Happiness has been a human pursuit for as long as we can remember, and positive

psychology has taken this concept into the realm of scientific research in hopes of
gaining a better understanding of global wellbeing and meaningful living.

Whether on a global or an individual level, the pursuit of happiness is one that is

gaining traction and scientific recognition.

There are many definitions of happiness, and we will also explore those in this article.
For now, we invite you to think of a time when you were happy. Were you alone?
With others? Inside? Outside.

At the end of this article, revisit that memory. You may have new insight as to what
made that moment “happy,” as well as tips to train your brain towards more
happiness.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive
Psychology Exercises for free. These science-based exercises will explore fundamental
aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and
will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or
employees.

This Article Contains:

 A Definition of Happiness
 A Look at the Science of Happiness
 The Scientific Research on Happiness at Work
 17 Interesting Facts and Findings
 A Study Showing How Acts of Kindness Make us Happier
 The Global Pursuit of Happiness
 Measures of Happiness
 Four Qualities of Life
 How to Train your Brain for Happiness
 A Take-Home Message
 References

A Definition of Happiness
In general, happiness is understood as the positive emotions we have in regards to the
pleasurable activities we take part in through our daily lives.

Pleasure, comfort, gratitude, hope, and inspiration are examples of positive emotions
that increase our happiness and move us to flourish. In scientific literature, happiness
is referred to as hedonia (Ryan & Deci, 2001), the presence of positive emotions and
the absence of negative emotions.

In a more broad understanding, human wellbeing is made up of both hedonic and

eEudaimonic principles, the literature on which is vast and describes our personal
meaning and purpose in life (Ryan & Deci, 2001).

Research on happiness over the years has found that there are some contributing
correlational factors that affect our happiness. These include (Ryan & Deci, 2001):

1. Personality Type
2. Positive Emotions versus Negative Emotions
3. Attitude towards Physical Health
4. Social Class and Wealth
5. Attachment and Relatedness
6. Goals and Self-Efficacy
7. Time and Place.

A Look at the Science of Happiness

So what is the “science of happiness?”

This is one of those times when something is exactly what it sounds like – it’s all
about the science behinds what happiness is and how to experience it, what happy
people do differently, and what we can do to feel happier.

This focus on happiness is new to the field of psychology; for many decades –
basically since the foundation of psychology as a science in the mid- to late-1800s –
the focus was on the less pleasant in life. The field focused on pathology, on the
worst-scenario cases, on what can go wrong in our lives.

Although there was some attention paid to wellbeing, success, and high functioning,
the vast majority of funding and research was dedicated to those who were struggling
the most: those with severe mental illness, mental disorders, or those who have
survived trauma and tragedy.

While there’s certainly nothing wrong with doing what we can to raise up those who
are struggling, there was an unfortunate lack of knowledge about what we can do to
bring us all up to a higher level of functioning and happiness.

Positive psychology changed all of that. Suddenly, there was space at the table for a
focus on the positive in life, for “what thoughts, actions, and behaviors make us more
productive at work, happier in our relationships, and more fulfilled at the end of the
day” (Happify Daily, n.d.).

The science of happiness has opened our eyes to a plethora of new findings about the
sunny side of life.

Current research and studies

For instance, we have learned a lot about what happiness is and what drives us.

Recent studies have shown us that:

 Money can only buy happiness up to about $75,000 – after that, it has no
significant effect on our emotional wellbeing (Kahneman & Deaton, 2010).
 Most of our happiness is not determined by our genetics, but by our
experiences and our day-to-day lives (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005).
 Trying too hard to find happiness often has the opposite effect and can lead us
to be overly selfish (Mauss et al., 2012).
 Pursuing happiness through social means (e.g., spending more time with family
and friends) is more likely to be effective than other methods (Rohrer et al.,
2018).
 The pursuit of happiness is one place where we should consider ditching the
SMART goals; it may be more effective to pursue “vague” happiness goals
than more specific ones (Rodas et al., 2018).
 Happiness makes us better citizens – it is a good predictor of civic engagement
in the transition to adulthood (Fang et al., 2018).
 Happiness leads to career success, and it doesn’t have to be “natural” happiness
– researchers found that “experimentally enhancing” positive emotions also
contributed to improved outcomes at work (Walsh et al., 2018).
 There is a linear relationship between religious involvement and happiness.
Higher worship service attendance is correlated with more commitment to
faith, and commitment to faith is related to greater compassion. Those more
compassionate individuals are more likely to provide emotional support to
others, and those who provide emotional support to others are more likely to be
happy (Krause et al., 2018). It’s a long road, but a direct one!
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The Scientific Research on Happiness at Work
There’s been a ton of research on the effects of happiness in the workplace. Much of
this is driven by companies who want to find a way to improve productivity, attract
new talent, and get a dose of good publicity, all at the same time. After all, who
wouldn’t want to do business with and/or work for a company full of happy
employees?

Although the jury is still out on exactly how happy employees “should” be for
maximum productivity, efficiency, and health, we have learned a few things about the
effects of a happy workforce:

 People who are happy with their jobs are less likely to leave their jobs, less
likely to be absent, and less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors at
work.
  People who are happy with their jobs are more likely to engage in behavior that
contributes to a happy and productive organization, more likely to be physically
healthy, and more likely to be mentally healthy.
 Happiness and job performance are related—and the relationship likely works
in both directions (e.g., happy people do a better job and people who do a good
job are more likely to be happy).
 Unit- or team-level happiness is also linked to positive outcomes, including
higher customer satisfaction, profit, productivity, employee turnover, and a
safer work environment.
 In general, a happier organization is a more productive and successful
organization (Fisher, 2010).

To sum up the findings we have so far, it’s easy to see that happiness at work does
matter – for individuals, for teams, and for organizations overall. We don’t have all
the answers about exactly how the relationship between happiness and productivity
works, but we know that there is a relationship there.

Lately, many human resources managers, executives, and other organizational leaders
have decided that knowing there’s a relationship is good enough evidence to establish
happiness-boosting practices at work, which means that we have a lot of opportunities
to see the impact of greater happiness at work in the future.

17 Interesting Facts and Findings

Research in this field is booming, and new findings are coming out all the time. Here
are a few of the most interesting facts and findings so far:

1. Happiness is linked to lower heart rate and blood pressure, as well as healthier
heart rate variability.
2. Happiness can also act as a barrier between you and germs – happier people are
less likely to get sick.
 3. People who are happier enjoy greater protection against stress and release less
of the stress hormone cortisol.
4. Happy people tend to experience fewer aches and pains, including dizziness,
muscle strain, and heartburn.
5. Happiness acts as a protective factor against disease and disability (in general,
of course).
6. Those who are happiest tend to live significantly longer than those who are not.
7. Happiness boosts our immune system, which can help us fight and fend off the
common cold.
8. Happy people tend to make others happier as well, and vice versa – those who
do good, feel good!
9. A portion of our happiness is determined by our genetics (but there’s still
plenty of room for attitude adjustments and happiness-boosting exercises!).
10.Smelling floral scents like roses can make us happier.
11.Those who are paid by the hour may be happier than those on salary (however,
these findings are limited, so take them with a grain of salt!).
12.Relationships are much more conducive to a happy life than money.
13.Happier people tend to wear bright colors; it’s not certain which way the
relationship works, but it can’t hurt to throw on some brighter hues once in a
while—just in case!
14.Happiness can help people cope with arthritis and chronic pain better.
15.Being outdoors – especially near the water – can make us happier.
16.The holidays can be a stressful time, even for the happiest among us – an
estimated 44% of women and 31% of men get the “holiday blues.”
17.Happiness is contagious! When we spend time around happy people, we’re
likely to get a boost of happiness as well.

Newman (2015) is the source for the first six facts and findings, and Florentine (2016)
for the latter 11.

A Study Showing How Acts of Kindness Make us

Happier
 Feeling stressed after a long day of work?
Treat yourself to a bubble bath.

Feeling blue? Treat yourself to a decadent dessert.

Feeling frustrated after an argument with a friend? Skip your workout and have an
extra scoop of ice cream.

The message is clear: If you want to feel happy, you should focus on your own wishes
and desires. Yet this is not the advice that many people grew up hearing. Indeed, most
of the world’s religions (and grandmothers everywhere) have long suggested that
people should focus on others first and themselves second.

Psychologists refer to such behavior as prosocial behavior and many recent studies
have shown that when people have a prosocial focus, doing kind acts for others, their
own happiness increases.

But how does prosocial behavior compare to treating yourself in terms of your
happiness? And does treating yourself really make you feel happy?

Nelson et al. (2016) presented their research answering these questions.

The Study

Participants were divided into four groups and given new instructions each week for
four weeks.

One group was instructed to perform random acts of kindness for themselves (such as
going shopping or enjoying a favorite hobby); the second group was instructed to
perform acts of kindness for others (such as visiting an elderly relative or helping
someone carry groceries); the third group was instructed to perform acts of kindness
to improve the world (such as recycling or donating to charity); the fourth group was
instructed to keep track of their daily activities.

Each week, the participants reported their activities from the previous week, as well as
their experience of positive and negative emotions.

At the beginning, the end, and again two weeks after the four-week period,
participants completed a questionnaire to assess their psychological flourishing. As a
measure of overall happiness, the questionnaire included questions about
psychological, social, and emotional wellbeing.

The Results

The results of the study were striking. Only participants who engaged in prosocial
behavior demonstrated improvements in psychological flourishing.

Participants who practiced prosocial behavior demonstrated increases in positive

emotions from one week to the next. In turn, these increases in feelings such as
happiness, joy, and enjoyment predicted increases in psychological flourishing at the
end of the study. In other words, positive emotions appeared to have been a critical
ingredient linking prosocial behavior to increases in flourishing.

But what about the people who treated themselves?

They did not show the same increases in positive emotions or psychological
flourishing as those who engaged in acts of kindness. In fact, people who treated
themselves did not differ in positive emotions, negative emotions, or psychological
flourishing over the course of the study compared to those who merely kept track of
their daily activities.

This research does not say that we shouldn’t treat ourselves, show ourselves self-love
when we need it, or enjoy our relaxation when we have it. However, the results of this
study strongly suggest that we are more likely to reach greater levels of happiness
when we exhibit prosocial behavior and show others kindness through our actions.

The Global Pursuit of Happiness

In world economic circles, Richard Easterlin investigated the relationship between
money and wellbeing.
The Easterlin paradox—”money does not buy happiness” (Mohun, 2012)—sparked a
new wave of thinking about wealth and wellbeing.

In 1972, Bhutan chose to pursue a policy of happiness rather than a focus on

economic growth tracked via their gross domestic product (GDPP). Subsequently, this
little nation has been among the happiest, ranking amongst nations with far superior
wealth (Kelly, 2012).

More global organizations and nations are becoming aware and supportive of the
importance of happiness in today’s world. This has lead to The United Nations
inviting nations to take part in a happiness survey, resulting in the “World Happiness
Report,” a basis from which to steer public policy. Learn about the World Happiness
Report for 2016.

The United Nations also established World Happiness Day, March 20th, which was the
result of efforts of the Bhutan Kingdom and their Gross National Happiness initiative
(Helliwell et al., 2013).

Organizations such as the New Economic Foundation are playing an influential role as an
economic think tank that focuses on steering economic policy and development for
the betterment of human wellbeing.

Ruut Veenhoven, a world authority on the scientific study of happiness, was one of
the sources of inspiration for the United Nations General Assembly (2013) adopting
happiness measures. Veenhoven is a founding member of the World Database of
Happiness, which is a comprehensive scientific repository of happiness measures
worldwide.

The objective of this organization is to provide a coordinated collection of data, with

common interpretation according to a scientifically validated happiness theory, model,
and body of research.

Measures of Happiness
At this point, you might be wondering: Is it possible to measure happiness? Many
psychologists have devoted their careers to answering this question and in short, the
answer is yes.

Happiness can be measured by these three factors: the presence of positive emotions,
the absence of negative emotions, and life satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2001). It is a
uniquely subjective experience, which means that nobody is better at reporting on
someone’s happiness than the individuals themselves.
For this reason scales, self-report measures, and questionnaires are the most common
formats for measuring happiness. The most recognized examples are the following:

1. The PANAS (Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule);

2. The SWLS (Satisfaction With Life Scale);
3. The SHS (Subjective Happiness Scale)

However, there are many instruments available to measure happiness that have proven
reliable and valid over time (Hefferon & Boniwell, 2011).

Four Qualities of Life

Another measurement of happiness was

developed by Ruut Veenhoven. He constructed the model of Four Qualities of Life,
which positions and describes the construct of happiness in various dimensions
(Veenhoven, 2000, 2010).

Of the four dimensions, satisfaction is our personal subjective measure of happiness

as we interpret life as a whole. Veenhoven’s (2010) global research into happiness
suggests that happiness is possible for many.

This is an overview of his Four Qualities:

Outer Qualities Inner Qualities

Life Chances Liveability of Environment Life-ability of Individual
Life Results Utility of Life Satisfaction
Using Veenhoven’s Four Qualities it is possible to assess the happiness of any
country.

Liveability of environment
This dimension includes factors such as law, freedom, schooling, employment,
electricity or gas, etc. It is a measurement of how well an environment meets what
Maslow proposed as our basic needs (safety, security, shelter, food) (Maslow, 1943).

Life-ability of individuals

The ability of individuals to deal with life is important; both mental and physical
health are identified as important factors, together with social values of solidarity,
tolerance, and love (Veenhoven, 2010).

Utility of life

In this dimension, Veenhoven (2010) references a higher-order meaning, for example,

religious affiliations.

Uchida et al. (2014) found that high levels of national disaster negatively impacted a
nation’s level of happiness.

Satisfaction

Happiness is a complex construct that cannot be directly controlled. Through policy

and individual and organizational action, one can endeavor to influence and increase
happiness (Veenhoven, 2010).

However, happiness is a subjective experience and only once we change the way we
perceive the world can we really begin sharing and creating happiness for others.

But is it possible to train yourself to be happier?

The answer is yes!

How to Train Your Brain for Happiness

At birth, our genetics provide us a set point that accounts for some portion of our
happiness. Having enough food, shelter, and safety account for another portion.

There’s also quite a bit of happiness that’s entirely up to us (Lyubomirsky et al.,

2005).

By training our brain through awareness and exercises to think in a happier, more
optimistic, and more resilient way, we can effectively train our brains for happiness.
New discoveries in the field of positive psychology show that physical health,
psychological wellbeing, and physiological functioning are all improved by how we
learn to “feel good” (Fredrickson, et al., 2000).

What Are The Patterns We Need To “Train Out” of Our Brains?

1. Perfectionism – Often confused with conscientiousness, which involves

appropriate and tangible expectations, perfectionism involves inappropriate
levels of expectations and intangible goals. It often produces problems for
adults, adolescents, and children.
2. Social comparison – When we compare ourselves to others we often find
ourselves lacking. Healthy social comparison is about finding what you admire in
others and learning to strive for those qualities. However, the best comparisons
we can make are with ourselves. How are you better than you were in the past?
3. Materialism – Attaching our happiness to external things and material wealth is
dangerous, as we can lose our happiness if our material circumstances change
(Carter & Gilovich, 2010).
4. Maximizing – Maximizers search for better options even when they are
satisfied. This leaves them little time to be present for the good moments in their
lives and with very little gratitude (Schwartz et al., 2002).

Misconceptions About Mind Training

Some of the misconceptions about retraining your brain are simply untrue. Here are a
few myths that need debunking:

1. We are products of our genetics so we cannot create change in our brains.

Our minds are malleable. Ten years ago we thought brain pathways were set in early
childhood. In fact, we now know that there is huge potential for large changes through
to your twenties, and neuroplasticity is still changing throughout one’s life.

The myelin sheath that covers your neural pathways gets thicker and stronger the
more it is used (think of the plastic protective covering on wires); the more a pathway
is used, the stronger the myelin and the faster the neural pathway. Simply put, when
you practice feeling grateful, you notice more things to be grateful for.

2. Brain training is brainwashing.

Brainwashing is an involuntary change. If we focus on training our mind to see the

glass half full instead of half empty, that is a choice.
3. If we are too happy we run the risk of becoming overly optimistic.

There is no such thing as overly optimistic, and science shows that brain training for
positivity includes practices like mindfulness and gratitude. No one has ever overdosed
on these habits.

How Is The Brain Wired For Happiness?

Our brains come already designed for happiness. We have caregiving systems in place
for eye contact, touch, and vocalizations to let others know we are trustworthy and
secure.

Our brains also regulate chemicals like oxytocin.

People who have more oxytocin trust more readily, have increased tendencies towards
monogamy, and exhibit more caregiving behavior. These behaviors reduce stress
which lowers production of hormones like cortisol and inhibits the cardiovascular
response to stress (Kosfeld et al., 2005).

The following TED talk provides an insight into how we can overcome our negative
mental patterns:
If happiness has little to do with having too many resources, then it is an inner state
that we have the power to cultivate. The above video even offers specific exercises for
you to try. Just by doing them, you are actively re-wiring your brain towards calm and
happy sensations.

Meanwhile, this TED talk gives a better understanding of how to wire your brain to
accept the positivity and happiness in your life:
The negativity bias that Dr. Rick Hanson discusses can help us understand how we
can activate and “install” positive thinking as part of our core brain chemistry. If you
don’t have a moment to watch either of these videos now, make time for it later—they
are rich with relevant data and tips.

A Take-Home Message
Happiness is the overall subjective experience of our positive emotions. There are
many factors which influence our happiness, and ongoing research continues to
uncover what makes us happiest.

This global pursuit of happiness has resulted in measures such as the World
Happiness Report, while the World Happiness Database is working to collaborate and
consolidate the existing happiness pursuits of different nations.

We are living in a time when the conditions for happiness are known. This can be
disheartening at times when there is much negativity in the world.

There is, however, good news in this situation: neuroplasticity.

The human brain is wired for happiness and positive connections with others. It is actually
possible to experience and learn happiness despite what has been genetically hardwired.
In a world where the focus on happiness is growing and the mirror is turning back
towards ourselves, the happiness of the world relies on the happiness within each one
of us and how we act, share, and voice the importance of happiness for everyone.

What are the steps you are taking to make yourself and others happier? Let us know
by leaving a comment below!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive
Psychology Exercises for free.
 Man and Society
The human being and the group. The problem of man cannot
be solved scientifically without a clear statement of the
relationship between man and society, as seen in the primary
collectivity—the family, the play or instruction group, the
production team and other types of formal or informal
collectivity. In the family the individual abandons some of his
specific features to become a member of the whole. The life of
the family is related to the division of labour according to sex
and age, the carrying on of husbandry, mutual assistance in
everyday life, the intimate life of man and wife, the
perpetuation of the race, the upbringing of the children and also
various moral, legal and psychological relationships. The family
is a crucial instrument for the development of personality. It is
here that the child first becomes involved in social life, absorbs
its values and standards of behaviour, its ways of thought,
language and certain value orientations. It is this primary group
that bears the major responsibility to society. Its first duty is to
the social group, to society and humanity. Through the group
the child, as he grows older, enters society. Hence the decisive
role of the group. The influence of one person on another is as a
rule extremely limited; the collectivity as a whole is the main
educational force. Here the psychological factors are very
important. It is essential that a person should feel himself part of
a group at his own wish, and that the group should voluntarily
accept him, take in his personality.

Everybody performs certain functions in a group. Take, for

example, the production team. Here people are joined together
by other interests as well as those of production; they exchange
certain political, moral, aesthetic, scientific and other values. A
group generates public opinion, it sharpens and polishes the
mind and shapes the character and will. Through the group a
person rises to the level of a personality, a conscious subject of
historical creativity. The group is the first shaper of the
personality, and the group itself is shaped by society.

The unity of man and society. A person's whole intellectual

make-up bears the clear imprint of the life of society as a whole.
All his practical activities are individual expressions of the
historically formed social practice of humanity. The implements
that he uses have in their form a function evolved by a society
which predetermines the ways of using them. When tackling
any job, we all have to take into account what has already been
achieved before us.

The wealth and complexity of the individual's social content

are conditioned by the diversity of his links with the social
whole, the degree to which the various spheres of the life of
society have been assimilated and refracted in his consciousness
and activity. This is why the level of individual development is
an indicator of the level of development of society, and vice
versa. But the individual does not dissolve into society. He
retains his unique and independent individuality and makes his
contribution to the social whole: just as society itself shapes
human beings, so human beings shape society.

The individual is a link in the chain of the generations. His

affairs are regulated not only by himself, but also by the social
standards, by the collective reason or mind. The true token of
individuality is the degree to which a certain individual in
certain specific historical conditions has absorbed the essence of
the society in which he lives.

Consider, for instance, the following historical fact. Who or

what would Napoleon Bonaparte have been if there had been no
French Revolution? It is difficult or perhaps even impossible to
reply to this question. But one thing is quite clear—he would
never have become a great general and certainly not an
emperor. He himself was well aware of his debt and in his
declining years said, "My son cannot replace me. I could not
replace myself. I am the creature of circumstances."[1] It has
long been acknowledged that great epochs give birth to great
men. What tribunes of the people were lifted by the tide of
events of the French Revolution— Mirabeau, Marat,
Robespierre, Danton. What young, some times even youthful
talents that had remained dormant among the people were
raised to the heights of revolutionary, military, and
organisational activity by the Great October Socialist
Revolution.

It is sometimes said that society carries the individual as a

river carries a boat. This is a pleasant simile, but not exact. An
individual does not float with the river; he is the turbulently
flowing river itself. The events of social life do not come about
by themselves; they are made. The great and small paths of the
laws of history are blazed by human effort and often at the
expense of human blood. The laws of history are not charted in
advance by superhuman forces; they are made by people, who
then submit to their authority as something that is above the
individual.

The key to the mysteries of human nature is to be found in

society. Society is the human being in his social relations, and
every human being is an individual embodiment of social
relations, a product not only of the existing social system but of
all world history. He absorbs what has been accumulated by the
centuries and passed on through traditions. Modern man carries
within himself all the ages of history and all his own individual
ages as well. His personality is a concentration of various strata
of culture. He is influenced not only by modern mass media, but
also by the writings of all times and every nation. He is the
living memory of history, the focus of all the wealth of
knowledge, abilities, skills, and wisdom that have been amassed
through the ages.
 Man is a kind of super-dense living atom in the system of
social reality. He is a concentration of the actively creative
principle in this system. Through myriads of visible and
invisible impulses the fruit of people's creative thought in the
past continues to nourish him and, through him, contemporary
culture.

Sometimes the relation between man and society is

interpreted in such a way that the latter seems to be something
that goes on around a person, something in which he is
immersed. But this is a fundamentally wrong approach. Society
does, of course, exist outside the individual as a kind of social
environment in the form of a historically shaped system of
relations with rich material and spiritual culture that is
independent of his will and consciousness. The individual floats
in this environment all his life. But society also exists in the
individual himself and could not exist at all, apart from the real
activity of its members. History in itself does nothing. Society
possesses no wealth whatever. It fights no battles. It grows no
grain. It produces no tools for making things or weapons for
destroying them. It is not society as such but man who does all
this, who possesses it, who creates everything and fights for
everything. Society is not some impersonal being that uses the
individual as a means of achieving its aims. All world history is
nothing but the daily activity of individuals pursuing their aims.
Here we are talking not about the actions of individuals who are
isolated and concerned only with themselves, but about the
actions of the masses, the deeds of historical personalities and
peoples. An individual developing within the framework of a
social system has both a certain dependence on the whole
system of social standards and an autonomy that is an
absolutely necessary precondition for the life and development
of the system. The measure of this personal autonomy is
historically conditioned and depends on the character of the
social system itself. Exceptional rigidity in a social system
(fascism, for example) makes it impossible or extremely
difficult for individual innovations in the form of creative
activity in various spheres of life to take place, and this
inevitably leads to stagnation.

The relationships between the individual and society in

history. To return once again to the simile of the river. The
history of humankind is like a great river bearing its waters into
the ocean of the past. What is past in life does not become
something that has never been. No matter how far we go from
the past, it still lives to some extent in us and with us. From the
very beginning, the character of the man-society relationship
changed substantially in accordance with the flow of historical
time. The relationship between the individual and a primitive
horde was one thing. Brute force was supreme and instincts
were only slightly controlled, although even then there were
glimpses of moral standards of cooperation without which any
survival, let alone development, would have been impossible. In
tribal conditions people were closely bound by ties of blood. At
that time there were no state or legal relationships. Not the
individual but the tribe, the genus, was the law-giver. The
interests of the individual were syncretised with those of the
commune. In the horde and in tribal society there were leaders
who had come to the fore by their resourcefulness, brains,
agility, strength of will, and so on. Labour functions were
divided on the basis of age and sex, as were the forms of social
and other activity. With the development of the socium an ever
increasing differentiation of social functions takes place. People
acquire private personal rights and duties, personal names, and
a constantly growing measure of personal responsibility. The
individual gradually becomes a personality, and his relations
with society acquire an increasingly complex character. When
the society based on law and the state first arose, people were
sharply divided between masters and slaves, rulers and ruled.
Slave society with its private property set people against one
another. Some individuals began to oppress and exploit others.
 Feudal society saw the emergence of the hierarchy of castes,
making some people totally dependent on others. On the
shoulders of the common toiler there grew up an enormous
parasitic tree with kings or tsars at its summit. This pyramid of
social existence determined the rights and duties of its citizens,
and the rights were nearly all at the top of the social scale. This
was a society of genuflection, where not only the toilers but also
the rulers bowed the knee to the dogma of Holy Scripture and
the image of the Almighty.

The age of the Renaissance was a hymn to the free individual

and to the ideal of the strong fully developed human being
blazing trails of discovery into foreign lands, broadening the
horizons of science, and creating masterpieces of art and
technical perfection. History became the scene of activity for
the enterprising and determined individual. Not for him the
impediments of the feudal social pyramid, where the idle
wasted their lives and money, enjoying every privilege, and the
toilers were kept in a state of subjugation and oppression. At
first came the struggle for freedom of thought, of creativity.
This grew into the demand for civil and political freedom,
freedom of private initiative and social activity in general.

As a result of the bourgeois revolutions that followed, the

owners of capital acquired every privilege, and also political
power. The noble demand that had been inscribed on the
banners of the bourgeois revolutions—liberty, equality and
fraternity—turned out to mean an abundance of privileges for
some and oppression for others. Individualism blossomed forth,
an individualism in which everybody considered himself the
hub of the universe and his own existence and prosperity more
important than anyone else's. People set themselves up in
opposition to other people and to society as a whole. Such
mutual alienation is a disease that corrupts the social whole.
The life of another person, even one's nearest, becomes no more
than a temporary show, a passing cloud. The growing
bureaucracy, utilitarianism and technologism in culture
considerably narrow the opportunities for human individuality
to express and develop itself. The individual becomes an
insignificant cog in the gigantic machine controlled by capital.
Alienation makes itself felt with particular force.

What is alienation? It is the conversion of the results of

physical and intellectual activity into forces that get out of
human control and, having gained the whip hand, strike back at
their own creators, the people. It is a kind of jinn that people
summon to their aid and then find themselves unable to cope
with. Thus, the state which arose in slave society, became a
force that oppressed the mass of the people, an apparatus of
coercion by one class over another. The science that people
venerate, that brings social progress and is in itself the
expression of this progress, becomes in its material embodiment
a lethal force that threatens all mankind. How much has man
created that exerts a terrible pressure on his health, his mind and
his willpower! These supra-personal forces, which are the
product of people's joint social activity and oppress them, are
the phenomenon known as alienation.

The thinkers of the past, who were truly dedicated to the idea
of benefiting the working folk, pointed out the dangers of a
system governed by the forces of alienation, a system in which
some people live at the expense of other people's labour, where
human dignity is flouted and man's physical and intellectual
powers drained by exploitation.

The individual is free where he not only serves as a means of

achieving the goals of the ruling class and its party but is
himself the chief goal of society, the object of all its plans and
provisions. The main condition for the liberation of the
individual is the abolition of exploitation of one individual by
another, of hunger and poverty, and the reassertion of man's
sense of dignity. This was the kind of society of which the
utopian socialists and the founders of scientific socialism
dreamed. In contrast to bourgeois individualism, socialist
collectivism starts off from the interests of the individual— not
just the chosen few but all genuine working people. Socialism
everywhere requires striking, gifted personalities with plenty of
initiative. A person with a sense of perspective is the highest
ideal of the creative activity of the socialist society.
A philosophy is often defined as the foundation upon which
knowledge is based. However, when you break apart the
actual word, a much different meaning emerges. Derived
from the Greek “philos,” which means love, and “sophos,”
which means “wisdom,” the actual meaning of the word
philosophy is “love of wisdom” (Johnson et. al., 2011). In this
chapter, we will explore how traditional philosophies have
evolved over time by briefly looking at three key branches of
philosophy. Then, the schools of philosophy and their
influence on education will be presented. Finally, you will
hear from educators in the field and see how they put their
“philosophies” of education into practice.

SECTION I: SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

4.1 Essential Questions

At the end of tis section, the following essential questions will be
answered:

1. What are the four main schools of philosophy?

2. Who were the key philosophers within each school of
philosophy?
3. What are the key implications of each school of philosophy on
education today?

There are four broad schools of thought that reflect the key
philosophies of education that we know today. These
schools of thought are: Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, and
Existentialism.
It is important to note that idealism and realism, otherwise
known as general or world philosophies, have their roots in
the work of the ancient Greek philosophers: Plato and
Aristotle. Whereas pragmatism and existentialism are much
more contemporary schools of thought.
IDEALISM

Idealism is a school of philosophy that emphasizes that

“ideas or concepts are the essence of all that is worth know-
ing” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 87). Based on the writings of
Plato, this school of philosophy encourages conscious
reason- ing in the mind. Furthermore, idealists look for, and
value, universal or absolute truths and ideas. Consequently,
idealists believe that ideas should remain constant
throughout the centuries.

Key Philosophers

Plato (ca. 427 – ca. 347 BCE):

Plato believed that truth was the

central reality. However, Plato did not believe that people
created knowledge, instead they “discovered it” (Johnson
et. al., 2011). In his book, The Republic, Plato talked about
two worlds: the spiritual or mental world and the world of
appearance. Reacting against what he perceived as too
much of a fo- cus on the physical and sensory world, Plato
called for education to “develop in the body and the soul of
the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection he is capable
of.” (Cohen, 1999, p. 1). In addition, to understand truth,
Plato believed you must first understand knowledge.

Socrates (ca. 470 – ca. 399 BCE):

Socrates’ work is only known through the works of Plato.

Plato observed Socrates questioning a

slave boy to help him understand what he knew about a
specific concept. This questioning technique became known
as the Socratic Method and was explored in-depth in
chapter one. When applied in classrooms, the Socratic
method actively engages students in the learning process,
improves understanding, and promotes higher-order
thinking.

Kant (1724 – 1804):

Immanuel Kant was a German

philosopher who believed in “freedom, the immortality of the
soul, and the existence of God” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 88).
He added valuable information about the important role of
reason and its’ contributions to knowledge. According to his
research, it is only through reason that we gain knowledge
of and understand the world in which we live.

Educational Implications of Idealism

 Within an idealist educational philosophy, the curricular
focus is on ideas rather than the student or specific content
areas. Learning is also intrinsically motivated. Teaching
methods used within idealism include: lecture, discussion,
and Socratic dialogue. Essential to these teaching methods
is posing questions that generate thoughts and spark
connections. Paul (n/d) suggests the following six types of
Socratic questions:

 Questions for clarification

o How does this relate to our discussion?
 Questions that probe assumptions
o What could we assume instead?

 Questions that probe reasons and evidence

o What would be an example?
 Questions about viewpoints and perspectives
o What is another way to look at it?
 Questions that probe implications and consequences
o What are the consequences of that assumption?
 Questions about the question
o What was the point of this question?

REALISM

Realism is a school of philosophy with origins in the work of

Aristotle. This philosophy emphasizes that “reality,
knowledge, and value exist independent of the human mind”
(Johnson, 2011, p. 89). Realists argue for the use of the
senses and scientific investigation in order to discover truth.
The application of the scientific method also allows
individuals to classify things into different groups based on
their essential differences.

Key Philosophers

Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE):

Aristotle is known as the father of realism and the Scientific

Method. His pragmatic approach to under

standing an object, by
understanding is form, is an example of how he investigated
matter. To understand this concept, consider the following
example: A plant can exist without being physically present,
but it still shares properties with all other plants (form).
Finally, Aristotle was the “first to teach logic as a discipline
in order to be able to reason about physical events and
aspects” (Cohen, 1999, p. 1).

Locke (1632 – 1704):

John Locke believed in the tabula rosa, or blank tablet, view

of the mind. According to this view, a child’s mind is a blank
slate when they are born. All the sensory experiences they
have after birth fill up the slate through the impressions that
are made upon the mind.
 Educational Implications of Realism

Within a realist educational philosophy, the curricular focus

is on scientific research and development. Outcomes of this
thinking in classrooms today include the appearance of
standardized tests, serialized textbooks, and specialized
curriculum (Johnson et. al., 2011). Teaching methods used
in realism include:

 Demonstration
 Recitation
 Critical thinking
 Observation
 Experimentation

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism is “a process philosophy that stresses evolving

and change rather than being” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 91).
In other words, pragmatists believe that reality is constantly
changing so we learn best through experience.
According to pragmatists, the learner is constantly
conversing and being changed by the environment with
whom he or she is interacting. There is “no absolute and
unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works” (Cohen,
1999, p.1). Based on what is learned at any point and time,
the learner or the world in which he or she is interacting can
be changed.

Key Philosophers

Peirce (1839 – 1914):

Charles Sanders Peirce is one of the first pragmatic

thinkers. He introduced the pragmatic method in which
students are supplied a procedure for constructing and
clarifying meanings. In addition, this system helps to
facilitate communication among students.

Dewey (1859 – 1952):

John Dewey linked pragmatism to evolution

by explaining that “human beings are creatures who
have to adapt to one another and to their environment”
(Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Therefore, learners within the
classroom need to adapt to one another and their learning
community.
 Educational Implications of Pragmatism

A pragmatist educational philosophy calls for teachers who

can support students learning by promoting questioning and
problem-solving during the natural course of lesson delivery.
The curriculum is also interdisciplinary. Teaching methods
used in pragmatism include:

 Hands-on problem solving

 Experimenting
 Projects
 Cooperative Learning

EXISTENTIALISM

Existentialism is a school of philosophy that “focuses on

the importance of the individual rather than on external
standards” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Existentialists
believe that our reality is made up of nothing more than our
lived experiences, therefore our final realities reside within
each of us as individuals. As such, the physical world has
no real meaning outside our human experience.

Key Philosophers
Kierkegaard (1813-1855):

Soren Kierkegaard was a Danish minister and philosopher.

He is considered to be the founder of existentialism.

Nietzsche (1844-1900):

Friedrich Nietzcshe stressed the importance of the

individuality of each person. According to Johnson et. al.
(2011), his work provided a “strategy to liberate people from
the oppression of feeling inferior within themselves, and a
teaching of how not to judge what one is in relation to what
one should be” (p. 95).

Educational Implications of Existentialism

Within an existentialist classroom, the subject matter

should be a matter of personal choice as each student is
viewed as an individual by the teacher. Furthermore,
answers come from within the individual in an existential
classroom, not from the teacher.

By examining students lives through authentic thinking,

students are actively involved in the learning experience.
Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as
objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. “Such
educators want the educational experience to focus on
creating opportunities for self-direction and self-
actualization” (Cohen, 1999, p. 1). Therefore, they start with
the student, rather than the curriculum.

4.2 A Closer Look

Consider the information presented in the following video by Sir
Ken Robinson on Changing Education Paradigms. As you watch
the video, ask yourself how you can apply the information you
learned in this section to the content shared by Sir Ken Robinson.

SECTION II: DEFINING YOUR OWN

PHILOSOPHY

4.3 Essential Questions

At the end of this section, the following essential questions will be
answered:

1. What is a philosophy?
2. What elements do you consider to be most important to include
in your philosophy of education?
3. Think about the elements identified in this section, do you think
all of them are essential to include when writing a philosophy of
education? Why or why not?
 It’s all in how you look at things…..

As discussed in section one, there are several key schools

of thought that reflect key philosophies of education. In this
section, we are going to look at the “definition” of a
philosophy. We will also explore the importance of defining
your own education philosophy as a future teacher. Finally,
we will identify essential elements that should be
considered when writing your educational philosophy.

WHAT IS A PHILOSOPHY?

When asked to think about the following question, what

comes to mind: What is a Philosophy?
Common responses include:

What is a philosophy?

• A set of beliefs

• A personal platform

• Our personal thoughts

A philosophy is indeed all of these things, and so much

more! According to the New Oxford American Dictionary
(2005), a philosophy is “the study of the fundamental nature
of knowl- edge, reality, and existence” (p. 1278).

When it comes to our educational philosophy, Webb et. al.

(2010) state that our “philosophy of education enables us to
recognize certain educational principles that define our
views about the learner, the teacher, and the school” (p. 50).
As such, it critical to determine what school of thought you
most align to as this will shape the way you see the
students, curriculum and educational setting.

ARTICULATING YOUR PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Key Considerations

When articulating your philosophy of education, it is

essential to reflect on the multiple dimension of teaching
that would impact your philosophy. As demonstrated by the
diagram, there are a lot of factors to consider. Take a
moment to reflect on the diagram, are there any elements
you feel are more important than the others? Are there
elements missing that you would include? If so, what are
they and why do you feel they are important?

When approaching the writing of your philosophy of

education, we recommend using the following key elements
to ensure that your philosophy of education is well thought
out and supported, no matter which school of thought it is
based upon.

1. PURPOSE OF TEACHING
o Why do you teach?
o Why have you chosen to teach elementary, secondary, or
a particular content area?
o What are your values as a teacher?
2. FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION


o What philosophy of education do you MOST align with
and why (revisit Ch. 4 – Ch. 9 of your iBook)?
o How has education changed historically in the last 50/60
years (revisit Ch. 2 & Ch. 3 of
your iBook)?
o What impact have movements like the civil rights had on
schools (revisit Ch. 2 of your iBook)?


o How have educational policies like NCLB and the
standardized testing movement impacted educators and
instructional decisions/programming?
o In what ways has the increased diversity in our
educational settings impacted the need for teachers to
be prepared to address the needs of linguistically and
culturally diverse students in their classrooms now
more than ever before?

3. UNDERSTANDING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING


o What approaches, methods, pedagogy do you use and
why and how are these influenced by the philosophy you
MOST aligned with (revisit Ch. 4 – Ch. 9 of your iBook)?
o Which elements of effective instruction do you think are
most important to apply to support ALL students
learning?
o What strategies do you apply to actively engage ALL
your students throughout the lesson?
o How do you motivate your students to learn?
o How do you motivate yourself to be the teacher your
students need you to be?

4. CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

o How do you create a community of learners (revisit Ch. 1
of your iBook)?
o What is your “code of conduct” (revisit Ch. 1 of your
iBook)?
o How do you engage students to limit disruptions and
time off task?
o If disruptions do occur, what do you do?

5. INCLUSIVENESS

o Do you understand your own bias and how this impacts
your teaching (revisit Ch. 2 of
your iBook)?
o How are you effective with ALL students (revisit Ch. 2 of
your iBook)?
o How do you create a culturally responsive class room
environment (revisit Ch. 1 of your iBook)?
o How do you teach UNCONDITIONALLY so that all your
students get the best education possible and you
demonstrate respect for the customs and beliefs of the
diverse student groups represented in your classroom?
o What specific strategies do you use to support diverse
learners?
o In what ways do you act as an advocate for your
students, their families, and the community?

Take a moment to reflect on all the information you read

about educational philosophies.
Your challenge is to write at least a one-page, single-
spaced philosophy of education paper that summarizes your
current philosophy of education.

SECTION III: THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDENT

VOICES

4.4 Essential Questions

By the end of this section, the following essential questions will be
answered.

1. What can we learn from student voices?

2. What insights might you gain from the student quotes?
3. What did you learn from watching the video clips?
4. What links did you make between the what the speakers shared
in the video clips and the different schools of thought discussed
in this chapter?

To best understand the power of an educational philosophy

in practice, this section is going to provide you with two
different sets of evidence. The first set of evidence comes
from KSU students. The second set comes from a student
and two educators in the field. As you read and listen to the
 information being shared, please reflect on the questions to
consider. Although you do not need to document your
responses to each of the questions, they have been provided
to help you critical reflect on the information being
presented.
4.5 Student Voices

 “My philosophical belief is that I want to prepare my children,

not for the next grade or college; but for their future in society
through tools learned in the classroom.” ASU16
 “I feel that after studying several popular philosophies of
education my personal philosophy is a medley of all of them,
making it completely mine.” DP U16
 “Every experience I have impacts the way I look at the world
and I will continue to strive to keep my teaching the same while
as the same time adapting to the needs of my students.” MLU16

4.6 A Closer Look

The following video provides and more in-depth look the importance
of having a solid philosophy of education from a student’s point of
view. As you watch this video, consider the following questions:

1. What insights did you gain from the video?

2. Based on the information shared, what school of thought(s) do
you think influenced prior educational experiences of this
student?
3. What school of thought do you think this student is advocating
for in the future? Why?

As demonstrated in the student voices, and video by Adora

Avitak, being able to articulate your philosophy of education
is essential as a future educator. For your philosophy of
education shapes your delivery of academic content, but
more importantly guides your beliefs when it comes to
working with students. To learn more about the importance
of how educators view students, let’s watch Rita Pierson.
4.7 A Closer Look
As you listen to Rita Pierson, consider the following questions:
 1. What insights did you gain from the video?
2. Based on the information shared, what school of thought(s) do
you think influence this teacher?
3. How might you apply what you learned from Rita Pierson to your
own future practice?

Rita Pierson is such a powerful educator and advocate for

students. I hope you learned a lot from her TedTalk! As we
wrap up this chapter, I leave you with one final question:
How will you be a champion for your future students?!

Media Attributions

 Socrates Aristotle Shakespeare Flintstone © esmemes

 Plato Quote © TraumaAndDissociation
 Socrates Quote © obscuredreamer
 Kant Quote © Butrous Foundation
 Socratic Circle © Samantha Bush
 Aristotle Quote © Mountaingoat Seventeen
 Standardized Test © Alberto G.
 Pragmatism Pic © Kristian Bjornard
 Dewey Quote © PetiteFamily93
 Existentialist Snoopy © Rob S
 Kierkegaard Quote © Max Lagace
 Nietzcshe Quote © SnD Quotes
 Glass half full © Geralt
 Thinking © GlobalUppal
 My Philosophy of Education © Kelsey F. Hawkins
 Brainstorm