FORENSIC SCIENCES / Blood Analysis 373
Blood Analysis
C Brandt-Casadevall and N Dimo-Simonin,
Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
& 2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
In this article we deal with the interesting subject of
blood analysis in forensic sciences. For historical
reasons we give importance to blood group detec-
tion. Indeed, even though presently paternity testing
and especially blood stains analyses are performed
through DNA profile determination, blood groups
were for decades the only way of making identi-
fications.
Blood is a biological liquid that represents between
5.5% and 8.0% of the body weight of an individual.
It is composed of 60% liquid, or plasma, with the
remaining 40% made up of the following cellular
elements: erythrocytes, or red blood cells; leuko-
cytes, or white blood cells; and thrombocytes, or
platelets.
The plasma contains B85% water, the remaining
15% being made up of electrolytes, proteins, glu-
cides, and lipids. The plasma proteins are divided
into three groups: albumin, fibrinogen, and globulins
(three types of globulins are found, a and b, whose
function is essentially the transport of substances,
and g, which principally constitutes the antibodies).
The red blood cells are unnucleated and have a
principal function of transport and maintenance of
the functional state of the hemoglobin, the respira-
tory pigment that transports the oxygen and part of
the carbonic gas. Hemoglobin is a protein formed
from four peptide chains, each one supporting a
molecule of hem (a combination of a porphyrin and
an atom of iron). In an adult, a major hemoglobin
(Hb A) is found in a proportion of 97%, formed
from two a-chains and two b-chains, and a minor
hemoglobin (Hb A2) represents 3%, formed from
two a-chains and two d-chains. Blood from a new-
born (neonate) contains a high percentage (50% at 2
months of age) of fetal hemoglobin (Hb F), com-
posed of two a-chains and two g-chains. Certain
pathological hemoglobins (S, C, E, and D) probably
result from selective mutations that affect the amino
acid sequence. These hemoglobin variants are found
in very specific subgroups of the population: for
example, hemoglobin S is only found in black pop-
ulations coming from the west of north tropical Af-
rica (sickle cell anemia). Certain illnesses, such as the
thalassemias, will affect the biosynthesis of the
hemoglobin chains by mutation of the regulatory
genes and do not, therefore, lead to the formation of
abnormal chains but to a change in the proportion of
the hemoglobins Hb A, Hb A2, and Hb F.
The white blood cells are the mobile units of the
reticuloendothelial system. There are three different
types of white blood cells: granulocytes (which, ac-
cording to their affinity for stains, are classified as
neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils), lymphocytes,
and monocytes.
The platelets are unnucleated cells that play an
important role in blood coagulation.
Blood Preservation and Aging Effects
As a biological material, blood deteriorates rapidly.
For analytical purposes, samples must be taken under
the most favorable conditions (sterility, cleanliness,
container). It must be submitted to immediate treat-
ment in view of the examinations to be conducted;
for example, an anticoagulant must be added for
certain analyses (blood groups). Some anticoagulants
also serve as preservatives (ethylenediaminetetraace-
tic acid, potassium oxalate, sodium fluoride, etc.) by
fixing certain doubly charged cations, inhibiting the
action of the complement and other enzymes as well
as countering bacterial proliferation. In order to
avoid the rapid denaturation of certain substances
(e.g., extremely labile proteins), the blood sample
must be kept cold: freezing is essential for the pro-
teins and the isoenzymes, while storage at 41C
is necessary to avoid hemolysis in the case of the
detection of erythrocyte groups.
When it is a question of bloodstains, the sampling
technique will be as important as the storage condi-
tions as far as later examination is concerned. Con-
tamination and high humidity conditions that
promote maceration must be absolutely avoided
(transport in plastic containers is excluded). A dried
bloodstain must be stored frozen for blood group
typing. Certain blood characteristics will be pre-
served if kept cold, even over many years (ABO,
Gm), while others will disappear after a much shor-
ter delay.
During preservation, even under optimum
conditions, certain enzymes change their electroph-
oretic profile. It is possible that this results from
interactions between the sulfydryl groups (SH) of
some cysteine residues and the glutathione accumu-
lated over the storage period. This effect may be