmers lack the resources
necessary to build plumbing systems, maintain water quality, and regulate supply, which forces them
to rely on contaminated and polluted water sources that have an impact on both the health of their
livestock animals and the quality of their products.

Finally, the third challenge is storing and supplying high quality fodder is often a difficulty in rural
areas. High quality fodder ensures the growth and sustenance of livestock animals by giving the
livestock the required nutrients to gain weight and boost production and reproduction. One critical
component which affects the quality of the fodder is its digestibility. Fodder of higher digestibility
provides more energy per dry unit matter6. Generally, younger and leafier plants tend to have a higher
nutritional content and digestibility, however these are often more expensive. Due to the lack of
awareness on the subject, rural farmers then choose to opt for the more cost efficient alternatives
which often lack the fundamental nutritional elements required. Although these challenges have been
prevalent in rural areas for a long time, climate change has only helped worsen the current issues.

Access to healthcare for livestock

A major challenge surrounding livestock rearing is the lack of access to healthcare services for
livestock. In 2019, the Indian government set up 65,815 veterinary institutions – including 12,076
polyclinics and hospitals, 25,571 dispensaries and 28,618 veterinary aid centres – which engaged
over 49,030 vets and 62,316 para-veterinarians. The National Commission on Agriculture (1976)
deems one veterinarian adequate for 5000 animals, and deems this set-up sufficient. However, despite
the availability of these amenities, in these power-stricken regions, farmers are often unable to afford
such services, resulting in the farmers administering antibiotics and other Over-The-Counter drugs to
the livestock without prescriptions, and in case of persistent problems, being forced to seek untrained
“animal health workers” rather than veterinarians due to lower costs of consultation7.

The self-administered antibiotics leaves residues of antibiotics in livestock products such as eggs,
milk and meat, due to which livestock farmers are forced to observe a withdrawal period of a

4
What’s at risk? Healthy Oceans. (n.d.). https://courses.lsa.umich.edu/healthy-oceans/group-6/what-is-eutrophication/
5
Adeniyi, A. (2020). Importance of water to livestock. Retrieved from
https://livestock247.com/blog/2020/07/16/importance-of-water-to-livestock/#:~:text=Water%20is%20required%20for%20th
e,lubrication%20plus%20many%20other%20functions.

6
Cheng, M., Mccarl, B., & Fei, C. (2022, January 15). Climate Change and Livestock Production: A Literature Review
7
Vishnuraj, M. R., Kumbhar, V., Chand, S., Rao, K. H., & Kandeepan, G. (2016). Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/23311932.2016.1235458
minimum of 7 days for eggs and dairy products, 28 days for meat from poultry and mammals, and 500
days for fish meat under Sub-rule 3A of Rule 97 of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act8. While this rule is a
protective measure against the possibly harmful effects on humans due to consumption of
contaminated livestock products, it requires farmers to throw away eggs and milk and to refrain from
selling meat from animals who were administered any sort of active pharmaceutical ingredient, for the
duration of the aforementioned withdrawal periods. Further, the lack of supervision of veterinary
professionals leads to excessive consumption of antibiotics – a study conducted by the Centre for
Science and Environment study detected the presence of at least one antibiotic in 40% of the hens
sampled – which results in development of antimicrobial resistant strains of pathogens amongst
livestock, which make treating manageable infections possibly fatal and costly.

III. Climatic Changes to Rearing/Production of Small Livestock

Effect of water scarcity and increased drought frequency
Climate change in India has brought with it frequent droughts and dry spells. Water scarcity, together
with lack of feed and heat stress, is a major contributor to low productivity in livestock; a reduced
water intake reduces performance in animals quicker and more significantly than any other nutrient,
water itself composing 60-80% of their live weight (Landefeld, 2003). Dehydration tightens animals’
skin and dries out their mucous membranes and eyes. Additionally, it affects the animals’
homeostasis, which causes them to lose weight, stunts their reproductive performance and weakens
their immunity. While some animals have adaptive water-saving mechanisms provoked by
dehydration, e.g. some goat species, these are merely temporary and survival-driven; they are not
sustainable for their overall health and productivity in the long term. Furthermore, in particularly
drought-stricken regions, the water that is available is usually highly saline. It tends to contain
dissolved minerals like chlorine, sulphates and hydrocarbons, which result in poor performance and
fatal illnesses in the livestock that consume it. According to the US Department of Agriculture, an
excess of mineral salts in an animal’s diet can interfere with the assimilation of phosphorus,
weakening bones and teeth and possibly leading to illnesses like rickets or osteoporosis, and others
can be toxic to them in even small quantities.

Droughts are regular in India; approximately 68% of the sown land area is vulnerable9. In
drought-prone regions, livestock contributes to close to 50% of the economy, and the impact of
drought on livestock farmers is directly proportional to their economic status, so the post-drought
recovery period can be extensive in a rural demographic. Often, the lack of drinking water and the
rising prices of fodder force livestock farmers to abandon their animals, affecting their own income
and food security. In 2009-2010, close to half a million livestock were killed by droughts in Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, and in Maharashtra, thousands of cattle were abandoned due to a lack of
water and fodder.

Changes in forage availability and feeding patterns

Forage entails the available plants and feed that animals eat. Climate change has a major impact on
the ecophysiology of feed and the vegetation composition. Forage depends on the nutrient
concentration, which determines the digestion and nutritional benefits for animals10. With the
non-uniform weather patterns associated with climate change, farmers are unable to accurately predict
the optimal time to grow their crops for the maximum yield, altering the physical and chemical

8
Mutua, F., Sharma, G., Grace, D., Bandyopadhyay, S., Shome, B., & Lindahl, J. (2020, July 8). A review of Animal Health
and drug use practices in India, and their possible link to antimicrobial resistance - antimicrobial resistance & infection
control. BioMed Central. https://aricjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13756-020-00760-3

9
Droughts: misery in slow motion. (n.d.). https://www.downtoearth.org.in/feature/droughts-misery-in-slow-motion-58946

10
Moore, K. J., & Jung, H. G. (2001). Lignin and fiber digestion. Journal of Range Management, 54(4), 420.
https://doi.org/10.2307/4003113
characteristics of forage. Further, extreme climatic events such as floods and droughts, lead to
premature tissue senescence, which is deterioration of plant tissues through age11.

In India, fodder requirements are fulfilled by three sources: crop residues, fodder crops and pasture or
grazing lands. Currently India faces a net deficit of 8% dry fodder, 29% concentrate feeds, 23% green
fodder10 which leads to increased market prices of these materials and hence make them further scarce
for livestock farmers. Due to this, livestock suffer nutritional deficiencies. This issue is amplified by
climate change. For instance, feed such as maize, barley, safflower, milo, wheat, rice and bran –
contain 2-5% fat which is essential for proper growth of young chicks – are high intensive crops that
are affected by higher temperatures, caused by climate change. Other nutritional contents of forage are
also altered by ambient factors such as the carbon dioxide concentration, humidity and intense heat
(IndiaAgro, 2021). In addition, persistent heat waves and higher temperature can lengthen the crop
growing season, resulting in a decrease in the need for accumulation of forage reserves during the
winter season (Izaurralde et al., 2011). Conversely, this means that farmers have to rely on their stores
of forage for the rest of the year and that their harvest and income are delayed.

Heat stress in livestock

Climate change can be a subject of increased heat patterns. Heat stress occurs when Animals are
exposed to high temperature and humidity levels. For instance, poultry, which is homeothermic, has
certain heat comfort zones. While they can tolerate outer comfort (thermoneutral) zones ranging from
18°C to 36°C, their interior environment needs to remain at a set point. If the temperatures exceed
36°C, the highest critical temperature, the birds will attempt to reduce internal body temperature,
however since they lack sweat glands, this process will occur through evaporative cooling via panting.
As is common with climate change, exposure to elevated temperatures and heat waves is prolonged
and leads to severe alkalosis and eventually death. Furthermore, animals begin to get anxious, and this
can lead to fatigue, stress and even death12. This brings about the phenomenon of reduced livestock
productivity, which negatively affects all small livestock farmers due to reduced efficiency in the end
outcome. This means that there are increased mortality rates for small poultry in parts of India where
the heat levels have surfaced higher. The productivity rate also decreases as humidity begins to fatigue
animals; this directly affects backyard farmers with holdings, as the end products from these animals
begin to drastically decrease.

Moreover, it is important to consider that the average annual temperatures are not reasonable
measures of the precursors to heat stress as they do not represent periods of extreme temperatures. For
instance, India’s average temperature is 27.4°C, which is well within bounds, however in 2020,
roughly 15,700 cattle died due to natural calamities and heat stress. This statistic represents the
mortality of cows which, being larger, more complex organisms are better equipped to survive heat
stress. Comparatively, small livestock holders are worse off: goats have a mortality rate of 10.93%12,
whereas bovine mortality is 5.03% in India13. Further indication of the detrimental effects of climate
change is the 2.05% increase in mortality rate of livestock due to increased precipitation.

11
Melo, C. D., Maduro Dias, C. S. A. M., Wallon, S., Borba, A. E. S., Madruga, J., Borges, P. A. V., Ferreira, M. T., & Elias,
R. B. (2022, March 2). Influence of climate variability and soil fertility on the forage quality and productivity in Azorean
pastures. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/12/3/358

12
Sesay, Abdul. (2022). Impact of Heat Stress on Chicken Performance, Welfare, and Probable Mitigation Strategies.
International Journal of Environment and Climate Change. 12. 3120-3133. 10.9734/IJECC/2022/v12i111360
13
Uttam, S., Singh, B., Chaudhary, J. K., Bassan, S., Kumar, S., & Gupta, N. (2015, April 10). Analysis of morbidity and
mortality rate in bovine under village ...
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283353120_ANALYSIS_OF_MORBIDITY_AND_MORTALITY_RA
Effects of climate change on breeding and reproduction
Livestock reproduction faces pressure from a number of effects of climate change, the primary ones
being heat and cold stress from extreme temperatures. Heat stress, which is when the environment’s
temperature deviates outside of an animals’ thermal comfort zone, has a major effect on breeding and
reproduction in small livestock. It has cost the global swine industry millions of dollars due to poor
sow reproductive performance14; however, it impacts breeding and reproduction efficiency and quality
of both sexes. In females, it delays the onset of puberty, reduces their estrous period15 or “heat” as well
as their fertility, and conversely increases the likelihood of anestrous (referring to a period of sexual
inactivity) and embryonic death. In males, it causes lower semen quality, testicular volume and
quantity of fertile sperm. Climatic extremes can also impact endocrine function (Gwazdauskas, 1985).
Hyperthermia reduces adrenal function, and lowers estrogens during the estrous cycle and late
gestation; physiologically, this appears in the form of reduced offspring weight.

Birds can also be sensitive to heat-resultant infertility. Additionally, heat stress could delay female
birds’ ovulation process, and reduce yolk quality and the number of healthy, hatchable eggs16. The
productivity of laying hens is adversely impacted by heat stress: a 12-day heat stress period resulted in
an approximate 29% decrease in egg production17. In another study by Lin et al. in 2004, heat stress
reduced eggshell thickness and increased likelihood of their breakage. For instance, in 2023, frequent
heat waves in Bengal, during the months of May and June, resulted in a 25% decrease in egg
production18.

Effect of climate change on spread of disease

Almost two-thirds of the rural communities in India are dependent on small livestock for income. In
these poverty-stricken regions, healthcare services for livestock – including access to medicines and
experts to administer these – are inaccessible. Lack of awareness surrounding rearing practices such
as supplementary feed, clean drinking water, reproductive health, and other hygiene-related issues,
make small livestock susceptible to various infectious diseases. The spread of disease is further
accelerated during the monsoon season19, due to which many farmers are forced to sell their livestock
at lower prices and incur major losses, in order to prevent disease outbreaks. This issue is exacerbated
14
Ross, J. W., Hale, B. J., Seibert, J. T., Adur, M. K., Keating, A. F., & Baumgard, L. H. (2017). Physiological mechanisms
through which heat stress compromises reproduction in pigs. Molecular Reproduction and Development, 84(9), 934–945.
https://doi.org/10.1002/mrd.22859
15
Effects of climate on reproduction in cattle - PubMed. (n.d.). Retrieved July 22, 2023, from PubMed website:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3894448/
10
Dikshit, A. K., & Birthal, P. (1970, January 1). India’s livestock feed demand: Estimates and projections. Agricultural
Economics Research Review. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/agsaerrae/92091.htm
11
D7.2 effects of climate change on forage quality of grasslands and ... (n.d.). https://hal.science/hal-01611403/document
12
Dash, S., Chakravarty, A. K., Singh, A., Upadhyay, A., Singh, M., & Yousuf, S. (2016, March). Effect of heat stress on
reproductive performances of dairy cattle and buffaloes: A Review. Veterinary world.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4823282/
16
Lara LJ, Rostagno MH. Impact of heat stress on poultry production. Animals. 2013;3(2):356-369.
https://hal.science/hal-01611403/document#:~:text=Ecophysiological%20changes%20in%20plants%20in,tissues%20decreas
es%20while%20WSC%20increase

17
Lara, L. B., & Rostagno, M. H. (2013b). Impact of heat stress on poultry production. Animals, 3(2), 356–369.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3020356
18
Ghosal, S. (2023, April 18). Heatwave Hits India’s Poultry Sector; prices of chicken plummets 50%. The Economic Times.
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/heatwave-hits-indias-poultry-sector-prices-of-chicken-plu
mmets-50/articleshow/99576542.cms

19
Das, S. S. (2022, November 13). Climate change is making livestock susceptible to diseases; here is how. PreventionWeb.
https://www.preventionweb.net/news/climate-change-making-livestock-susceptible-diseases-here-how#:~:text=The%20exist
ing%20knowledge%20suggests%20that,disease%2Dcausing%20pathogens%20and%20vectors.
by climate change, which harms the health of livestock in a number of ways. Firstly, by causing
metabolic disorders and suppressing immune response due to increased ambient temperatures. And
secondly, by boosting proliferation of disease-causing pathogens as well as flies and mosquitoes
which act as vectors for the transmission of these pathogens. While average annual rainfall has
decreased across India due to climate change, instances of extreme rain events have increased by
almost 75%, according to the Indian Meteorological Department. The excess moisture and
precipitation lead to greater transmission of diseases such as goat pox, fowlpox and sheep pox – viral
diseases with high mortality rates. This issue is neglected by the animal husbandry department which
chooses to focus solely on larger animals such as cows and buffaloes, and so small livestock farmers
effectively lose 30-40% of their livestock, and hence income, every year.

As far as policies for risk-management regarding small livestock go, the Government of India initiated
a subsidised scheme for insurance of cattle and buffaloes in 2008, which was recently extended to all
livestock animals, however despite this, it has failed to yield adequate results: only under 5% animals
were insured20. Further, the distribution of insurance cover is disproportionate, for instance Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala share almost one-thirds of the total number of insured animals in the country
while the 2 states combined only account for 36.9 million21,22 (Sabareeswaran et. al, 2022) of the
535.8 million livestock units in India (Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, 2019),
demonstrating that the subsidy scheme for insurance was unsuccessful in aiding the livelihoods of
small livestock farmers.

IV. Policies and Initiatives

National Policies

India has implemented various policies to promote livestock farming and to minimise the effects of
climate change. In 2008, the government of India released The National Action Plan on Climate
Change (NAPCC), in order to help the marginalised sections of the country adapt to the widespread
effects of climate change. It emphasised that high stable economic growth is necessary to increase the
standards of living of the population of the country living under the poverty line. As a part of this, The
National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) was launched. The NMSA aimed to make
agriculture more productive and sustainable, while helping support farmers.

Under the NMSA, the Rainfed Area Development (RAD) program was initiated, which involved
creating integrated farming systems (IFS); IFSs entail a collaboration between various agricultural
practices such as crop cultivation, livestock rearing, plantations, pastures, and fisheries such that
resources such as water and feed, and waste disposal are optimised. This provides farmers with
alternative sources of income, such that they aren’t reliant solely on crops for income, protecting them
against the risks of crop failure. Further, with the onset of climate change, extreme climatic events
such as floods and droughts are more common. This program ensures minimal environmental effects
and food security against this. Additionally, it minimises infrastructural challenges such as the
disposal of accumulated livestock waste which can lead to disease, and securing access to clean water.
However, the RAD has not scaled as expected. This is as farmers tend to require greater investments
in order to create and operate an IFS, preventing IFSs to be implemented at a national level. Farmers
and livestock holders still lack access to adequate seed supplies, which further hinders this.

20
Birthal, Dr. P. S. (n.d.). Nabard - National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development. NABARD Research and Policy
21
Series. https://www.nabard.org/auth/writereaddata/tender/1310223010paper-7-livestck-dr-birthal.pdfIndia: Livestock
inventory by State. Statista. (2022, August 18). https://www.statista.com/statistics/622721/livestock-inventory-by-state-india/
22
Singh, Dr. R. (2022a, April 23). Livestock Sector of India with a special focus on Kerala. Pashudhan Prahree.
https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/livestock-sector-of-india-with-a-special-focus-on-kerala/#:~:text=*Kerala%20has%20a
%206.34%25%20rise,from%202.7%20million%20(2012).
The National Policy for Farmers (2007), while also focusing on crop farmers, offers services such as
providing accessible institutional credit at “farmer-friendly”, “effectively” implementing the
minimum support price (MSP) of agricultural goods and strengthening the infrastructure of the
agricultural market, which also benefit livestock farmers23. It attempted to solve the issue of traders
exploiting farmers by purchasing their goods at lower costs, causing farmers to incur losses, as well as
allowing them to take loans at low interest rates.

However, this still remains ineffective since most policies in India have a crop-centric approach,
where small-scale, unregistered livestock rearers aren’t covered under the schemes. For example, even
in the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), integrated farming systems recognize
poultry and livestock farming as alternate sources of income – standbys in case of reduced crop yield.
It does not offer any reliable, concrete solutions to tackle the effects of climatic change on the
livestock themselves, rendering the policies useless for most small livestock holders.

In some cases, even when the policies are addressed specifically for livestock farmers, such as in the
National Livestock Policy 2013 (NLP), which aims at improving the productivity of the livestock,
they aren't able to do so in a sustainable manner. The NLP suggests strengthening infrastructure and
services such as marketing enterprises, veterinary institutions and adoption of technology, while
providing neither the means – funding – nor the awareness that is required by rural communities to
enable such set-ups. Further, to safe-guard livestock against the reproductive ailments caused by
climate change, the NLP outlines detailed guidelines for selective breeding and crossbreeding to
produce bovines with greater fertility and milk production, however such thorough measures are
lacking for smaller animals such as sheeps, goats, pigs and poultry.

Further, the focus on livestock farmers with large animal holdings make small-scale backyard
livestock farmers ineligible for such policies. Finally, there is a need to greatly improve disease
surveillance and response. As we identified earlier in the paper, climatic changes have led to the
introduction and spread of numerous diseases within small livestock. However, to address this
challenge, our nation remains highly unequipped. In a country requiring a minimum of 120,000
veterinarians, we have a mere 65,000. With most of these veterinarians concentrated in suburban
areas, rural livestock owners have very little access to the appropriate healthcare required to combat
diseases. However, even with timely intervention, veterinarians often fail to treat the animals due to
the lack of medical infrastructure and quality equipment. To improve this, the government needs to
increase its investment in innovation for disease reporting systems as well as laboratories capable of
identifying diseases. This also requires significant and urgent policy modifications to improve the
standard of veterinary care in rural regions.

International Policies

Several countries are increasingly developing policies to address the challenges posed by livestock in
relation to climate change, aiming to provide sustainable solutions that are accessible to the masses.
The most recent policies, particularly those implemented after 2015, focus on improving past setbacks
and addressing the lack of detail and coherence. These policies also prioritise alignment with the
global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The governments of countries like Kenya, Ethiopia and Vietnam have collaborated with the
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) by implementing comprehensive Livestock Master
Plans (LMPs) that strategically aim to improve food security and poverty through sustainable
livestock farming.

For instance, in the past two decades, the Ethiopian government has worked to transform its
agricultural sector. However, there is a lack of clear strategies in areas such as healthcare, fodder and

23
(N.d.). Retrieved from https://www.dahd.nic.in/sites/default/filess/NLP%202013%20Final11.pdf
others in the livestock sector which has impeded the successful implementation of these plans. The
LMP proposes investment interventions, which work on improving genetics, feed, and health services,
along with supportive policies, to enhance productivity and total production in key livestock value
chains. It aims to achieve seven strategic objectives under their 5 year program. As a part of this, they
intend to reduce animal diseases like goat plague, foot-and-mouth disease and reduce the mortality
rate of lamb and calf by improving the livestock clinical services and re-evaluating Ethiopian
Veterinary Services. Additionally, the LMP is working on bridging regional gaps in animal healthcare.
The LMP has had a positive impact on the dairy industry, specifically through investments in breeding
services and infrastructure. Other benefits such as the implementation of new quarantine systems for
exported animals, improvements in forage farms, and the establishment of guidelines to enhance
animal health, welfare, and surveillance in the meat value chain are observed.

Furthermore, the World Bank is a major investor in livestock operations. Requests for these operations
have drastically increased, reaching approximately US$700 million in new lending per year in the last
three years, compared to an average of US$150 million at the beginning of the decade, with most of
the growth occurring in Africa, South Asia, and Central Asia.24 In Kazakhstan, one of the World
Bank's programs is the Sustainable Livestock Program for Results, which seeks to address significant
public policy challenges in order to increase the competitiveness, inclusiveness, and environmental
sustainability of the livestock sector. 20,000 new and modern small and medium farmers will be
supported by this farmer-centric model and good agricultural practices will be promoted by at least
100,000 farmers. Moreover, it includes efforts to enhance veterinary services, improve government
services related to the public goods aspect of the beef sector.

In Costa Rica, silvopastoral methods are used to reduce carbon footprint by integrating trees into
grazing lands. A case study conducted on a dairy farm in Costa Rica shows us that integration of
these trees can be used to reduce the environmental impact of ruminant livestock farming. These
methods enhance livestock resilience to the impacts of climate change by providing shade and
microclimate regulation, thereby reducing heat stress. Additionally, fruit-bearing trees are cultivated
to diversify the fodder available to these animals. These methods also improve water infiltration rates
and groundwater recharge.

The findings of this case study reveal that over a 30-month period, trees in live fences sequestered
1.43 Mg C ha per year, both above and below the ground.25 Due to the presence of these trees, the net
carbon footprint has also decreased. It is attributed to capture and store carbon, offsetting the
emissions associated with the production of milk. Although the study is based on a limited 30-month
data, it suggests that a live fence SPS can contribute to short- to medium-term climate mitigation in
livestock production. By capturing and storing carbon, these trees provide a temporary solution while
longer-term mitigation and adaptation strategies are developed and implemented.

24
World Bank Group. (2023, March 30). Moving towards sustainability: The livestock sector and the World Bank. World
Bank.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/moving-towards-sustainability-the-livestock-sector-and-the-world-ban
k

25
Brook, R., Forster, E., Styles, D., Mazzetto, A. M., Arndt, C., Esquivel, M. J., & Chadwick, D. (2022, October 13).
Silvopastoral systems for offsetting livestock emissions in the Tropics: A case study of a dairy farm in Costa Rica - agronomy
for sustainable development. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-022-00834-z
Comparative Analysis
While Indian policies acknowledge the importance of international collaboration, they currently lack
engagement with international organisations in comparison to other Asian or African countries.
Various organisations such as FAO, UNDP, World Bank, and others frequently partner with
governments worldwide to address climate change and promote sustainable livestock practices. By
collaborating with these international organisations, Indian policies can gain access to the best
methods and practices from other countries, while also potentially receiving financial support for their
projects.

India is one of the largest emitters of methane, which is also produced by ruminant animals such as
cows and cattles. 63% of India’s agricultural methane emissions come from livestock26. Even though
policies like National Livestock Mission (NLM), National Biogas and Manure (NBMMP) and
Rashtriya Gokul Mission work on reducing methane emissions, the lack of inadequate enforcement of
these policies, specifically among small-livestock farmers in rural areas who struggle to understand
the importance of greenhouse gas emissions, hampers the implementation and effectiveness of these
policies.

Due to the lack of specificity, most Indian livestock owners are not receiving their necessities through
the policies. For instance, the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) proposes highly
extensive provisions and strategies that are only targeting big farmers, leaving the small-scale farmers
behind. In contrast, Agronomes et Vétérinaires Sans Frontières (AVSF) has supported smallholder
farming in the mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam. In these areas, poverty is concentrated and
often referred to as “pockets of poverty”. These areas are inhabited by ethnic minorities and a
significant number of these families live below the national poverty line. These people have small
holdings, often working on livestock production. These small holders are isolated, lack technical
support and their animals exposed to diseases. Therefore, AVSF has been working on a project funded
by the General Council of the Val-de-Marne department and by the People’s Committee of the
province of Yên Bái to provide support to these small livestock holders. It aims to help 150
animal-health professionals to improve their skills and increase the income of 500 livestock-farming
families.27

Additionally, under Decision No. 1835/QD-UBND issued by the Hanoi People's Committee in 2013,
Vietnam aims to improve cattle, pig, and poultry breeds. The livestock production in Hanoi is planned
and distributed strategically, taking into consideration the geography of the rural districts. For
instance, cows, dairy cattle and fattening pigs are concentrated in the hilly districts of Hanoi while
chickens and waterfowls are expanded in the plain areas. This is used as an optimisation tool to make
the best use of geographical resources available in Hanoi. Additionally, Hanoi also has breeding
programs for cattles that include artificial insemination, importing exotic cattle breeds, and breeding
hybrids between exotic zebu bulls and indigenous cows. For swine breed improvement, the plan relies
on the import of high-quality exotic breeds and artificial insemination. These programs target
particular animals, therefore enhancing the quality of livestock breeding patterns and their outcomes.

Rabbit meat is consumed in many parts of the world, with China being recognised as its largest
producer. Additionally, rabbit manure is considered superior to cow, horse or chicken manure which is
often used as an alternative of fertilisers. Rabbit’s manure, pellets, have the right mix of carbon and
nitrogen and improves the quality of the soil. In Chengdu, China, the rabbit programme has been a
26
Mondal, M. (2021b, December 15). Why India is neglecting its methane problem. The Third Pole.
https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate/why-india-neglecting-methane-problem/#:~:text=India’s%20methane%
20hotspots&text=Studies%20show%20that%2063%25%20of,rice%20farming%20contributes%20nearly%
2011%25.**
27
Smallholder livestock farming in the province of Yên Bái in Vietnam - projects. AVSF. (n.d.-a).
https://www.avsf.org/en/posts/1053/full/smallholder-livestock-farming-in-the-province-of-yen-bai-in-vietnam
remarkable grassroots-level success story in Asia. The initiative was launched in 1984 with the
importation of 200 Californian and New Zealand White rabbits, which were distributed among 4
farmers. One of the farmers, Mr. Ren Xuping, became highly successful in rabbit farming. As a result
of his success, Xuping founded the Rabbit King Poverty Alleviation Centre, a rabbit breeding and
training facility. About 300,000 people have benefited from this centre over the years, mainly rural
peasants and young rural women seeking to continue their education. In addition to receiving training
in rabbit farming, they also received breeding stock that gave them the ability to secure a more stable
income.

V. Mitigation Strategies
Climate change has various negative effects on small livestock, including heat stress, reproductive
disorders, immune suppression, water and fodder scarcity, and spread of disease. All of these harm the
livelihoods of small livestock farmers. While India’s government has created various policies over the
last 50 years in an attempt to support the agriculture sector – including livestock – their main focus
remains agriculture. Due to this, the livestock sector is unable to benefit from these schemes, and
unregistered small livestock owners are barely accounted for. In combination with a lack of
accessibility and awareness, even successful policies aren’t able to improve the situation. This section
addresses small measures that NGOs can take – providing logistics and coordination to establish
low-cost community-led solutions – to overcome challenges such as a lack of resources (funding,
policies, awareness, etc.) and implement these mitigation strategies.

Shelter Management

Adapting shelters: A reflective roof, made of insulating material, can reflect more sunlight and
absorb less heat, resulting in a cooler shelter. Reflective roofing surfaces such as terracotta tiles,
country tiles, concrete tiles, etc. combined with proper ventilation, can reduce temperatures by 20°F,
which helps create a comfortable internal environment for livestock28. Terracotta tiles cost around
₹‎30/square feet to ₹‎100/square feet29. These materials are a long-lasting, low maintenance alternative
to conventional straw and thatched roofs, which have lower initial costs, but require regular upkeep.

A cost-effective alternative to the reflective roofing is to use locally available materials like straw,
bamboo mats, coconut leaves and palmyra leaves to make a thatched roof. These materials can be
locally sourced and are eco-friendly, sustainable and easy to lay-out. Although this option is a very
good alternative for reducing the heat load inside the sheds, these roofs are high on maintenance and
require regular upkeep. Farmers, despite having materials like coconut leaves, are not able to produce
or buy the thatched materials due to its cost and its durability. The table below shows the costs of
thatched roofs.

28
Konopacki, S, Gartland, L, Akbari, H, & Rainer, L. Demonstration of energy savings of cool roofs. United
States. https://doi.org/10.2172/296885
29
ProductLine, T. (2019, July 1). Roofing Shingles: Their types, applications and prices in India. The Economic
Times.https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/productline/building-materials/roofing-shingles-their-typ
es-applications-and-prices-in-india/articleshow/70026876.cms?from=mdr
 Particular Cost of thatched Total material Total cost of
material (₹‎) required material (₹‎)

Green shed net (75%) (per m2) 100 25m2 2500

Thatched roof with dry grass (per kg) 0.60 100 kg 60

Thatched roof with paddy straw (per kg) 0.50 100 kg 50

Thatched roof with coconut leaves (per 10 50 sheets 500

sheet)

Table taken from: Kapgate, R. M., Prasade, N., Agre, H., & Kumar, S. (2016). Effect of Housing System on
Physiological Responses of Konkan Kanyal Goat in its Native Tract. ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305307971_Effect_of_Housing_System_on_Physiological_Responses
_of_Konkan_Kanyal_Goat_in_its_Native_Tract

Another supplement to a conventional roof, is to have a green roofing by growing creepers which can
easily spread on rooftops. Vegetable creepers such as beans, cucumbers and many varieties of gourds
can be left to cover on low-roof shelters. This cover will help reduce heat load and also provide an
alternate food-source for the farmers and the livestock. This method will require timely maintenance
and upkeep to maintain a healthy growth and green cover.

Helping farmers design their shelters and educating them on using the right roofing material based on
local availability are some of the easiest ways to reduce the heat load inside the shelters.

Managing Existing Water Resources: Redirecting rivers and canals towards rural areas or cleaning
up nearby water bodies requires huge expenditure and resources. So it is not feasible to implement
this. Alternatively, local farmers can be made aware about proper water management measures. For
instance, rainwater harvesting, which involves collecting, storing and filtering rainwater, requires
minimal infrastructure. Further, NGOs can aid in creating communal-sharing water systems. Waste
water of livestock can be used for irrigation of nearby fields, which reduces the total volume of water
used by the community while aiding growth of crops due to the presence of organic nutrients.
Subsequently, this prevents nitrate-rich wastes from seeping into water bodies, hence reducing
eutrophication. Percolation ponds can also be created to accelerate groundwater recharge by allowing
rainwater to seep into the ground; this can be collected in ground water wells for later use. Such
strategies help maximise the available water resources, using limited budget and spreading awareness,
to fulfil the water requirements of livestock.

Nutrition Management

Feed Availability: The economic efficiency and productivity of livestock production are dependent
on the quantity and quality of feed intake. The decrease in cultivable land has resulted in decreased
feed production, forcing livestock farmers to turn to feed supplements and concentrates. However, in
rural areas, there is a lack of awareness surrounding rearing practices such as supplemental feed which
is often replaced by fat-rich grains such as cereals that farmers believe will increase the weight of
livestock (IndiaAgro, 2021). However, until the nutritional requirements are met, small livestock will
continue to suffer. An alternative to this is recycling domestic and industrial food-waste which can be
fed to livestock as fodder. This prevents wastage of one-third of India’s food: 50 kg per person per
year30. If suitable components from these leftovers could be utilised in a circular economy, a
sustainable system which favours the environment as well as the livelihoods of small livestock
farmers, could be set up.

Grazing on Stubble: Each year, in the states of Punjab and Haryana, farmers practise stubble burning
in order to quickly clear their fields to make way for cultivation of new crops. A study conducted by
Down To Earth revealed that this contributes 149.24 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, 9 million
tonnes of carbon monoxide, 0.25 million tonnes of sulphur oxides and 1.28 million tonnes of
particulate matter, which not only influences respiratory diseases but also wastes 454 million metric
tonnes of crops. The current deficits of fodder approximate to 526 million metric tonnes of dry fodder,
855 million metric tonnes of green fodder and 56 million metric tonnes of concentrate feed, so while
allowing livestock to feed on stubble doesn’t compensate for the deficits, it improves access to
nutrition as well as reducing pollution. Research even demonstrates that by not burning crops, vital
microbes are retained in the soil which allows for better sustenance of the new crops, thus reducing
Rs. 2000/hectare expenditure for manure, made by agricultural farmers.

Health Management
Diseases can drastically affect livestock production. There are many types of vaccinations and
medications to prevent livestock from getting affected by diseases, however these are sold in bulk and
cost around ₹2000, which small livestock farmers neither are able to afford, nor are able to use fully,
thus wasting it.

Training locals about healthcare for livestock: A non-profit organisation called Pradan organised
self-help groups for female livestock rearers in rural regions. They created groups with roughly 50
members each and provided basic medical training such as injecting vaccines, administering
medicines, etc. to one woman called a ‘pashu sakhi’. All the other members of the group could pay
the pashu sakhi in advance for medicines that they require, as well as for her services. Through one of
the numerous pharmacies set-up by the Government of India, the pashu sakhi could purchase and
deliver the medicines to each of the livestock farmers. This created income for the pashu sakhi, as
well as increased profits of small livestock farmers since with this system, they could easily keep a
larger number of animals without the risk of a disease outbreak.

If NGOs could use this example to incorporate similar strategies, such as selling medicine in smaller
quantities. This way, the medicines will not go to waste and farmers will be able to keep their
livestock healthy.

VI. Conclusion
Livestock farming is one of the most popular occupations in rural india. This is because of the
continual production of goods such as eggs, meat and milk, and fast rates of reproduction, which offer
a steady, reliable source of income. However, despite the simplicity of its initial appeal, livestock
farming involves a lot of different technical and infrastructural difficulties that are often overlooked.
Especially in poverty-stricken regions such as rural India, the funds to implement measures to combat
the impacts of climate change are scarce. Further, with unpredictable weather patterns, and rising
global temperatures, the existing challenges are compounding, and newer challenges, which rural
farmers are unequipped to handle, are surfacing.

As our paper has identified, the challenges broadly fit into two distinct categories: direct and indirect.
The direct challenges are the effects of climate change which can be seen within the animals
themselves: the negative effects of heat stress, reproductive and breeding difficulties, and the

30
UNEP Food Waste Index Report 2021. (n.d.). UNEP - UN Environment Programme.
https://www.unep.org/resources/report/unep-food-waste-index-report-2021
accelerated spread of diseases. The indirect challenges posed by climate change affect the animals’
access to resources: water scarcity caused by drought, low supply and quality of forage due to erratic
weather conditions etc. These challenges aren’t restricted to rural areas specifically, however their
effects are seen greatest here since the farmers are unable to correctly identify and diagnose the causes
of these issues. Due to this lack of awareness and knowledge within the rural community, they
struggle to employ useful mitigation strategies in their own livestock holdings/farms.

However, with the correct intervention and policy changes the effects of such climatic changes on the
livestock can be contained. Some mitigation strategies are easy to implement and cost efficient such
as upgrading livestock shelters, creating community-led solutions for distribution of medicines, etc.
Some will require a large allocation of funds, resources and major policy changes while others simply
require spreading awareness and cooperation. Still, it is important that we give this issue the time and
attention it deserves, as it has the potential to threaten the livelihoods of thousands of farmers across
rural India.