Understanding the Educational

Gender Gap in Niger: A

Structured Focused Comparison
of Niger and Ghana.

Praise Samuel Yusuf

19960724T917| +46734929832
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 . Introduction
Gender disparities in education have long been a global concern, reflecting not only
a matter of equity but also the broader implications for socio-economic development.
The gap in educational access and attainment between girls and boys is a
multifaceted issue that affects individuals, communities, and nations. Within the
West African context, the countries of Niger and Ghana exemplify the intricate
challenges posed by this gender gap. This paper embarks on a journey to
comprehend and dissect the gender gap in education in these two nations, seeking to
unravel the underlying factors that have led to an inverted scenario: where girls in
Niger face greater disparities compared to their counterparts in Ghana, which is
progressively advancing in human capital development. In this introduction, I set the
stage for the literature review by presenting the research question and the paper’s
structure.
1.1 . Research Question
The pivotal research problem addressed in this study is the fundamental inquiry into
the factors explaining the gender gap in education in Niger in contrast to the
remarkable strides made by Ghana in enhancing its human capital development.
Specifically, this research examines why girls' access to education in Niger lags
significantly behind boys, whereas Ghana has made substantial progress towards
achieving gender parity in education. The underlying causes of this divergent trend
represent a complex interplay of socio-economic, cultural, and policy factors that
merit a structured focused comparison. By examining existing research and
perspectives on this issue, I aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
factors contributing to the gender gap in access to education and to shed light on
potential pathways toward greater gender equity in Niger.
1.2. Structure of the Paper
This paper uses the gender equality framework in its analysis. The framework bases
the paper’s analysis on four broad components, with each component including a
number of variables that will be analyzed in the course of this paper. The components
are: Access and Enrollment; Participation and Retention; Quality and Learning
Outcomes; and Institutional and Sociocultural Barriers.

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1.3. Literature Review
Gender Gap in Education
Gender gap in education refers to the disparity in educational opportunities,
outcomes, and experiences between males and females. The phenomenon is a
multifaceted issue affecting individuals, communities, and societies. Gender
disparity in education is characterized by the differences in enrollment, dropout,
literacy, academic achievement, and access at the different levels of education
(Sabine et al., 2019).
Political Institutions and Educational Policies
Historically, the legacies of colonialism and post-independence policies have shaped
educational gender disparities, although there have been debates as to whether the
influence of a country’s political history and institution is significant enough to be
regarded a major determinant factor. Arusha argues that a country’s political
institution and/or form of government does not significantly affect or influence the
education of girls (Arusha et al., 2010). In Niger, French colonial rule and a lack of
investment in education contributed to disparities (Abdourahmane & Bosch, 2018).
In contrast, Ghana's post-independence focus on education and gender equity laid
the foundation for progress (Akyeampong et al., 2007). Ghana's Free Senior High
School policy has played a crucial role in boosting girls' enrollment, making higher
education more accessible (Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2020).
Quality and Access
Recent data underscores gender disparities in enrollment at different education
levels. In 2021, UNICEF reported sustained low levels of access for girls at all
school levels throughout Niger (UNICEF, 2021). Primary and tertiary school
enrollment for girls remains considerably lower than for boys (World Bank, 2020).
On the other hand, Ghana has made significant progress, approaching gender parity
at the primary level (World Bank, 2020). Also, secondary school enrollment is much
higher for girls in Niger as compared to Ghana where more boys are enrolled in
secondary school. However, the disparity across the different levels of education is
more pronounced for Niger than it is for Ghana (World Bank, 2020). Barriers
hindering girls' access to education in Niger include early marriage, long distances
to schools, and limited infrastructure (Moss et al., 2019). In Ghana, while access has
improved in many areas, economic factors still limit girls' participation, particularly
in underprivileged regions (Amankwaa, 2017). Inadequate school infrastructure and

2
a shortage of well-trained teachers can also affect the quality of education in both
Niger and Ghana, impacting enrollment and retention rates, and the overall learning
experience (Osei-Tutu et al., 2018).
Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors
Culture and religion have been pinpointed as the primary influences on gender
inequality in education (Arusha et al., 2011). Patriarchal norms and traditional
gender roles continue to discourage girls' education in both countries, but the extent
and impact may differ. Niger's conservative traditions may present more significant
barriers to change (Higazi, 2018; Zongo, 2020). Economic disparities, income
levels, and poverty significantly influence access to education. Regional variations
in economic development within Ghana positively impact girls' access, whereas
poverty remains a considerable barrier in Niger (UNDP, 2020; World Bank, 2020)
1.4. Methodology
This paper will implement a structured focused comparison using relevant available
data from previous research work on the countries in focus. The analytical
framework will guide the development of the content analysis categories, ensuring
that relevant data is included in the analysis.
1.5. Justification of Case Selection
The selection of Niger and Ghana for this study is justified due to their distinct
experiences with gender disparities in education. Niger grapples with resource
constraints and conservative gender norms, while Ghana has made significant
progress. Their differing rankings on the Human Development Index (HDI) and
Girls Opportunity Index (GOI) highlight the impact of development indicators on
gender disparities in education. This research aims to explore the interplay between
human development and gender disparities, offering insights for policy formulation
in diverse contexts. Please note that the study focuses on the period between 2010-
2020, and as such focuses its analysis within that time frame. Data and illustrative
graphs may however allude to periods before or after the time frame in focus for
purposes of emphasis.

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CHAPTER TWO: COUNTRIES DESCRIPTION – NIGER AND
GHANA
2.0. Introduction
This chapter will give a detailed description of the two countries in focus using the
analytical framework as a guide. It will provide data and analysis comparing the
enrollment rates for girls and boys at different educational levels within each
country, assessing whether there are gender based differences in the quality of
learning and learning outcomes for each country; analyzing the factors such as early
marriage, distance to school, cultural norms, among others that affect girls’
participation and retention in education in both countries and; investigating
government policies, religious beliefs, and other barriers specific to each country.
2.1. Country Description – Niger
Access and Enrollment
Niger, located in West Africa, is known for its diverse landscape, which includes arid
deserts, fertile plains, and the Sahel region. The country gained independence from
French colonial rule in 1960, but its political history has been marked by periods of
stability interspersed with military rule. Political instability remains a pressing issue,
with a recent coup on July 26, 2023, replacing the civilian president with a military
regime. Niger faces persistent challenges, including poverty, food insecurity, and
frequent droughts. Current priorities include promoting democracy, countering
terrorism, and fostering economic development within its culturally diverse
landscape.
In 2020, Niger's population stood at approximately 24.5 million, marking a 46%
increase from 2010. Notably, about 83% of the populace resides in rural areas.
Among the roughly 12 million females in the country, about 7.7 million are aged 5-
39 years, while approximately 12.3 million males include around 8 million in the 5-
39 years age bracket. Educational attainment is a significant concern, with just
41.9% of the population aged 15 and older having any form of formal education.
Alarmingly, around 66% of women aged 15-64 years have no formal education. In
2015, Niger reported a literacy rate of 15%, and 34% of the population within the
same age range had some form of formal education. The expected years of schooling
amount to 5.5 years, and Niger records the lowest average learning outcome in
Africa at 304.9 (Our World in Data, 2023).

4
Niger's frequent political upheavals and conflicts have disrupted social services,
including education, leading to resource diversion away from the education sector
and reducing access to quality education and facilities (Abdourahmane & Bosch,
2018). In 2020, approximately 2.6 million children were reported as being out of
school (World Bank, 2020). The country's political instability significantly impedes
gender equality initiatives as the lack of stable governance hinders progress.
Furthermore, political instability has hampered economic development, contributing
to Niger's status as one of the world's poorest nations. Poverty remains a substantial
barrier to education, particularly for girls. Despite President Bazoum's commitment
in 2021 to allocate 22% of the budget to education by 2024, the recent coup may
disrupt this plan.
Niger offers three levels of education: Primary, secondary, and tertiary. In 2020, only
2.8% of girls were enrolled in tertiary institutions, compared to 5.9% of boys. At the
primary level, there is a gender disparity, with only 60.2% of girls enrolled compared
to 69.9% of boys. The most significant gender enrollment gap is observed at the
tertiary level, with a gender parity index (GPI) of 0.47. In contrast, secondary schools
have an inverted gender enrollment gap, with 23% of girls enrolled compared to
17.1% of boys. This may be attributed to efforts by international organizations and
NGOs, including projects like the IMAGINE project. Surprisingly, this inverted
gender enrollment gap in secondary education existed even before 2010. Economic
factors also contribute to these disparities, as limited resources lead families to
prioritize girls' education, as boys may be expected to engage in income-generating
activities or assist with agricultural work (Chattam House, 2021). Between 2010 and
2020, Niger recorded a general improvement in female enrollment across different
education levels, with percentage increases of 256%, 83%, and 25% at the tertiary,
secondary, and primary levels, respectively.
Figure 1.1 below shows the average learning outcomes, which corresponds to
harmonized test scores, for some select African countries, including Ghana and
Niger, between 2010-2020. While Figure 1.2 shows the progression in the gender
gap in Niger’s primary, secondary, and tertiary education.

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6
Quality and Learning Outcomes
In 2017, the adjusted gender parity index (GPIA) for primary school completion,
which measures the disparity in primary school completion rates between boys and
girls, indicated a disparity of 0.82 in favor of males. This suggests that more boys
complete primary education than girls. The same disparity is observed at the
secondary school level, with the GPIA indicating ratios of 0.53 and 0.35 at lower
secondary and upper secondary schools, respectively. This discrepancy can be
attributed to the high prevalence of child marriage in Niger, which has the highest
child marriage rate globally. Three out of four girls are married before the age of 18,
with 28% married before 15. Girls who enroll in secondary school often face the
prospect of early marriage, making it challenging to complete their education due to
family demands and responsibilities (Chattam House, 2021).

7
Teacher quality is another indicator of educational gender disparities in Niger. As of
2021, only 12.65% of teachers in upper secondary schools, 20.39% in lower
secondary schools, and 63.13% in primary schools possessed the minimum required
teaching qualifications. This shortage of qualified teachers has worsened between
2010 and 2020, largely due to conflicts along Niger's borders with neighboring
countries (The Borgen Project, 2021). Furthermore, there is a gender disparity
among teachers. While 55.94% of primary school teachers are female, the
percentage drops significantly to 22.4% at the secondary school level. This has
broader implications for studying gender disparity in primary and secondary
education in Niger. Female teachers are believed to serve as role models for female
students, which can enhance interest and motivation among girls in schools and help
overcome stereotypes regarding gender-specific skills and roles. Studies also show
that a teacher's gender can significantly impact the performance of female students
in STEM subjects, with girls tending to perform better when taught by female
teachers (Dario, 2017). Alarmingly, only 14.4% of students achieved minimum
reading proficiency at the end of their primary education, and a mere 7.9%
demonstrated minimum proficiency in mathematics during the same period.
Figure 1.3 below shows the female share of primary school teachers between 2010-
2020.

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Participation and Retention
The gender disparity in education is further evidenced by the Gender Parity Index
for net attendance rates. In 2019, at the primary school level, the GPIA was 0.91,
indicating that more boys who were enrolled in primary school attended regularly
compared to their female counterparts. Lower and upper secondary levels exhibited
even wider disparities, with GPIAs of 0.80 and 0.64, respectively. These figures
imply that, although more girls were enrolled in secondary schools than boys, more
boys consistently attended school. Notably, the distance to schools poses a
significant barrier to attendance, with children often having to travel long distances,
predominantly on foot, as limited transport is available. This situation raises safety
concerns, particularly for girls who are vulnerable to harassment on their way to
school.
Furthermore, repetition rates underscore the gender disparity between boys and girls
in Niger. Girls face a higher rate of repeating classes and levels, particularly in lower
9
secondary schools. While boys in lower secondary schools had a repetition rate of
23.14%, girls had a rate of 23.69%. Child marriage significantly contributes to this
disparity, as Niger has one of the world's highest child marriage rates, with 76% of
girls getting married before the age of 18 (IMF, 2017). Early forced marriages
compel many girls to drop out of school to take on family responsibilities, further
exacerbating the gender gap (Higazi, 2018). This challenge is compounded by the
perception that there are limited economic opportunities for women in Niger,
contributing to girls' lower educational attainment. Recent studies highlight the link
between education and the prevalence of child marriage, with a substantial
difference in marriage rates between women with no education and those with
secondary education or higher
Figure 1.5 shows the number of girls as compared to boys who are out of school in
Niger.

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Institutional and Sociocultural Barriers
Niger faces resource constraints that hinder investment in education. In 2020, the
share of government expenditure to GDP on education was 3.84 percent, which,
while slightly above the sub-Saharan African average, lags behind the global
average. Notably, education spending as a share of government expenditure has been
on a declining trend, falling from 19.09% in 2010 to 13.33% in 2020. Although
international organizations and NGOs have provided support to enhance education,
especially for girls, these efforts have not sufficiently closed the gender gap. Recent
policies reflect a positive shift in the government's stance toward improving female
education, such as allowing married and pregnant girls to continue their education
and raising the mandatory school leaver's age for girls to 16 years (Ministry of
Education, Ghana, 2020). Nonetheless, these policies encounter challenges due to
socioeconomic factors, including poverty, as many families are unable to afford to
send all their children to school. Additionally, conservative social norms rooted in
religious and cultural beliefs impede female education. These norms prescribe
specific roles for women in society, emphasizing household chores. The notion that
women should primarily engage in cooking, childcare, and other domestic tasks
further obstructs girls' education. Gender wage disparities exacerbate the situation,
as women are often paid less for equivalent work (Chattam House, 2021). Moreover,
child marriage is perceived as a means to expand family networks and income
through bride price payments, prompting many families to prioritize early marriage
over girls' education
Figure 1.6 below shows the percentage of public spending on education as a share
of GDP. It captures the progression in Niger, Ghana, sub-Saharan Africa and the
world between 2010-2020.

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12
2.2. Country Description – Ghana
Access and Enrollment
Ghana, located in West Africa, boasts diverse geography, encompassing lush forests,
coastal plains, and savannahs. Historically, it holds a prestigious place as one of the
earliest African nations to gain independence from colonial rule in 1957. Ghana has
maintained political stability, establishing itself as a democracy, and is renowned for
advancements in human capital development, reflected in a relatively high Human
Development Index (HDI) among West African nations.
As of 2020, Ghana's population stood at about 33 million, evenly split between males
and females, with 14 million individuals aged 5 to 24. Roughly 42% of the
population resides in rural areas, and the literacy rate reaches 77%. In 2020, over
80% of Ghanaians had received formal education. Since gaining independence in
1957, Ghana has implemented policies to promote gender equity and education
access. These policies include the National Gender Policy, aimed at fostering gender
equality and women's empowerment, the C-GAP plan in collaboration with the
World Bank to enhance women and girls' inclusion, and the Free Compulsory
Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) program, offering free primary, junior
secondary, and senior secondary education. These initiatives include strategies like
ensuring access to adequate sanitation facilities and water sources, with the broader
goal of reducing the gender gap in education and aligning with SDG 4. While
Ghana's centralized education system allows for extensive impact through
government reforms, gender disparities in educational achievement persist,
especially in rural areas (Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2020; World Bank, 2020).
Ghana's educational structure comprises three levels: primary, secondary, and
tertiary, with an expected schooling duration of 12.1 years. In 2020, 17.7% of girls
were enrolled in tertiary institutions, slightly lower than the 19.6% enrollment rate
for boys. At the secondary level, 56.6% of girls were enrolled compared to 57.9% of
boys, while at the primary level, 86.6% of girls were enrolled in comparison to
85.7% of boys. These statistics indicate significant progress in narrowing gender
gaps at different educational stages. However, disparities, especially at the tertiary
and secondary levels, continue to exist, with rural areas experiencing more
pronounced gender inequalities, particularly affecting girls from northern Ghana.
The persistence of child marriage constitutes a significant factor influencing gender
disparities in Ghana's education. Despite the Children's Act of 1988 setting the legal
age for marriage and cohabitation at 18 years, thereby prohibiting child marriage,
13
this practice remains prevalent. A study from 2018 revealed that 20% of Ghanaian
women were married before the age of 18, in contrast to only 2.3% of men (Ballard
Brief, 2019). Various factors underpin the perpetuation of child marriage, including
cultural practices, concerns related to premarital sex and family honor, as well as
economic motivations. Poverty plays a crucial role, with girls from the poorest 20%
of households being ten times more likely to be married before 18 compared to those
from the wealthiest 10% of households. Early marriage often leads to early
childbirth, further limiting mothers' opportunities for education.

Quality and Learning Outcomes

Ghana has taken substantial steps to enhance the quality of education, positioning
itself as a regional exemplar (Ballard Brief, 2019). Studies indicate that 66% of
teachers in primary schools are qualified, with respective figures of 77% and 80.57%
for qualified teachers in lower and upper secondary schools. However, the
proportion of female teachers in primary and secondary education remains low, with
only 45% of primary school teachers being female and a mere 26% at the secondary
level. This gender disparity potentially points to a deficiency in female role models
for students. Furthermore, a significant percentage of schools now boast suitable
toilet facilities, with separate facilities for girls and boys. Roughly 33% of primary
schools provide access to safe drinking water on-site. Despite these improvements
in infrastructure, the overall quality of learning appears inadequate, as evidenced by
a 2020 study reporting one of the lowest learning outcomes in Ghana, with an
average score of 307.3, only slightly surpassing Niger's 304.9.
The shortage of trained teachers in classrooms and high levels of teacher
absenteeism have been identified as factors negatively impacting educational quality
in Ghana (Ballard Brief, 2019). To be deemed a trained teacher in Ghana, one must
complete a 3-year preservice program and earn a Diploma in Basic Education.
However, the rapid influx of students into schools and the inability of many teachers
to complete their training in a timely manner to match the growing student
population have necessitated the involvement of volunteers or student teachers in
teaching roles. This situation has contributed to students' underperformance and
potential increases in dropout rates. Shockingly, Ghanaian teachers are estimated to
be absent for an astonishing 54 days during a 200-day academic year, equating to
27% of total working days. Such absenteeism significantly hampers student

14
attendance and performance, as students are less likely to attend school regularly in
the absence of their teachers.
Participation and Retention
In 2018, the Gender Parity Index for net attendance rates in primary schools was
1.01, indicating a higher attendance rate for girls compared to boys. At the lower and
upper secondary levels, the index was 1.01 and 0.94, respectively, revealing that
girls' attendance exceeded that of boys in lower secondary schools but lagged behind
in upper secondary institutions. Intriguingly, girls in rural regions exhibited higher
school attendance than their urban counterparts, albeit with marginal differences. For
example, the Lower Parity Index (LPIA) for primary and secondary school levels
stood at 0.97, while at the upper secondary level, it was 0.95 (UIS, 2023).
Furthermore, more girls completed their schooling than boys in 2020, despite a
higher overall enrollment of boys at the secondary level, with the Gender Parity
Index for primary and lower secondary completion rates at 1.10 and 1.09,
respectively (Our World in Data, 2023). Notably, a scrutiny of repetition rates in
primary schools revealed that more boys tended to repeat grade levels due to poor
performance, with a rate of 1.92%, compared to girls at 1.70%. At the lower
secondary level, the repetition rate for girls was 1.57%, marginally lower than boys
at 1.61%. As of 2020, more boys were out of school at the primary level, indicating
an inversion of the gender gap by this metric. Nevertheless, as students progress
through higher education levels and age, more females drop out than males (Ballard
Brief, 2019).
The absence of access to menstrual products continues to challenge female students'
participation in Ghanaian schools. A study among female university students
revealed that 36.9% of respondents felt that menstruation had a negative impact on
their education, citing difficulties in concentrating in class and missed lectures as
major challenges. Astonishingly, 19.4% reported using toilet tissue or reusable cloth
when they first began menstruating (Ballard Brief, 2019).

15
Figure 1.7 below shows the number of boys and girls in primary schools in Ghana
who are out of school

Institutional and Sociocultural Barriers

As alluded to in the introduction, Ghana has achieved substantial progress in
education, particularly in its efforts to close the gender gap. These endeavors have
culminated in educational reforms that have propelled female enrollment and
participation, at times surpassing male participation on certain indicators.
Nevertheless, disparities persist, particularly in rural areas. One of the persistent
barriers to gender-equitable participation in education is child labor. On average,
girls are more likely to be engaged in child labor, particularly in child domestic labor
roles, where they live with and perform household work for another family (Moss et

16
al.,2019). This challenge is further exacerbated by culturally informed perspectives
that view such work as a means of preparing girls for their traditional roles in child-
rearing and homemaking. Studies have shown that children involved in child labor
are less likely to attend school, with the likelihood of dropping out increasing with
age, affecting older girls more than older boys (Moss et al., 2019; ILO, 2017).
Moreover, despite efforts to eliminate tuition fees in public primary and secondary
schools, resource constraints pose a significant challenge, particularly in rural areas
(World Bank, 2020). Beyond tuition, additional costs such as food, uniforms, books,
and transportation can impede children's school attendance. Many families in rural
regions struggle to provide for all their children's educational expenses, leading to a
preference for male children over females, who are often encouraged to marry
instead

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CHAPTER THREE: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF NIGER AND
GHANA
3.0. Introduction
This section will comparatively analyze both countries, highlighting the
similarities and differences, and explaining the factors responsible for the
differences. The section will also include a brief conclusion, summarizing findings
and suggesting areas for policy reforms to improve gender parity in education in
Niger.
3.1. Access and Enrollment
Ghana has demonstrated substantial progress in narrowing the gender gap
concerning access to and enrollment in education. At the primary level, there have
been significant advancements in the gross enrollment of girls, resulting in higher
enrollments of girls compared to boys. However, gender disparities persist at the
primary level, with 60.2% of girls enrolled compared to 69.9% of boys. In Niger,
secondary education reveals an inverted gender enrollment gap, where more girls
are enrolled than boys (footnote), while Ghana demonstrates a moderate gender gap
in secondary education, with 56.6% of girls and 57.9% of boys enrolled.
Nevertheless, the Gender Parity Index for net enrollment in lower secondary schools
in Ghana (1.1) indicates higher enrollment for girls, underscoring that girls are more
likely to drop out of school as they grow older, primarily due to factors such as early
marriage and child labor.
Tertiary education in Niger experiences a significant gender disparity, with only
2.8% of girls enrolled compared to 5.9% of boys. In contrast, Ghana's gender gap at
the tertiary level is relatively smaller, with 17.7% of girls compared to 19.6% of
boys. It is essential to note that Ghana's rapid urbanization plays a pivotal role in
these differences. Families in urban areas are more inclined to support girls'
education compared to their counterparts in rural regions. With over 80% of Niger's
population residing in rural areas, as opposed to Ghana's 42%, cultural norms and
economic considerations exert a more substantial influence on families' decisions
regarding girls' education in Niger than in Ghana.
Economic factors continue to be significant contributors to the gender gap in both
countries, albeit manifesting differently. In Niger, poverty has been posited as a

18
rationale for the inverted gender gap in secondary education. Families facing
economic constraints prioritize girls' education, particularly at the secondary level.
In Ghana, economic factors predominantly affect rural areas, where girls from
economically disadvantaged backgrounds encounter barriers to education, further
exacerbating the gender gap.
Child marriage remains a critical factor in perpetuating gender disparities in both
Ghana and Niger, linked to cultural practices, economic motives, and poverty.
Notably, while Ghana has implemented legal restrictions to combat child marriage,
Niger only enacted such laws recently in 2016, potentially contributing to its
distinction as having one of the highest rates of child marriage globally. International
efforts have also been directed towards narrowing the gender gap in education in
both countries. These projects and initiatives have significantly improved the overall
state of education in Ghana and Niger, although further steps are imperative to bridge
the existing gender gap.
3.2 Quality and Learning Outcomes
Across different education levels in Niger, there is considerable disparity in school
completion rates for girls, even at the secondary school level, where more girls are
enrolled. The Gender Parity Index for completion rates stands at 0.82, 0.53, and 0.35
for primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary schools, respectively.
Conversely, in Ghana, the Gender Parity Index for primary completion rates (1.10),
lower secondary completion rates (1.09), and upper secondary completion rates
(1.09) in 2020 indicates that more girls complete schools than boys. Additionally,
Ghana outperforms Niger in the number of qualified teachers in primary and
secondary schools. Political instability and conflict in Niger have been pivotal
factors in the declining prevalence of qualified teachers, as teachers are compelled
to flee communities and schools to avoid danger. Conversely, Ghana has experienced
relative political stability and peaceful governance, which has fostered efforts
towards gender equality.
In terms of infrastructure and facilities, Ghana has made more substantial
improvements, with numerous primary schools offering access to safe drinking
water and adequate toilet facilities. On the other hand, Niger lacks separate sanitation
facilities for girls and boys in most schools, potentially impacting attendance and
retention rates.
Both Ghana and Niger contend with a shortage of female teachers in schools, with a
higher percentage of female teachers in primary schools: 55.94% and 22.4% for
19
primary and secondary schools in Niger, and 45% and 26% for Ghana. These
disparities imply that primary education may serve as a better source of gender role
models for girls. Concerning learning outcomes, there are no significant disparities
between the two countries. Ghana's average learning outcome (307.3) is only
marginally higher than Niger's (304.9). It is hypothesized that the low presence of
female teachers may affect learning outcomes in both countries, as studies have
shown a connection between students' performance and the gender of their teachers.
Furthermore, teacher absenteeism poses a considerable challenge in both Ghana and
Niger, impacting student attendance and learning outcomes. Teacher presence is
pivotal for ensuring quality education. Both countries would benefit from addressing
teacher absenteeism and encouraging more females to enter the teaching profession
to serve as role models for girls.
Figure 1.8 below shows the quality of education measured by learning outcomes vs
the expected years of schooling for both Ghana and Niger in 2020

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3.3. Participation and Retention
The Gender Parity Index for net attendance rates at the primary level in Niger was
0.91 in 2019, indicating more regular attendance for boys than girls, while Ghana's
index stood at 1.01, reflecting higher attendance rates for girls. For lower and upper
secondary levels, Niger's indices were 0.80 and 0.64, respectively, suggesting that
more girls were enrolled in secondary schools than boys, but there were more boys
attending regularly. A critical concern is that girls face safety issues due to long
distances to schools, exposing them to harassment during their journeys. In Ghana,
the Gender Parity Index was 1.01 at the lower secondary level, indicating higher
attendance for girls, but at the upper secondary level, it was 0.94, implying fewer
girls attended compared to boys. Significant disparities exist between the number of
out-of-school girls compared to boys in both primary and secondary schools in
Niger. Ghana, on the other hand, has more girls completing primary and secondary
21
schools, despite a higher enrollment of boys at the secondary level. Ghana displays
an inversion of the gender gap, with more out-of-school boys at the primary level.
However, as students progress through higher levels, more females tend to drop out,
underscoring challenges in retaining girls in education.
Ghana exhibits a more favorable gender gap in education than Niger, with higher
Gender Parity Index values indicating greater parity between girls and boys.
Nevertheless, both countries confront challenges regarding access to menstrual
products, which profoundly impact female students' participation in schools. Many
girls struggle to concentrate and may miss classes during menstruation. Notably,
Ghana's more favorable educational gender gap can be attributed to a range of
policies and initiatives aimed at promoting gender equity in education, as previously
outlined in the countries' descriptions. Additionally, social and cultural factors in
Ghana contribute to better retention and completion rates for girls, even in the face
of certain challenges related to menstrual hygiene. In Niger, the high prevalence of
child marriage and entrenched norms substantially contribute to the gender gap in
education. These differences underscore the pivotal role of cultural, social, and
policy factors in shaping gender disparities in education.
3.4. Institutional and Socio-Cultural Barriers
Niger contends with a gender gap in education due to resource constraints affecting
investments in the education sector. While positive policy shifts have occurred,
socio-economic challenges and conservative social norms persistently impede girls'
education. In contrast, Ghana has made remarkable progress in reducing the gender
gap in education, particularly in urban areas. Nevertheless, challenges associated
with child labor, cultural perspectives on gender roles, and economic limitations
persist and contribute to disparities, particularly in rural regions. Ghana has made
more progress in implementing policies and reforms, such as tuition-free education
and laws prohibiting child marriage and child labor, aimed at reducing the gender
gap in education. These initiatives have led to higher enrollment and participation in
some areas. Additionally, Ghana's relatively robust economy allows for greater
allocation of resources to the education sector, thereby enhancing infrastructure and
access to quality education. Niger, conversely, has one of the world's poorest
economies, ranking as the second least developed country in the world, according to
the United Nations (IMF, 2017). This economic hardship is coupled with the
challenge of political instability and frequent conflicts.

22
In both countries, rural areas encounter more significant challenges regarding access
to education. However, Niger's lower rate of urbanization, with over 80% of its
population residing in rural areas, suggests that relatively more girls in Niger's rural
areas encounter difficulties accessing education compared to girls in Ghana's rural
areas. Additionally, child labor remains a challenge in both countries, with more girls
than boys compelled to drop out of school to engage in various economic activities
at a young age. However, Ghana's focused efforts to address this issue have
effectively contributed to reducing the gender gap in education. In summary, both
Niger and Ghana face gender disparities in education due to resource constraints,
socio-cultural norms, and child labor. Nonetheless, Ghana's stronger government
initiatives, economic development, cultural shifts, and targeted efforts to address
child labor have resulted in greater progress in reducing the gender gap in education
compared to Niger.
Figure 1.9 below shows the share of children in employment for both Niger and
Ghana between 2003-2012. And Figure 2.0 below shows the share of children in
employment who do not attend school either because of non-enrollment or drop-out,
for Niger and Ghana between 2003-2012.

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4.0. Conclusion
In general, closing the gender gap in education, especially as it relates to educating
girls, has significant positive impact on a country’s overall development. Some of
the gains include decrease in pregnancy and early marriage, reduction in child
mortality, increase in formal economic opportunity and wages, better educated
children, increased political participation and decreased climate risk vulnerability
(IMF, 2023). Thus, policies targeted towards tackling the challenges hampering
girls’ access to education accompanied with legal reforms that aim at reducing the
incidence of child marriage and child labour, and prioritized investment in education
will go a long way in improving Niger’s development.

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