■ EOITORS: C N CANDLES 8 G WIOOOWSOS ■

■ A SCHEME FOR TEACHER EDUCATION ■

MARTIN BYGA E
 Great OnreriJon Sae«, Ozfo/J OX2 6DP

Delhi Hong itong Istnnbul Karachi Kolkata iiuala Lumpur Stadfid

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Tokyo Toronai

ISBN 0 19 437J34 4
0 OJocd Un*ersiry Press 19B7
Fire pubhshed Jg07

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Typcect in Bristol by Jwcm Typcmting Ltd.

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permñ siow in reproduce material thai falls within their copyright:
The author for tftree euincts from Orinietsoiioel .fi'te.
A efyztrig ’¥‹ztk Among friends 119&II by Debomli Tannen.
Cambridge University Press for five dialogues and a figure from Countsnicotine

lfieihuen and Go. lid. for five extracts from The Birthday Party t1960, mwi«€
1965a by Ilzruld Pintcr.
fiFFA’NeLson Publishing Company Ltd. for a hgtiro from 5i»nWio»s fT0?'?T
fiyD.HeAnxndG.Stunhdgu
 Contents

The author and xeriet editors

Intmduction
vii

Section Oae: Uodcrszanding speaking

1 I Kn bed d sLi\l
1.2 Oral skiI]s and interaction $

Dlflcrtnms betwmn sj<nch and writing

Introduction
2.2 Protesting conditions ofs thand writin
2.3 RNprocity erudition ofs ecth and writin

i Production skills
3. l Introducfion
3.2 Fzciliiation
Compensation

Interaction skills
4.1 Introduction

4.S Management of interaction

S Learner strate es nf contttiutiication

5.2 Achievement
5e s3t Red cji a

A checklist nf skills
 Scctiozt Two: Tbc mecbodplo
7 fntrcduccion

ical obiechves

8.2 Rivers and Tern

8 3 Linlewood's view 61

9.4 Intemctionactivities: Riven and Terri

IO 76

t0.2 I»Jouo«tion- 76
78

10.5 Proiect•basod interaction activities

12 Interaction skills in oral language methodology 93

l2 1lntmdiiction 91
12.2 Accuraand interaction in thecurriculum
t2.3 Integrating accuracy andinteraction skills 94
t2.4 Ct«ssn>om organization and oral skills 96
 103

14 Exploring aspects of oral methudoloby 107

I 4.1 Exploring oral lznguage I
14.2 Exploring oral inrcr action activities P7
14.3 Exploring oral interaction and learners' lever 105

14.4 Explnringleamers'perceptions nf anivities I t2

14.5 Exploring learners' nral language needs I t3

Glossa
Fu‹therrcaéin
lt9
Tn‹lw 1 **
The author and series editors

Martin Bygate is a graduate of the University of Leicester, where he

read Finch. He holds an MA in Lin lnHM from the Universiy of
Manchester and a Ph.O from the University of London Institute of
Education. He has worked as a teacher•traintr in a number of
countries including France, Moroccn, Brazil, Spain, and Italy, and at the
University of Reading, and currently lectures ui the School of
Education, University of Leeds. His professional interests include
second language acquisition, oral bond I«nguqp development, and tasks
for )Gnguagc learning and teaching. He ii also Co-editor of Applied
Linguistics Journal.
Christopher N. Cendlin is Chair Professor of Applied Linguistics and
Director of the centre for English Language Education and
Communication Research at Oil Cir Univcrsiy of I-tong Kong. His pre-
vious post was as Professor of Linguistics in the School of English,
Linguistics, and Media, and Executive Director of the National Centre
for English Language Teaching and Research at Macquarie University,
$ydney, hAving earlier been Profmsor of Applied Linguistics and Director
of the Cenwe for Language in Social Life at the University of Lancaster.
He uho co•founded and directed the Institute for English Language
Education at Lancaster, where he focused on issues in in-service
educa- tion for teachers znd teacher professional development.
Henry Widdowsun, previously Professor of English for Speakers of Other
Language at the University of Lnndon Institute of Education, and
Proftssar of Applied Linguistics at the University of Essex, is Professor
of English Linguistics zi the University pf Vienna, He was previously
Lecturer in Applied Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh, and
has also worked at an English Language Officer for The British Council
in Sri I-o ka end Bangladesh.
Through work with The British Council, The Council of Europe, and
other agencies, both Editors have had extensive and varied experience
of language teaching, teacher education, and curriculum development
overseas, and both cnntributt to seminars, conferences, and
professional journals.
Introduction

Speaking
Development in language teschiag most depend penry on our ability la
undcrsond the effect of out methodology. Usually nsponiibility
for evaluanng language-learning test is leh to be specialist
researchers, catetids writers, and mnhodo!ogists. However, an
alternative view would be thzt — given the difficulties in obtaining,
genemlizing and com- municating research rmults, as well as tht fact
@at in any case sophisti- cated ceschin8 depends very largely on
teachers" self-critical awareness — the faults Of 6 CiAli6t r08carCh caa have
only ltmtttd rclcvalfcc: dte fftost important single factor is the ttachtrs’ own
understanding of the efktts of their decisions. It is therefore wonh
infusing on the ciassronm effects of language-learning tasks. This is the
approach adopted in this benk.

Speaking is in much ways an und»rva1tted skill. Perhaps this is because

we can elmost all speak, and sn take the tlul1 too much for grants
S King is often thought of as a ‘popular’ form of expression which
uses the unprestigious ‘colloquial’ register: literary skills are on the whole

mnre
Speeding ii, however, a skill which deserves attention every bjt as
much as literary skills, in both £rst and second languages. Our learners
often mend to b< able to speak with confidmce in order to carry out many
of their most basic wannctions. It is its skill by which they are most
frequently judg‹›d, and through which they may make or lose kiends.
It is the vehicle par excellence of secial mtidarity, of sncial ranking, of
pcufcssionat advance- ment and of businen. It is also a medium through
which much language is learnt, and which for many is particularly
conducive lot learning. Perhaps, then, the teaching of speaking meritn
more thought.
Tk« aira of this book is to oudine some ways in which we zrtay b« able to
get a bm«r understanding ol how our learners learn to speck a foreign
lsn gc ihmugh the various tasks which can be made available to
them. The book is in three parts. In the fint part we consider some of
the things
that uc involved in the apparently simple iask of speaking to xnmcone.
ln the second part wt review some of the principal types of activities
and exercises used to reach speaking. In the final pan of die book we
outline ways in which the teacher can explore what learners do
zndwhatthey team through oral classroom activitiw In cach part of the
book the reader- teacher is invited to check tlir srgumcnt by means ctf
smell actixirics or by obsccving what his or her lcantezs do in various
tasks.
Many ptople hHvC COniributcd directly or indirectly to the writing of
‹his book. Th«y include notably the English stall and suid«nts of ‹kc
Languages Department at the Federal University ef Santa Catarina, Brazil;
Peter Hill and Peter Skchan at the University of Landon Institute of
Education; CriGtina Whitccrnss and Simon Murison-Bewic of Oxford
University Prost; Chris Candlin and Henry Widdowson, who have of
course Uh a d•sp tuft i•nr• rim be substance and shape of the book, and
last but most enduringly my wife Anne. To art I express my appreciation,
and
my apologies for any inadequacies.
SECTIO1'4 ONE

Understanding speaking
1 Spealcing as a stdtt

1.1 Knowledge and skill

One of the bzsic problems in forcign•language teaching is tn
prepare learner to be able to use the language. How this preparation is
done, and how successful it is, depends very such on how we as teachers
understand our aims. For instance, it is obvious that in order to br zble
to speak a
foreign laftgua it fs necessary to know a ctrtafn 8rnouflt of gramM0r and
vocabulary. Part of a language caurse is therefore generally dtvnted to this
objective. Bui there arc other things involved in speaking, and it is
important to know wkat these might be, so that they too can beincluded
in out teaching.
for instance, io test whether learners can speak, it is necessary to gn ihem
to actually ssh mmcthing. To do this they must in on a inowledy
of grammar and vocabulary. By giving learners 'speaking practice’ and
‘oral exams" we remgnize that there is a difference benv‹sn lnou'fcdgc
about e language, and slimin using in This distinction between knowledge
and skill is crucial in ihe teachin8 of speuking.

In a way, the job we do when wt speak is similar. We do not meuly

hon' how in assemble sentences in the abstract: we have tn produce
them and adapt them to the circumstances. This means making
decisions rapidly, implemenong them smoothlr, and adjusting out
coaversanon ai unex• peeled problems appear in our path.
 • TASK 1
Knowledge iutlf ie not enou@: knowledge has to be t d in action,
Thie is true no only of using lznguzge but of any other activity. Here
are some example. Are the statements true or false*
1 It is possible to know the rulex of football but not be much good at

2 It is possible to be a good cook but not know many recipes.

3 I I ynu explain in someone juxt how to ride a bicyde, thm they
ought to be able to get straight on to one and ride awey.
4 You an be siue that if a Ic»•ncr omio be third person -s on the
verb it is because be or she does not ftnow it.
5 All yoo need to he z gnod teacher is to know your subject well.
Can you find any eviden from your exptrien‹s or fram
crimmon knowlcdgwwhich will help you decide whether these
statements ere true or tile? Can you think of two other examples
of activities where knowledge is not enough for successful
performance?
If we think about how we use our firm language, then it is obvious that
we spend moit of our time using mtences, and very littleof our time
reviewing our knowledge or trying to compose perfect xentencts. We
would find it most difhcult to dmribc and explain sll the decisions we
take when we speak. So knowledge is only a part of the affair: we
also need skill.
that is the difference between knnwledge snd skill 2 A fundamental
difference is that while both can be undenteed and memorized, only a slcill
can be imitated and practised.

• TASK 2
This can be illustrated. There art various ways of helping a
learner: explanation, mtmoriiation, demonstration, and
practi‹s.
1 hich cactic would jrou use il you chought that the teamer:
a, had nnt understood g ppint;
b. kid complctcly forgotten something;
c did nor know of the existence of a rule or word;
d. wa*no‹ use tod«i»gHi mxig;
e. panicked*
2 Below is a list of dif£culties a learner might encounter in a variety
of activities. In cach cede d•cide what sort of remedies would be

a. Q/hen chapgipg gear, a friend learning to drive a car produces

a horrible grating sound.
b. A child is learning to break an egg, but smashes the shell
intn little biti, losing half the egg un the table and missing tht
bowl.
 c Your friend says she is no good at jigcaw puzzles.
d. You are tryiag to help someone learn to «ad.
e. Someone says I:hat he is no good at mncmbcnng names xt
parties, end Stat t is getting ea›bsrcaas›ng.
In any of the above situations, did you find that practice was
irrelevant?

So one of the main reasons for clarifying rhe distinction between

knowledge and skill is that problems in each area may require different
pedagogical actions. We will now look more closely at what w'e mean
by ‘skill’.

1.2 Oral skills and interaction

Thuc are twa basic ways in which something we do no be seen as a skill.
him there as motor-perceptive skills. But in addition In this there ate also

motor-perceptive skills.
Motor-perceptive skillx involve perceiving, remlling, and articulating
in the correct order sounds And structures of the language. This is the
relativelf super6cial asptci of skill which is a bii like learning how to
manipulate the controls of a car on a deserted his of road far from the
flow of normal traffic. lt is the context-free kind of sltill, the kind which
has been recognized in language teaching for many years in the rationale of
the audio-lingual approach to language teaching. For example, n cnty
years ago, W. F. Mickey sununerizcd oral exprmsion as follows:
Oral expression involves not only (. ..] the use of the right
sounds in the right patterns of rhythm and intonation, but
alsn the choice of words and inflections in the right order to
conrcy ihe right meaning.
(\9BS: 266)
Notice how much importance Mackey gives to doi0g thingi ‘right’ in ordrr
to be any good at speaking: choosing the right forms; puuing them in
the correct order; sounding like a aauve speaker; m'en produnng the
right meanings. (Is this how people team to handle the clutch and gear
1evcr*l

Ten years lzter, during which time this approach to teaching oral skills had
been wide r adopted, David Wilkins pointed out d m were some
learning problems that exercises like these did not solve. An important ont
is that of
ensuring a satisfactory oznsition from supervised learning in the classroom
to real-life use of the skill. This transition is often cslled the ’transfer
of
6

•kills’. As Wilkins points out, if all language produced in the clessronm is

determined by the teacher, ‘we are protecting {&e learner] from the
additional burden ot having to make his own choices’. He continues:
As widi everything else he will only learn what falls wiihin
his expcriwicr. If all his language production is controlled
frnm outside, he will hardly be competent to control his own
language pmduction. He x'itf not be ebb to trons/er Air
bnou'fedge j9om
« language-leaving situation to a & guage-using sit«etion-
(1975:76, my itdics)
Nor, presumably, will the learner be able to imnsicr much of any
rriotor-perceptive skill to a ‘language-using situation’. The point is that
in addition to the triotor-perceptive skills there are other bills to
be developed, which, as Wilkins rays, are those of ‘controlling one's
own language production’ and ‘having to make one's or choices’. This
kind of skill we will Al interactionshift. This is lhe still nf using
knowledge and basic motnr-perception skills to «chicvc
communication. Let us 1r›ok at
what interaction skills bssially involvc.
Interaction skills involve making decisions about communication, such as:
what io uy, how to sey it, and whether to develop it, in accordance with
otie's intentions, while maintaining the desired relations with others. Note
'that our notions of what is right or wrong now depend on such things as
what we have decided to szy, how successful we have been en fur, whether
it is useful to continue the point, what our intentions are, and what sorts
of relations we intend to establish or maintain with our interlocutors. This of
cnursc is ture of all communication, in speech or in writing.

¥• TASK 3

1 Show an ability to produce at least 35 of the 40 phonemes in

British English.
2 Forn the perfect terse correctly with here followed by the past
pariicipln of ihe lexical verb.
3 BraMemzksommnethe+irw.
4 Hate the ability to intmduce yourself to someone you have nm'er

5
6 Show an abiltiy to describe your flat or home dearly to o
decorator or eseate zgent.
7 Bt able to use cnrrtctly the three finite forms of lexical verbs.
 If native speakers typically produce short, phr ized chunks, it
sctms perverse to demand that fomign learner shnuld be expected
to produce complete sentences. Indeed it may demand of @em, in
the foreign language, a capacity for forward-planning and
storage which diey rarely manifmt in speaking their own native
language. (1983:26)
Processing conditions arc an important influence. The ability to master the
processing conditions of speech enables speakers to deal 8uenlly with
a given topic while being listened In. This kind of ability thus cnvm the
basic cammunicstive skill of producing speech at a normzl speed under
pressure of time. This ii generally not a problem in first-language learning,
but it can be with learners who have nd the language ‹duty iw written
form, or with heavy emphasis on accuracy.

• TASK 5
Consider how for the following activities help to prepare learners
for this dimension of language use:

The reciprocity condition of speech refers to the relation between the

sp‹ak<r and listener in the process o£ speech (see for instance @iddowson
t978, Chapter 6). The terz¥i ‘recipn+city' enables us to distinguish &tween
those situe‹ions in which both the speakcr and hearer arc allowed to
speak, and tkose when conventionally, only the speaker has speaking
rights, «s during a speech. Thc re‹ñ pro<al dimonsipn affects speech
becausc tTtcre is more than one participant. The business of making
sure tbat the conversatioa works is shaced by both parricipants• thezc
arr et least two addressees and two dccision•makers.
For trample, in a reciprocal exchange, a speaker will often have to adjust
his or her vocabulary and message Ie take the lisimer into acmunt. The
speaker also has i» partinpate actively in the interlocutor's messa
asking questions, reacting, and in on. This is something which requires an
abiliy to be flexible in communication, and a learner may need to be
prepared for it.
2 differences between speech and writing

2.1 lnnoduction

TASK 7
One Stature of benits is that ihc reader can skim, stan, jump
forward end backwards, and omit sections he or she alrmdr knows
aboni. lt does not matter ioo much if books include
information which a particular reader already knows. How does
this compare with rhe aormsl position of someone listening tos
spender*

TASK 8
Try reading aloud, either in your own or in a foreign language. Tape
your 6rst auempt, including any mistakes. Then consider the
following questions:
Hnw did it feel: easy, tiring, enjoyable? Try tn explain your answer.
Were you aware of any mistakes? On listening to your remrding, did
you find and other mistakes? what were they, and why do you think
they oecurredi Do you think your reading was as intelligible
as possible?
 So speaking like a book is, in two words, disagreeable and difficult. This
is be:ance wrimn lengu is ill-adi••=d • two ten of condiaons
mentioned previoudy, namely the processing conditions, and the condi-
tions of reciprocity. Let us look at these two far

2.2 Processing conditions of speech and writing

The main features of xptzking which cm be traced to the procmsing
conditions of communication involve the one fuctor. The words are
being spaken as they are being decided and as they are being
uudentood.

The wnrds erc ale being spoken in ifi‹ry qra being undentoed.
Once spoken, they are gone. While the reader can rtrezd, the listener
can have memory problems which can lead in misiindentandings, of to e
request for a repetition. Furthermore, the listener may miss a part of
whzt was said, perhaps through noise, or a moment's @tractioz Ail
these are vtty good reasons for not speaking like a beok.

R TASK 9
Of the following two stretches of discourse by a native speaker, one
was spoken, the oihtr ‹edited. Which do yen think was originally
spektn? Lai indications are ihm*
1 spmLing impressioaistically it would appear that if a word
is fairly high on the frequency list the chances are you would
get a compound or another phonologicnlly dniarit form
frequently of the same phonological shapg —
2 and it seems to be if a word is fairly high on the frequency list I
hate not made any count but juat impressipnistically um um
the chances are that you gei a compound or another
phonologically dniznt form with ah which is already in other
words which ii fzirly frequently the same phonological shape
—
(aftrr Pawley and Syd‹=, 1983)

The form of spoken language, then, is altered by the tiwie limitations,

and the asso<inted problems of planning, memory, and of production
under pressure. Things may not always gn according to the ideal plan. At
the same