CHAPTER 6 HARDWARE COMPONENTS FOR AUTOMATION AND PROCESS CONTROL y @ ( wit SS Y L) —ZT, a SENSORS Asensor is a device used to measure a property, such as pressure, position, temperature, or acceleration, and respond with feedback. A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical stimulus from one form into a more useful form to measure the stimulus. Sensor categories by stimulus Stimulus Example ] Mechanical Positional variables, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, pressure, stress, strain, mass, density Electrical Voltage, current, charge, resistance, conductivity, capacitance Thermal Temperature, heat, heat flow, thermal conductivity, specific heat Radiation ‘Type of radiation (e.g. gamma rays, x-rays, visible light), intensity, wavelength Magnetic Magnetic field, flux, conductivity, permeability ‘Chemical ‘Component identities, concentration, pH levels, presence of toxic ingredients, pollutants xO Oo a~ SENSORS Sensors are classified as analog or discrete. An analog sensor Produces a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage, whose value varies in an Analogous manner with the variable being measured, Examples are thermocouples, strain Gages, and potentiometers. Adiscrete sensor produces an output that can have only certain values. Discrete Sensors are often divided into two categories: binary and digital. Binary sensor produces An on/off signal. A digital sensor produces a digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel status bits or as a series of pulses that can be counted. “YD &Y (VY — Common SENSORES ~' Accelerometer Analog device used to measure vibration and shock. Can be based on various.Physical phenomena (e.G., Capacitive, piezoresistive, piezoelectric) Ammeter Analog device that measures the strength of an electrical current. > TTT] —Z — A 7 . COMMON SENSORES BIMETALLIC SWITCH Binary switch that uses a bimetallic coil to open and close electrical contact as.A result of temperature change. A bimetallic coil consists of tw. Bimetallic thermometer Analog temperature-measuring device consisting of bimetallic coil that changes shape in response to temperature change.Shape change of coil can be calibrated to indicate temperature.J - ~ COMMON SENSORES Dynamometer Analog device used to measure force, power, or torque. Can be based on various physical phenomena (e.G., Strain gage, piezoelectric effect). Float transducer Float attached to lever arm. Pivoting movement of lever arm can be used to measure liquid level in vessel (analog device) or to activate contact switch(binary device). =—. —€omMON SENSORES YO Fluid flow sensor Analog measurement of liquid flow rate, usually based on pressure difference between flow in two pipes of different diameter. Fluid flow switch Binary switch similar to limit switch but activated by increase in fluid pressure rather than by contacting object.—Z, nn ~AZOMMON SENSORES ~ Limit switch Binary contact sensor in which lever arm or pushbutton closes (or opens) an electrical contact. Linear encoder Digital device used to measure linear position and/or speed using a transducer that reads a stationary linear scale indicating position. Linear variable differential transformer Analog position sensor consisting of primary coil opposite two secondary coils separated by a magnetic core. When primaty coil is energized, induced voltage in secondary coil is, function of core position. Can also be adapted to measure force or pressure.VY — COMMON SENSORES Manometer Analog device used to measure pressure of gas or liquid. It is based on comparison of known and unknown pressure forces. A barometer is a specific type of manometer used to measure atmospheric pressure. Ohmmeter Analog device that measures electrical resistance. Photoelectric sensory array Digital sensor consisting of linear series of photoelectric switches. Array is designed to indicate height or size of objectsZF, a __COMMON SENSORES © Photoelectric switch ~ Binary noncontact sensor (switch) consisting of emitter (light source) and receiver (photocell) triggered by interruption of light beam. Photometer Analog sensor that measures illumination and light intensity. Piezoelectric transducer Analog device based on piezoelectric effect of certain materials in which an electric charge is produced when the material is deformed, Can be used to measure force, pressure, and acceleration. Force > t 0) py Output % Electrodes <“ oon J thowe COMMON SENSORES YU © Potentiometer: Analog position sensor consisting of resistor and contact slider. Position of slider on resistor determines measured resistance. WN Rotary potentiometer ‘construction Wiper @ Resistive strip SEVY — COMMON SENSORES Proximity switch Binary noncontact sensor is triggered when nearby object induces changes in electromagnetic field. Radiation pyrometer Analog temperature-measuring device that senses electromagnetic radiation. Resistance-temperature detector Analog temperature- measuring device based on increase in electrical resistance of a metallic material as temperature increasesZF, a Aounon SENSORES Strain gauge Widely used analog sensor to measure force, torque, or pressure. Tachometer Analog device consisting of DC generator that produces an electrical voltage proportional to rotational speed. Tactile sensor Measuring device that indicates physical contact between two objects. mn—. As PUT/OUTPUT RELATION OF SENSORS S=f(s) Where S = output signal; s = stimulus; and f(s) = functional relationship for binary sensors: S = 1 ifs >O and S=0ifs<0. The ideal functional form for an analogue measuring device is a simple proportional relationship, such as: Where C = output value at a stimulus value of zero and m = constant of proportionality (sensitivity)—,. ~ ACTUATORS ne Actuators: Are hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a change in a physical parameter. = The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity) = An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into some alternative form (e.g. electric current to rotational speed of electric motor). oe YS—,. ~~ TYPES OF ACTUATORS ty Electrical actuators = Electric motors (linear or rotational) = DC servomotors = AC motors = Stepper motors = Solenoids = Relay Hydraulic actuators = Use hydraulic fluid as the driving force Pneumatic actuators = Use compressed air as the driving force aJ ~ pet ELECTRIC MOTORS—_Z. DC MOTORS = DC motors are widely used: = Convenience of using direct current. = E.g. motors in automobiles. = Linear Torque-Speed relationship = One special type of DC motors is Servomotors. = A feedback back loop is used to control speed.UO _~ AC MOTORS = Most used in industry. = Advantages: = Higher power supply = Ease of maintenance = Two types: = Induction motor = Synchronous motorZT, a STEPPER MOTORS = = Provides rotation in the form of discrete angular displacement (step angles) = Each step angle is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse. = Are used in open loop control systems. pa ‘ames uy )ZT, a » STEPPER MOTORS 6 Step angle is given by:: a = —— n, where n, is the number of steps for the stepper motor (integer) Total angle through which the motor rotates (A,)is gen by: A, = 1.0% ng Mp where n,= numberof pulses received by the motor. 2a, Angular velocity is given by: @ where /,= pulse frequency Speed of rotation is given by: N=ZT, a Oo ~ HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS ae = Powered by pressurized fluid. = Oil for hydraulic systems = Compressed air for pneumatic systems—_. J HYDRAULIC AND P} Sen Baul Fluid eee) oll EUMATIC ACTU Por Compressed Air Compressibilty| Incompressible Compressible Pressure level 20 MPa 0.7 MPa Applied force High Low ‘Actuation speed Low High Speed control Accurate speed control Difficult to control speed Fluid leaks Safety hazard No problem Cost High Low’ ATORSVY — _” OTHER ACTUATORS = Solenoids: a movable plunger inside a stationary wire coil = Used to open and close valves in fluid flow systems, e.g., chemical processing equipment7, - OTHER ACTUATORS = Electromechanical relays: is an on-off electrical switch. = Operated by low current levels. Hence, safer to use.—Z, J of ~ ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION A = Thee steps 1. Sampling — converts the continuous signal into a series of discrete analog signals at periodic intervals 2. Quantization - each discrete analog is converted into. one of a finite number of (previously defined) discrete amplitude levels 3, Encoding — discrete amplitude levels are converted into digital code Variab Aglare Signal Discret Variabl a Syad Y FEATURES OF AN ADC = Sampling rate — rate at which continuous analog signal is polled e.g. 1000 samples/sec = Resolution — depends on number of quantization levels = Conversion time — how long it takes to convert the sampled signal to digital code = Conversion method ~ means by which analog signal is encoded into digital equivalent—. ee i ~ DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION ne = Convert digital values into continuous analogue signal = Two steps: Decoding, and Data Holding = Decoding: convert the digital output into a series of analog (discrete) values. = Data Holding: fit an envelop for the discrete analog values.