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Radiography
Dr. Pujitha
What are X-rays 2
X-rays are a part of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelength in the range of 10-8 to 10-10 m
Soft x-rays 10-8 to 10-9, hard x-rays10-9 to 10-10
E=hν, E=hc/λ
Lower wavelength → high energy
Properties of X-rays 3
Type of X-rays
deceleration of electrons when they collide with atoms of the target
material produces X-rays of many wavelengths. This is called as high voltage
'white' radiation, or continuous or bremsstrahlung radiation
The collision can knock of electron from inner shell and when an high Low voltage
energy electron falls back to its original orbital position, the energy
release will be emitted as radiation at a specific frequency also
called as characteristic x-ray
quantity (intensity of radiation) quality (how penetrating radiation)
High Tube current
Parameters Filament current(changes rate of thermionic emission),
The tube voltage(changes penetrating power and energy), tube Low Tube current
current (flow of electrons related to filament temperature)
Attenuation 8
of Radiation
Properties of X-rays
Compton scattering
Compton scattering is an interaction in which an incident photon causes an orbital
electron to be ejected from an atom.
Only a portion of the photon energy is used for this purpose and the photon emerges at
so me scatter angle with a lower energy, that is, of a longer wavelength.
This longer wavelength may be in the visible sector of the electro-magnetic spectrum.
Interaction continued 12
Pair production
Pair production can occur if the incident photon energies exceed 1
MeV
Two lower-energy photons of scattered radiation are emitted for each
high-energy photon absorbed
hv = mo+ c2 + mo- c2 + K.E
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering is an interaction in which a photon is deflected
without any loss of photon energy or release of electrons.
The angle of deflection is high for low-energy photons and low for high-
energy photons.
Not useful for radiography
Principles of image formation 13
The same principles of shadow formation that apply to visible light transmission are applicable
to radiographic shadow formation.
Parameters effecting the image are physical size of the source, the distance between the
source and sample, and the distance between the sample and film
The quality and sharpness of radiographs will be greatly improved as the following ideal
conditions are approached.
The focal spot should be as small as possible; ideally it should be a point source.
The radiographic source should be as far away from the sample as possible while still obtaining
adequate penetration.
The X-ray film should be as close as possible to the sample being radiographed.
Source rays should be perpendicular to the film surface.
The plane of the sample and the plane of the film should be parallel.
Image formation 14
of X-ray film
Photographic density (D)
D=log Bo/BT , Bo intensity of incident, X-rays
BT intensity of transmitted beam
Exposure (E) is intensity * exposure time
E=I*t
D preferable range 1.5-3.3
For example D=1 this indicates the
transmission of around 10% beam
Radiographic contrast (Cs) density
difference between two regions
Cs=D1-D2, = log Bo/B1 - Bo/B2 = log B2/B1
Cs 0.2 is needed
Characteristics/properties of X-ray 17
film
Film gradient/gamma (G)
Slope of the straight line portion of film
characteristic curve
High gradient better visibility of features
G = D1-D2 / (log E1- log E2)
For same time of exposure
G = D1-D2 / (log I1/I2) also G =Cs/ log I1/I2
Film Latitude
Range of log relative exposure producing
density within acceptable range
Contrast/gradient is inversely proportional
to latitude
Previous class 18
screens
Photographic density-characteristic s shape curve
Radiographic contrast
Film gradient
Film latitude
Characteristics/properties of X-ray film 19
Film speed
Reciprocal of exposure required to
produce density of 1.0 above base+fog
Graininess
AgBr is a granular material. The grainsize
effects the exposure time and resolution
ability
Issue with AgBr clustering, fine grain size is
required
Intensifying screens 20
source
can be enlarged, distorted, overlap, unsharpenss
Geometric unsharpness (Ug)Primarily happens due to focal spot size, if you finite
size source it acts as multiple sources. Boundary can be visible as diffused
boundary
degree of geometric unsharpness, can be reduced by reducing the size of the
source of radiation, by reducing the object to film distance, or by increasing the
source to object distance.
The intensity of radiation at any point diminishes as the distance from the source
increases, according to the inverse square law. This can be written as IL2 =
constant, where I is the intensity and L is the distance from the source
Tube current inversely proportional to time reciprocity law
i1t1/l12 = i2t2/l22
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Flaw image contrast 26
radiography
limitations
Uses film Film handling, Developing, Storage – pulling out old images difficult
Digital radiography no need of films to capture images
The output x-ray signals will be captured by a detector and converted into
electrical signals- These electrical signal converts to digital signal and forms
digital image
Can modify things when needed, once stored in digital form
Conventional radiography is in static mode and negative image is obtained
Digital radiography dynamic mode- image can me modulated during
radiation – positive image is obtained
Digital Radiography 31
digital radiographic images are captured using either special Flat panel detectors
phosphor screens or flat panels containing micro-electronic sensor
No darkroom is needed to process film, and captured images can
be digitally enhanced for increased detail.
There are a number of forms of digital radiographic imaging
including:
Computed Radiography (CR)
Real-time Radiography (RTR)
Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)
Computed Tomography (CT)
Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital imaging process that uses
a special imaging plate which employs storage phosphors.
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Computed Radiography
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Computed Radiography….
As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is emitted where X-rays stimulated the
phosphor during exposure. The light is then converted to a digital value.
Laser Beam
A/D
Converter
Imaging
Plate 110010010010110
Motor
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Computed Radiography
Digital images are typically sent to a computer
workstation where specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.
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Basics 37
38
Direct digital Radiography
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No cassettes reading or film development is
required
Signals from X-ray receptors are directly send
to computer for image reconstruction
Minimal work is required by technician
Has flat panel detectors or charge coupled
devices connected to computer through
wires
Image is available within seconds of capture
Readout process
40
Viewing the internal structure of the part from different angular perspectives
can provide additional data for analysis.
X-ray tube
Image intensifier or other real-time detector
Camera
Computer with frame grabber board and software
Monitor
7
9
Real-Time Radiography….
•The image intensifier is a device that
converts the radiation that passes
through the specimen into light.
•It uses materials that fluoresce when
struck by radiation.
•The more radiation that reaches
the input screen, the more light
that is given off.
•The image is very faint on the input
screen so it is intensified onto a
small screen inside the intensifier
where the image is viewed with a
camera.
80
Real-Time Radiography….
•A special camera which • A monitor is then connected to
captures the light output the camera to provide a
of the screen is located viewable image.
near the image
intensifying screen. • If a sample positioning system is
employed, the part can be
•The camera is very moved around and rotated to
sensitive to a variety of image different internal features
different light intensities. of the part.
81
Real-Time Radiography….
Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography
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Radiographic Images
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48
Radiation safety 49
Thick wall
Pb lined walls
Radiation going out of
room should be zero
Red light
Amount of exposure in
human working with
radiation