E0294

Based on the New Textbook
Salient features :
1. A complete reference book on Biology Std. XII.
2. ‘Summary’ with memorization points and revision charts.
3. Model answers to all the Textual Questions and additional questions covering each
and every concept in the Textbook.
4. All the questions under ‘Use your brain power’, ‘Can you tell’, ‘Think about it’,
‘Find out’, ‘Observe and discuss’, etc. are included with appropriate answers.
5. Includes ample number of Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs).
6. Neat, authentic and easily-reproducible labelled diagrams.
7. Diagram-based and chart based questions included.
8. References of websites given for rapid surfing.
By
NAVNEET
First Edition : 2020
E0294
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Published by : Navneet Education Limited, Dantali, Gujarat. 2001

CTP
Printed by : Navneet Education Limited, Dantali, Gujarat. (6-7-2020)
2
PREFACE
Dear Friends,
It gives us great pleasure to present you the new Navneet Biology Digest (Part II) based on the new
textbook of Biology for Standard XII.
We understand that the Standard XII Examination is very crucial in a student’s career. As in the
past, this Navneet Digest is here to help you to triumph.
Each chapter of the Digest begins with ‘Summary’ which contains the gist of entire lesson in points
format. Moreover, many memory maps are included in the summary which will be very useful for
‘last minute revision’ too. Summary is followed by the Exercises which covers different types of
questions with their answers. Exercises begin with ample number of Multiple-choice Questions
(MCQs) with correct answer of each. These questions will enable the students to prepare for a
competitive examination, such as NEET.
Exercises include all the questions given in the Textbook as well as many additional questions with
their appropriate answers so as to cover every concept in the Textbook. The weightage of marks is
indicated for each category of questions, making it noteworthy for students aiming at high marks.
Besides these, all the questions given under various headings such as ‘Use your brain power’, ‘Can
you tell’, ‘Think about it’, ‘Find out’, ‘Observe and discuss’, etc. in the textbook are also included
here with appropriate answers.
Diagram based questions given in this digest will make students familiar with solving ‘activity sheet
type’ questions which may appear in Board’s examination.
Similarly, chart-based questions too are given for each chapter so that students get acquainted with
new type question.
Suitable websites are listed out for every ‘Internet my friend’ question to make students surf the net
with more ease in order to procure extra knowledge.
In short, this Biology Digest contains a lucid and clear exposition of the subject matter in simple
and student-friendly language.
We hope this Digest will help the students to master the subject. Besides it will also help them to
secure very good marks in the examination and pave the way for realising their dreams of a fruitful,
bright career.
We have taken utmost care to see that this Digest proves to be very useful to the students as well
as the teachers. Suggestions for improvement of the Digest are most welcome and will be gratefully
acknowledged and appreciated.
– Publishers
3
CONTENTS
Page No.
8. Respiration and Circulation … 5
9. Control and Coordination … 75
10. Human Health and Diseases … 157
11. Enhancement of Food Production … 207
12. Biotechnology … 254
13. Organisms and Population … 289
14. Ecosystems and Energy Flow … 317
15. Biodiversity, Conservation and Environmental Issues … 349
Chapter No. 1 to 7 are included in Navneet Biology Digest : Part 1,

published separately
4
8 Respiration and Circulation
CHAPTER OUTLINE
8.0 Respiration ... 5
8.1 Organs of respiratory exchange ... 5
8.2 Human respiratory system ... 6
8.3 Mechanism of respiration ... 7
8.4 Regulation of breathing ... 9
8.5 Modified respiratory movements ... 9
8.6 Common disorders of respiratory system ... 10
8.7 Transportation in living organisms ... 10
8.8 Circulation in animals ... 10
8.9 Circulatory system in human ... 11
8.10 Red blood corpuscles / erythrocytes ... 12
8.11 White blood corpuscles / leucocytes ... 12
8.12 Thrombocytes / platelets ... 13
8.13 Heart ... 13
8.14 Working mechanism of human heart ... 15
8.15 Blood vessels ... 16
8.16 Blood Pressure (B.P.) ... 17
8.17 Electrocardiogram ... 18
8.18 Lymphatic system ... 18
3.
In animals, depending upon the complexity of
SUMMARY organization and the surrounding medium,
Unit respiratory organs have become specialized
8.0 Respiration and are usually associated with a transport

system.
1.
Respiration is a biochemical process of
oxidation of organic compounds in an orderly 4. Respiratory organs in different organisms :
manner for the liberation of chemical energy Respiratory surface
in the form of ATP. Organism
or organ
2. C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP I. Aquatic organisms
Unit (1) Protists, sponges, Plasma membrane
8.1 Organs of respiratory exchange coelenterates
(2) Planaria, Annelids, Plasma membrane,
1.
Respiratory surface should possess the
following features for efficient gaseous exchange. Amphibians general body surface
and moist skin
(1) A large surface area.
(3) Limulus (Arthropod) Book gills
(2) Thin, highly vascular and permeable to allow
exchange of gases. (4) Amphibian tadpoles, External gills
(3) Moist surfaces. salamander and
newt
2.
A terrestrial plant has stomata on leaves and
young stems and lenticels on the stem surface (5) Fish Internal gills
for exchange of gases.
8. Respiration and Circulation 5

Respiratory surface (ii) Respiratory part : It is the part which is
Organism richly supplied by capillaries. Air is made
or organ
Chapter 8
warm and moist in this region.

II. Terrestrial organisms
(iii) Sensory part : The sensory epithelium
(1) Insects Tracheal tubes and
lines this region. It is concerned with the
spiracles
detection of smell.
(2) Arachnids (Spider Book lungs
Pharynx :
2.
and Scorpion)
(1) The pharynx is a short, vertical tube about
(3)
Reptiles, birds and Lungs
12 cm in length. The respiratory and food
mammals
passages cross each other in the pharynx.
III. Underwater organism
(2) The upper part of the pharynx is known as
Turtle * Cloaca
naso-pharynx. It conducts the air.
Learn this as well : (3) The lower part is called laryngo-pharynx or
Only at the time of diving or when underwater, oro-pharynx. It conducts food to the
turtles perform cloacal respiration. There are a oesophagus.
pair of accessory air bladders connected to the (4) The tonsils are present in the pharynx. They
cloaca which can absorb oxygen from the water. are made of lymphatic tissue. They kill the
bacteria that are trapped in mucus.
Unit
3. Larynx :
8.2 Human respiratory system
(1) The larynx produces sound. In males, it
 Human respiratory system consists of nostrils, increases in size at puberty. This is termed as
nasal chambers, pharynx, larynx, trachea, Adam’s apple.
bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, aided by diaphragm (2) From the pharynx air enters the larynx. The
and intercostal muscles. opening through which it enters is called
1. Nostrils and nasal chambers : glottis.
(1) The nostrils are external openings of the nose. (3) The glottis has a guarding flap called epiglottis.
Oxygen rich air is taken into the body through (4) The epiglottis prevents the entry of food
the nostrils or external nares. Carbon dioxide particles into the trachea.
and water vapour are released out of the body (5) The vocal cords are seen along the side of the
through the nostrils. glottis. They are made of elastic tissue. They
(2) The internal nares open into the pharynx. The produce sound.
space between the external and internal nares (6) Passage of air between the vocal cords and
is known as nasal chamber. The nasal modulations created by tongue, teeth, lips
chamber is lined internally by mucous and nasal cavity produce voice.
membrane and ciliated epithelium. 4. Trachea :
(3) The nasal chamber is divided into right and (1) The trachea or windpipe is about 10 –12 cm
left parts by a cartilage called mesethmoid. long and 2.5 cm wide.
Every nasal chamber is further divided into (2) It is situated in front of the oesophagus and
three regions, viz. vestibule, respiratory part runs downwards in the thorax.
and sensory part. (3)
Fibrous muscular tissue supported by
Vestibule : The anteriormost part of the
(i) ‘C’ shaped cartilages form the walls of the
nasal chamber is vestibule. Hair present trachea.
in this chamber prevent the dust particles (4)
16 to 20 cartilage rings are present in the
from going inside. trachea.
6 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

(5) The trachea is lined internally by ciliated (9) The alveolar sacs are spherical and thin
epithelium and mucous glands. walled and contain about 20 alveoli.
Chapter 8
(6)
Mucous and ciliary action remove the dust (10) The alveoli are covered by a network of
particles and push them upwards to the capillaries from pulmonary artery and
larynx. These particles are then gulped and pulmonary vein.
taken into the oesophagus. Instant coughing (11) Each alveolus has thin and elastic wall. It is
can remove foreign particles that enter the about 0.1 mm in diameter.
trachea. (12) The alveolar wall is 0.0001 mm thick and is
5. Bronchi and bronchioles : made of simple, non-ciliated, squamous
(1) The trachea divides into two bronchi (singular– epithelium. It has collagen and elastin fibres.
bronchus) at its distal end behind the sternum. (13) Every lung has about 700 million alveoli
(2) The bronchus has complete ring of cartilage which increase the surface area for the
for support. exchange of gases.
(3) The bronchi enter the lungs on either side. (14) The outermost covering of the lungs which is
(4) After entering the lungs each bronchus divides known as visceral pleura is made of smooth
into secondary and tertiary bronchi. The muscle fibres.
tertiary bronchi divide further to form (15) The lobule in the lung consists of alveolar
bronchioles. ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli. In alveoli
(5) The bronchioles are minute and are without gaseous exchange takes place.
the cartilage rings in their walls.
Unit
(6) Each bronchiole ends into a bunch of alveoli
8.3 Mechanism of respiration
which appear like a bunch of grapes. Each
alveolus is balloon shaped. 1.
The process of respiration includes breathing,
(7) Many alveoli make the lung spongy and elastic. external respiration, internal respiration and
cellular respiration.
6. Lungs :
(A) Breathing :
(1) The lungs are principal respiratory organs
(1)
Breathing is the process by which the air
located in the thoracic cavity.
comes in and goes out of the lungs.
(2) They are pinkish, soft, hollow, paired, elastic (2) The rate of gaseous exchange is speeded up
and distensible organs. by breathing.
(3)
The lung is enclosed in a pleural sac. (3)
Breathing is a part of respiration and the
(4) The pleural sac has two membranes – an terms breathing and respiration are not
outer parietal and an inner visceral which synonymous.
enclose the pleural cavity. (4) Inspiration and expiration together make
(5) The pleural fluid which is present in the breathing.
pleural cavity lubricates and prevents friction Inspiration :
(i)
when pleural membranes slide on each other.  Inspiration is an active process brought
(6) The lungs are richly supplied with blood about by ribs, intercostal muscles, sternum
capillaries and hence are highly vascular and diaphragm.
organs.  The intercostal muscles contract and pull
(7) The left lung has two lobes while the right the ribs outwards. This increases the space
lung has three lobes. in the thoracic cavity. The lower part of
(8) Each lobe has many bronchioles and alveolar sternum is simultaneously raised. The
sacs. diaphragm contracts and flattens. This

causes further increase in the volume of 
Respiratory cycle is alternate inspiration
thoracic cavity. and expiration process.
Chapter 8
 Pressure in the lungs decreases and the volume  In adult man there are 16 to 20 respiratory
increases due to expansion of the lungs. cycles per minute.
 Due to pressure difference the atmospheric  The medulla oblongata in the brain controls
air rushes into the lungs through respiratory the respiration.
passage as a result of which air is inspired (B)
External respiration / exchange of gases at
in. the alveolar level :
Expiration :
(ii) (1) Exchange of gases between the alveolar air
 Expiration is the passive process. and the blood takes place through thin
 During expiration the intercostal muscles squamous epithelial layer of alveolus and
relax and the ribs are pulled inwards. similar layer of the capillary wall.
 The diaphragm is relaxed and becomes (2) Respiratory gases will always diffuse from an
dome-shaped. area of higher partial pressure to an area of
 The volume of the thoracic cavity is reduced. lower partial pressure in these two regions.
 The pressure on the lungs is increased as a (3) Due to difference in partial pressure, carbon
result of which they get compressed. dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the
alveolus whereas oxygen will diffuse from
 Air is thus expelled out of lungs through the
alveoli to the capillaries.
nares.
Respiratory cycle :
(iii)
Table : Pulmonary volumes and capacities :

(4)
Term Abbreviation Description Capacity in ml
Lung volumes
Tidal volume TV Volume of air inspired or expired during normal 500
breathing
Inspiratory IRV Maximum volume of air, or the extra volume 2000 to 3000
reserve volume of air, that is inspired during forced breathing
Expiratory ERV Maximum volume of air that is expired during 1000 to 1100
reserve volume forced breathing after normal expiration
Dead space DS Volume of air that is present in the respiratory 150
tract which is not involved in gaseous exchange
Residual RV Volume of air that remains in the lungs and the 1100 to 1200
volume dead space even after maximum expiration
Lung capacities
Total Lung Maximum amount of air that the lungs can hold 5200 to 5800
capacity after a maximum forceful inspiration
Vital capacity VC Maximum amount of air that can be breathed out Sum total of
after a maximum inspiration TV, IRV and
ERV = 4100 to
4600

(C) Internal respiration : (2)
With carbon monoxide it forms a stable
Transport of O2 : Only 3% of total oxygen is
(1) compound called carboxyhaemoglobin.
Chapter 8
carried in a dissolved state by plasma while (3) Due to such combination, the oxygen is not
97% of oxygen is carried in the form of transported to the tissues. The tissues thus
oxyhaemoglobin from lungs to tissues. suffer from oxygen starvation. This leads to
Oxygen dissociation curve : A sigmoid curve
(2) asphyxiation and in extreme cases death.
which shows oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation (4) Treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning is
and the relationship between oxyhaemoglobin given by administering oxygen-carbon dioxide
saturation and oxygen tension. mixture to make high PO2 level to dissociate
Bohr effect : The shift of oxyhaemoglobin
(3) the carbon monoxide from haemoglobin.
dissociation curve due to change in partial (5) Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs in closed
pressure of CO2 in blood is called Bohr effect. rooms with open stoves, gas burners,
Haldane effect : The effect caused by increase
(4) automobile engines or any incomplete
in hydrogen ions which results in decrease of combustion.
pH of blood is called Haldane effect. Unit
Transport of CO2 :
(5)
8.4 Regulation of breathing
(i) 7% of CO2 is transported in the form of
1.
Normal breathing is an involuntary process
carbonic acid by plasma.
controlled by inspiratory centres and
(ii) 70% of CO2 is transported from tissues to
expiratory centres in medulla, pneumotaxic
lungs in the form of sodium bicarbonate
centre in pons and apneustic centre located in
and potassium.
medulla.
(iii) Remaining 23% of CO2 is carried in the
2.
The Hering-Breuer reflex controls the rate
form of carbaminohaemoglobin.
and depth of breathing and also prevents over
Hamburger’s phenomena or chloride
(iv)
inflation of lungs.
shift :
Movement of chloride ions to
3.
Cerebral cortex has voluntary centres which
maintain the ionic balance between the
prevent water or irritating gases from entering
RBCs and the plasma is called chloride
the lungs.
shift.
(D) Cellular respiration : In this last step food is Unit
oxidized in the cell and ATP is produced and 8.5 Modified respiratory movements
used to carry out vital processes. l Modified respiratory movements are used to
2. Carbon monoxide poisoning : express emotions and to clear air passages.
(1) Haemoglobin has affinity for oxygen. But for They may be reflexes or voluntarily initiated
carbon monoxide it has about 250 times more movements such as yawning.
affinity than that of oxygen.

Unit
8.6 Common disorders of respiratory system
Chapter 8
1. Respiratory disorders :
Respiratory disorders Cause and symptoms
(1) Emphysema Cause : Cigarette smoking and air pollution
Symptoms : Over inflation of the alveoli, rupture of alveolar wall.
(2) Bronchitis Cause : Certain bacterial or viral infection, also caused by smoking and air
pollution.
Symptoms : Inflammation of bronchi, regular coughing with greenish-yellow
sputum.
(3) Sinusitis Cause : A viral infection or common cold
Symptoms : Inflammation or swelling of the tissue lining the sinuses.
(4) Laryngitis Cause : Certain viruses, bacteria
Symptoms : Hoarseness, cough, difficulty in swallowing, inflammation of
larynx and vocal cords.
(5) Pneumonia Cause : Bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma
Symptoms : Filling of air spaces of alveoli with fluid containing dead WBCs,
chest pain, shortness of breath, blood in mucous.
(6) Asthma Cause : Allergy to foreign substances like pollen, dust, certain food, food
additives, animal dander, etc.
Symptoms : Narrowing and inflammation of bronchi, bronchospasm,
periodic wheezing, difficulty in breathing.
(7) Occupational Cause : Long term exposure to silica and asbestos dust in the mining
respiratory disorders industry.
silicosis, asbestosis Symptoms : Irritation, fibrosis causing inflammation.
2.
Treatment of respiratory disorders is by 2.
Intracellular transport by cyclosis is shown
taking suitable antibiotics, inhalants, by almost all living organisms e.g.
vaporizers and cough medicines. Also quitting Paramoecium, Amoeba, root hair cells of
smoking, using preventive masks and staying many plants and WBCs in animals.
away from polluted air is too remedy against 3.
Extracellular transport
: In this transport
these disorders. water or body fluid is circulated through body
3. Artificial ventilation : Method of induced cavities as in sponges and coelenterates or
breathing in a person who is unable to breathe moved around the viscera by contraction of
is given artificial ventilation. body wall and muscles as in roundworms or
4. Ventilator : A machine supporting breathing parenchymal circulation, viz. flatworms.
when normal breathing fails. 4.
Blood vascular system in higher animals from
Annelida to chordate contains (i) blood as a
Unit
circulating fluid, (ii) heart as a pumping organ
8.7 Transportation in living organisms
and (iii) the blood vessels through which
8.8 Circulation in animals
blood circulates.
1.
Transportation by diffusion and active
transport is suitable in extremely small
organisms.

5. Types of blood vascular system : pulmonary trunk) to the left atrium (by
(1) Open circulation : two pairs of pulmonary veins) of heart
Chapter 8
(i) In this type, blood finally comes out of the through lungs.
blood vessels and is circulated through  Systemic circulation is the circulation
the body cavities (haemocoel). between the heart and the body organs
(ii) Blood flows at low pressure and there is (except lungs). The course of blood
direct exchange of materials between during systemic circulation is from left
blood and cells or tissues of the body. ventricle (by systemic aorta) to all body
organs and from the body back to right

(iii)
Respiratory pigment is usually absent.
atrium (by vena cavae).
When present, it is dissolved in plasma of
the blood. e.g. Arthropods and Molluscs. LEARN THIS AS WELL :
Coronary circulation is circulation to the cardiac
(2) Closed circulation :
muscles of the heart. Coronary arteries supply
(i) In this type of circulation, blood is oxygenated blood whereas coronary veins join to
circulated all over the body through the form coronary sinus and collect deoxygenated
network of blood vessels. blood. This sinus opens into the right atrium.
(ii)
Blood does not come in direct contact
Unit
with cells and body tissues and the
exchange of materials between the blood 8.9 Circulatory System in Human
and cell takes place through an 1.
Circulatory system in human is made up of
intermediate fluid called lymph. blood vascular system and lymphatic system.
(iii) Blood flows through blood vessels at high 2.
Blood vascular system consists of blood, heart
pressure and can be regulated. Respiratory and blood vessels.
pigment like haemoglobin is present for
3. Blood composition and Coagulation :
transportation of respiratory gases. e.g.
(1) Study of blood is called haematology.
All vertebrates, higher molluscs and
(2) The bright red, slightly alkaline main
annelids.
circulating, fluid in the human body is blood.
(iv) Closed circulation can be of two main
(3) Blood is a fluid connective tissue derived from
types
:
single circulation and double
mesoderm. It has pH about 7.4.
circulation.
(4) There are about 5 litres of blood in the body
(a) Single circulation : In fishes heart shows
which is about 8% of the total body weight.
single circulation as blood passes only
once through heart during one cardiac (5) Composition of blood : There are two main
cycle. components of blood, viz., plasma (55%) and
blood corpuscles (45%).
(b) Double circulation :
(i) Plasma : Plasma is a straw coloured fluid

Human heart shows double circulation
part of blood, slightly alkaline, viscous
as blood passes twice through the heart
fluid consisting of 90 – 92% water and
during one cardiac cycle. The blood
8 – 10% of solutes.
follows two routes, viz. pulmonary and
systemic.  Solutes are 7% proteins (serum albumin,
serum globulin, heparin, fibrinogen and
 Pulmonary circulation is the circulation
prothrombin).
between the heart and the lungs. The
course of blood during pulmonary  Other solutes are nutrients (glucose,
circulation is from the right ventricle (by amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol).

 Nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric 9.
RBCs transport oxygen from lungs to tissues
acid, ammonia and creatinine. and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
Chapter 8

Gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and They maintain blood pH as haemoglobin acts
nitrogen. as a buffer. They also maintain the viscosity
 Regulatory substances like enzymes and of the blood.
hormones. 10. RBCs also contains an enzyme, carbonic
 Inorganic substances like bicarbonates, anhydrase.
chlorides, phosphates and sulphates of 11. The haematocrit is the ratio of the volume of
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, RBCs to total blood volume of blood. Its value
etc. is different in men and women.
(ii)
Blood corpuscles : Blood corpuscles are Unit
of three types, viz. erythrocytes (RBCs), 8.11 White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes
leucocytes (WBCs) and thrombocytes
(platelets). 1.
Leucocytes are colourless, nucleated,
amoeboid and phagocytic cells.
Unit
2.
They show diapedesis, i.e. squeezing out of
8.10 Red blood corpuscles / erythrocytes blood capillaries by amoeboid movement.
1.
Circular, biconcave, enucleated cells of about 3.
The size is about 8 to 15 µm.
7 µm in diameter and 2.5 µm in thickness. 4.
Total WBC count is 5000 to 11000 WBCs/
2.
RBC count is about 5.1 to 5.8 million RBCs / cu mm of blood.
cu mm in male and 4.3 to 5.2 million / cu mm 5.
The average life span of WBCs is about 3 to 4
in female. The average life span of RBC is days.
about 120 days. 6.
Leucopoiesis or formation of WBCs. It occurs
3.
Erythropoiesis is formation of RBCs. It occurs in red bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes,
in liver and spleen in foetus and in red bone tonsils, thymus and Payer’s patches.
marrow in adults. 7.
Leucocytosis is increase while leucopenia is
4.
The old RBCs are destroyed in liver and decrease in the number of WBCs.
spleen. 8.
Leukaemia or blood cancer is a pathological
5.
Polycythemia is increase while erythrocytopenia increase in number of WBCs.
is decrease in number of RBCs. 9.
The dead WBCs are destroyed by phagocytosis
6.
RBCs contain respiratory pigment called in blood, liver and lymph nodes.
haemoglobin which helps in transport of 10. Leucocytes are of two types, viz., granulocytes
oxygen and carbon dioxide. and agranulocytes.
7.
The normal haemoglobin content in adult 11. Granulocytes are of three types, viz.
male is 14 – 17 gm/100 ml of blood and neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
13 – 15 gm/100 ml of blood in adult female.
12. Agranulocytes are of two types, viz. monocytes
8.
Less amount of haemoglobin leads to anaemia. and lymphocytes.

13. Characteristics of different types of leucocytes :
Characters Neutrophils Basophils Acidophils Monocytes Lymphocytes
Chapter 8
(1) Percentage of 70% 0.5 – 1% 1 – 3% 3 – 5% 25 – 30%
leucocytes
(2) Nucleus Multilobed Twisted Bilobed Kidney shaped Spherical
(3) Cytoplasmic Fine granules, Large granules Large granules Nongranular Nongranular
granules Neutrophilic Basophilic Acidophilic Clear Clear
cytoplasm cytoplasm
(4) Functions Soldiers acting Heparin, Antiallergic and Phagocytosis Antibodies
as phagocytes Histamine and detoxification Acts as formation
serotonin scavengers
secretion
(5) Special Polymorphism Incite immediate Help in healing Differentiated Differentiated as
feature hypersensitivity of wounds as macrophages B-lymphocytes
reactions in tissue and T-lympho-
cytes
Unit 8.
The event that take place during blood clotting
are as follows :
8.12 Thrombocytes / Platelets
(1)
Release of thromboplastin from extrinsic
1.
Thrombocytes are smallest, non-nucleated, source in tissue and intrinsic source in plasma
round and biconvex. They are of about at injured site through a step-wise (cascade
2.5 to 5 m in diameter. Their count is about process) process.
2.5 – 4.5 lakhs / cu mm.
(2)
Formation of enzyme prothrombinase in the
2. Their life span is about 5 to 10 days. blood.
3.
Megakaryocytes of bone marrow form (3) Conversion of prothrombin into thrombin by
thrombocytes. prothrombinase.
4. Thrombopoiesis is the formation of platelets. (4)
Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin by
5.
Thrombocytosis is the increase while thrombin.
thrombocytopenia is the decrease in platelet (5) Formation of mesh by the fibrin fibres forming
count. the clot.
6.
Thrombocytes help in coagulation of blood by (6) The normal clotting time is 2 to 8 minutes.
releasing thromboplastin.
Unit
7. Blood clotting / coagulation of blood : Active
anticoagulants like heparin and antithrombin 8.13 Heart
are present in the intact blood vessels. But 1.

Heart is a hollow, muscular, conical organ
upon the rupture of a blood vessel, bleeding about the size of one’s fist with broad base
starts. The fluid blood is converted into and narrow apex tilted towards the left.
semisolid jelly by the process of blood 2. It is mesodermal in origin.
coagulation or clotting. 3.
It is situated in middle of the thoracic cavity
The clotting of blood is a complicated process in a space called mediastinum, between the
in which many factors (12 clotting factors) two lungs.
present in plasma and tissues are involved.

4.
The heart is 12 cm in length, 9 cm in breadth (6)
From the right ventricle deoxygenated blood
and 250 to 300 grams in weight. is sent to lungs through pulmonary trunk.
Chapter 8
5. Pericardium : Double layered membrane, (7)

From the left ventricle oxygenated blood is
these layers are as follows : sent to entire body by systemic aorta.
(1)
Fibrous pericardium : Outer, tough layer of (8) Ligamentum arteriosum connects the
inelastic fibrous connective tissue. pulmonary trunk and systemic aorta. It
(2) Serous pericardium : This inner pericardium represents ductus arteriosus of foetus.
has two layers, outer parietal layer and inner 8. Internal structure of heart :
visceral layer.
(1) There are four chambers in the heart, viz.,
(3) Parietal layer forms the inner lining of fibrous
two atria and two ventricles which can be
pericardium.
demarcated internally.
(4) Visceral layer or epicardium is next to heart
(2) Atria are thin walled upper receiving chambers
on the outer side.
separated from each other by interatrial
(5) Pericardial fluid is present between the parietal
septum.
and visceral layers of serous pericardium.
(3) The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood
6. Heart wall :
from all over the body through superior vena
(1) The heart wall has three layers, viz. outer
cava, inferior vena cava and from the heart
epicardium, middle myocardium and inner
through coronary sinus.
endocardium.
(4) The opening of inferior vena cava is guarded
(2) Epicardium has single layer of flat epithelial
by Eustachian valve while the opening of
cells called mesothelium.
coronary sinus is guarded by Thebesian valve.
(3)
Myocardium has cardiac muscle fibres
(5) The fossa ovalis is oval depression that is
responsible for movements of the heart.
present on the right side of interatrial septum.
(4) Endocardium has single layer of flat epithelial
It is the remnant of foramen ovale, an oval
cells called endothelium.
opening in the interatrial septum of the foetus.
7. External structure of heart :
(6) The left atrium receives oxygenated blood
(1) Human heart consists of two superior, small,
from the lungs through four openings of
thin walled receiving chambers called atria or
pulmonary veins.
auricles and two inferior, large, thick walled,
distributing chambers called ventricles. (7) Right and left atria open into the right and left
ventricles respectively through atrioventricular
(2) Atrio-ventricular groove or coronary sulcus, a
transverse groove which is present between apertures. These are respectively guarded by
the atria and the ventricles is seen externally. tricuspid and bicuspid valves made up of
connective tissue.
(3) The interventricular sulcus is present between
the right and left ventricles. Coronary arteries (8) The right atrioventricular valve has three flaps
and coronary veins are present in the sulci. hence called tricuspid valve while left
The coronary veins join to form coronary atrioventricular valve has two flaps hence
sinus which opens into the right atrium. called bicuspid valve or mitral valve.
(4) The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood (9) These valves are attached to papillary muscles
from all over the body through superior vena of ventricles by chordae tendinae. The valves
cava and inferior vena cava. are prevented from turning back into the atria
(5) Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from during the contraction of ventricles due to
lungs through two pairs of pulmonary veins. chordae tendinae.

(10)
Ventricles are two thick walled lower, Unit
distributing chambers separated from each
8.14 Working mechanism of human heart
Chapter 8
other by interventricular septum.
(11) Left ventricle has thick wall. The inner surface 1. Cardiac cycle : One atrial systole (0.1 second),
of the ventricle is thrown into a series of one ventricular systole (0.3 second), followed
irregular muscular ridges called columnae by a joint diastole (0.4 second) is called a
carnae or trabeculae carnae. cardiac cycle. One cardiac cycle takes place in
about 0.8 second and is also called a heartbeat.
(12) Pulmonary trunk or aorta arises from the
right ventricle carrying deoxygenated blood to Atrial
(1) systole
: During atrial systole, the
lungs for oxygenation. Systemic aorta arises deoxygenated blood from the right atrium
from the left ventricle carrying oxygenated enters the right ventricle through
blood to all parts of the body. atrioventricular aperture whereas the
oxygenated blood from left atrium enters the
(13) Pulmonary aorta and systemic aorta have
left ventricle through atrioventricular aperture.
three semilunar valves at the base which
In normal conditions atrial systole lasts for
prevent the backward flow of blood during
0.1 second and atrial diastole lasts for
ventricular diastole.
0.7 second.
9.
Pumping action of heart : Heartbeat is the
Ventricular
(2) systole : During ventricular
rhythmic contraction, i.e. rhythmic contraction
systole, the deoxygenated blood from the right
(systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the heart.
ventricle enters the pulmonary trunk and the
The rate of heartbeat is about 72 times per
oxygenated blood from the left ventricle enters
minute during which it pumps out about
the aorta. The backflow of blood into atria is
5 litres of blood which equals cardiac output.
prevented by the closure of cuspid valves of
10. Conducting system of heart :
both atrioventricular apertures (lubb sound is
(1) The heartbeat in human beings originates in
produced) Ventricular systole lasts for
modified cardiac muscles called sinoatrial
0.3 second and ventricular diastole lasts for
node (S.A. node). Therefore, the heart is said
0.5 second.
to be myogenic.
Joint diastole or complete diastole : Both
(3)
(2) The conducting system of heart consists of
atria and ventricles undergo relaxation.
sinoatrial node (SAN), atrioventricular node
During ventricular diastole the backflow of
(AVN), Bundle of His and Purkinje fibres.
blood from pulmonary trunk and systemic
(3) The heart shows auto-rhythmicity as the aorta into respective ventricles is prevented
impulse for its rhythmic movement during by closure of semilunar valves (dub sound is
beating is developed inside the heart. produced). The joint diastole lasts for
(4) The autorhythmic fibres are developed during 0.4 second.
embryonic life. They act as pacemaker by 2. Regulation of cardiac activity :
setting the rhythm for the heart. They also
(1) Cardiovascular centre present in the medulla
form conducting system for conducting
oblongata of brain regulates the working of
impulses throughout heart muscles.
the heart.
(5)
The impulse travels in the heart in the following
(2) Sympathetic nerves secrete adrenaline, which
manner : Sinoatrial node (Pacemaker) 
increases the rate of the heart.
Internodal pathway  Atrioventricular node 
(3) Parasympathetic nerves secrete acetylcholine,
Bundle of His  Right and left bundle
which decreases the rate of the heart.
branches  Purkinje fibres.

(4)
Conditions like hypoxia, acidosis, alkalosis Arteries : Blood vessels carrying blood away
(1)
decrease cardiac activity whereas hormones from the heart are called arteries. Arteries
Chapter 8
like epinephrine and nor epinephrine increase form arterioles which in turn divide and re-
cardiac activity (chemical control). divide to form capillaries.
+ +
(5) Elevated level of K and Na decreases cardiac Veins : Blood vessels carrying blood to the
(2)
activity. heart are called veins. They have broad lumen
and show low blood pressure.
Unit
Capillaries : Capillaries are thinnest of blood
(3)
8.15 Blood vessels
vessels and formed by division and redivision
1.
Blood vessels are of three types, viz. arteries, of arteriole. Capillaries unite to form venules.
veins and capillaries. Venules join to form veins.
2. A chart showing the differences between arteries, veins and blood capillaries :
Arteries Veins Capillaries
(1) Carrying blood from the heart Carrying blood from the Arteries break into capillaries
to other parts of the body. different parts of the body to the and capillaries unite to form
heart. veins.
(2) Thick walled. Thin walled. Very thin with permeable walls.
(3) Arteries break up into Venules unite to form larger Exchange of materials take place
arterioles. veins. through the capillary walls.
(4) Show high blood pressure. Show least blood pressure. ––
(5) Shows three layers : Shows three layers :
Tunica adventitia or externa Tunica externa
––
Tunica media Tunica media
Tunica interna or intima Tunica interna
(6) Arteries carry oxygenated Veins carry deoxygenated blood
blood to all parts of body towards the heart
––
(exception – pulmonary (exception – pulmonary vein)
artery)
(7) Arteries are devoid of valves. Veins show valves at regular
––
intervals.
 Angiology is the study of blood vessels.
3. Heartbeat, pulse and cardiac output : (5)

Cardiac output is amount of blood
(1)
Heartbeat is the rhythmic contraction and pumped out of the ventricles per minute.
relaxation of the heart. i.e 72  70 ml  5040 or about 5 litres of
(2) One systole and one diastole make one blood per minute.
heartbeat. (6) Tachycardia is faster heart rate
(3)
Heart rate is number of beats per minute (Over 100 beats per minute).
(72 times per minute). (7) Bradycardia is slower heart rate
(4) Stroke volume is amount of blood pumped (Over 60 beats per minute).
out of the ventricles each time (About 70 ml (8) Pulse is a pressure wave travelling through
of blood). the arteries after each ventricular systole.

(9) Pulse in the radial artery at the wrist is pressure (More than 140/90 mm Hg blood
commonly measured. pressure values).
Chapter 8
(10)
The pulse rate per minute indicates the heart  Excessive high blood pressure of about
rate. It is same as that of heart rate (72 per 230/120 mm Hg may cause rupturing of
minute). blood vessels of eye (causing blindness),
(11)
Pulse rate changes with age, sex, posture, kidney (nephritis) and brain (stroke or
exercise and emotional state. paralysis).

Factors such as arteriosclerosis,
Unit
atherosclerosis, obesity, physical or
8.16 Blood pressure (B.P.)
emotional stress, alcoholism, smoking,
1. Blood pressure : Arterial blood pressure is cholesterol rich diet, increased secretion of
the lateral pressure or force exerted by flowing renin, epinephrine or aldosterone, etc. can
blood on the wall of arteries. cause blood pressure.
2.
Sphygmomanometer is the instrument used 7. Coronary artery disease (CAD) :
for measuring the blood pressure. (1) Atherosclerosis (narrowing of coronary
3.
The units of blood pressure are mm Hg arteries) can cause coronary artery disease.
millimetres of mercury). (2) In CAD the heart muscle is damaged because
4.
Blood pressure is of two types – systolic blood of an inadequate amount of blood due to
pressure and diastolic blood pressure. obstruction of its blood supply.
(1) Systolic blood pressure : It is the maximum (3) Depending on the degree of obstruction
pressure of blood during ventricular systole. symptoms may be mild chest pain (angina
Normal systolic pressure is 120 mm Hg. pectoris) or heart attack (myocardial
(2) Diastolic blood pressure : It is the minimum infarction).
pressure of blood during ventricular diastole. 8. Atherosclerosis : Deposition of fatty substances
Normal diastolic pressure is 80 mm Hg. in the lining of arteries, resulting in the
(3) The normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg. formation of an atherosclerotic plaque. These
(4) Pulse pressure is the difference between depositions decrease the size of the arterial
systolic and diastolic pressure. Normal pulse lumen.
pressure is 40 mm Hg. 9. Angina pectoris : Angina pectoris is the pain
5. Factors affecting arterial blood pressure : in the chest due to reduction in blood supply
to cardiac muscle caused by narrowed and
(1) Cardiac output
hardened coronary arteries.
(2) Peripheral resistance
10. Angiography : Angiography is X-ray imaging
(3) Blood volume
of the cardiac blood vessels to locate the
(4) Length and diameter of blood vessels
position of blockages. Remedial procedures
(5) Viscosity of blood like angioplasty or bypass surgery are carried
(6) Age out depending upon the degree of blockage.
(7) Gender 11. Heart Transplant : Heart transplant is
(8) Venous return replacement of severely damaged heart by
(9) Sleep, emotions normal heart from brain-dead or recently
(10) Exercise, anxiety dead donor. This procedure is necessary in
patients with end-stage heart failure and
6. Hypertension :
severe coronary arterial disease.
 Hypertension means higher values of blood

12. Silent heart attack : Heart attack that lacks of electrical variations produced by the heart
the general symptoms of classic heart attack during one heartbeat or cardiac cycle.
Chapter 8
like extreme chest pain, hypertension, 2.

Electrocardiogram or ECG machine is the
shortness of breath, sweating and dizziness is instrument used to record action potentials
known as silent heart attack or silent generated by heart muscles.
myocardial infarction. Men are more affected 3.
Einthoven in 1903 discovered this technique,
by silent heart attack than women. hence he is known as the “Father of
Unit Electrocardiography”.
8.17 Electrocardiogram 4.
A normal ECG consists of different types of
waves such as P-wave, QR S-complex wave
1.
Electrocardiogram or ECG is graphic record
and T-wave.
5. Waves of ECG and their significance :

Wave Characteristic Cause Indication
P-Wave Upward and Impulse generated by SA node Arterial depolarization causing
small atrial contraction
QRS-complex Downward, large Spreading of impulse from SA Ventricular depolarization
upright triangular node to AV node then to bundle causing ventricular contraction
of His and Purkinje fibres
T-wave Broad upward No new impulse Ventricular repolarization
causing ventricular relaxation
6. Abnormal functioning of heart such as in end. Lymph capillaries are wider than blood
coronary artery diseases, heart block, angina capillaries and are lined by endothelium of
pectoris, tachycardia, ischemic heart disease, thin and flat cells.
myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, etc. can (3) Lymphatic vessels are formed by the union of
be diagnosed by ECG. lymphatic capillaries. These are thin walled
Unit having numerous valves to prevent backflow.
8.18 Lymphatic system Thoracic or left lymphatic duct and right

lymphatic duct are the main lymphatic vessels
1.
Lymph, lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic
in the body.
vessels and lymph nodes together constitute
2. Functions of lymphatic system :
lymphatic system.
(1) Draining off the excess tissue fluid from the
(1) Lymph is the tissue fluid that bathes the cells
extracellular spaces back into the blood.
and is collected in lymphatic capillaries.
Lymph is a fluid connective tissue just like (2) Transport of carbon dioxide and metabolic
blood but is without RBCs, platelets and some wastes from the tissue fluid. Transport of
plasma proteins. It contains carbon dioxide lymphocytes and antibodies from the
and metabolic wastes. lymphatic nodes to the blood.
(2) Lymphatic capillaries are thin walled vessels (3) Transport of absorbed fats from the intestine
interwoven with the blood capillaries, present to the blood.
in all the tissue spaces. They are not connected (4) Destruction of invading microorganisms and
with blood capillaries and are blind at one foreign particles in the lymph nodes.

 (9) Pacemaker of heart is .......... .
(a) SA node (b) AV node
() Indicates question from the textbook.
Chapter 8
(c) His bundle (d) Purkinje fibers
Q. 1. Multiple choice questions :  (10) Which of the following is without nucleus ?
(1 mark each)
(a) Red blood corpuscle (b) Neutrophil
 (1) The muscular structure that separates the (c) Basophil (d) Lymphocyte
thoracic and abdominal cavity is .......... .  (11) Cockroach shows which kind of circulatory
(a) pleura (b) diaphragm system ?
(c) trachea (d) epithelium (a) Open (b) Closed
 (2)
What is the minimum number of plasma (c) Lymphatic (d) Double
membrane that oxygen has to diffuse across  (12) Diapedesis can be seen in .......... .
to pass from air in the alveolus to (a) RBC (b) WBC
haemoglobin inside a R.B.C. ? (c) Platelet (d) neuron
(a) two (b) three  (13) Opening of inferior vena cava is guarded by
(c) four (d) five .......... .
 (3) .......... is a sound producing organ. (a) bicuspid valve (b) tricuspid valve
(a) Larynx (b) Pharynx (c) Eustachian valve (d) Thebesian valve
(c) Tonsils (d) Trachea  (14)
.......... wave in ECG represent atrial
 (4) The maximum volume of gas that is inhaled depolarization.
during breathing in addition to T.V. is (a) P (b) QRS complex (c) Q (d) T

.......... .  (15) The fluid seen in the intercellular spaces in
Human is .......... .
(a) residual volume (b) IRV
(a) blood (b) lymph
(c) GRV. (d) vital capacity
(c) interstitial fluid (d) water
 (5) .......... muscles contract when the external
(16) The nasal cavity is divided into right and
intercostals muscles contract.
left nasal chambers by a .......... .
(a) Internal abdominal
(a) sphenoid (b) palatine
(b) Jaw
(c) mesethmoid (d) zygomatic
(c) Muscles in bronchial walls
(17) The right lung is divided into .......... .
(d) Diaphragm
(a) 3 lobes (b) 2 lobes
 (6)
Movement of cytoplasm in unicellular
(c) 4 lobes (d) 6 lobes
organisms is called .......... .
(18)
Carbon dioxide is carried in the blood
(a) diffusion (b) cyclosis
mainly as .......... .
(c) circulation (d) thrombosis (a) sodium carbonate
 (7) Which of the following animals do not have (b) sodium bicarbonate
closed circulation ?
(c) carbaminohaemoglobin
(a) Earthworm (b) Rabbit (d) carbonic acid
(c) Butterfly (d) Shark (19) Transport of oxygen is carried out by
 (8) Diapedesis is performed by .......... . .......... .
(a) erythrocytes (b) thrombocytes (a) plasma (b) lungs
(c) adipocytes (d) leucocytes (c) RBCs (d) nostrils
(20)
Respiration taking place at the alveoli of (29) Over inflation of the lungs is prevented due
lungs is called .......... . to .......... .
Chapter 8
(a) internal respiration (a) Bohr’s effect

(b) external respiration (b) Conditioned reflex
(c) cellular respiration (c) Hering-Breuer reflex
(d) tissue respiration (d) Haldane effect
(21) The volume of air inspired or expired during (30)
Which of the following prevents collapsing
normal breathing is .......... . of trachea ?
(a) ERV (b) IRV (c) TV (d) VC (a) Muscles (b) Diaphragm
(22) What is the partial pressure of oxygen and (c) Ribs (d) Cartilaginous rings
carbon dioxide respectively in the (31)
Which one of the following produces
atmospheric air ? antibodies ?
(a) PPO2 159 mm Hg, PPCO2 0.3 mm Hg (a) Monocytes (b) Erythrocytes
(b) PPO2 104 mm Hg, PPCO2 40 mm Hg (c) Lymphocytes (d) Monocytes
(c) PPO2 40 mm Hg, PPCO2 45 mm Hg (32) Plasma protein which initiate blood
(d) PPO2 95 mm Hg, PPCO2 40 mm Hg coagulation is .......... .
(23) The vital capacity of human lung is equal to (a) prothrombin (b) fibrinogen
.......... . (c) thrombin (d) fibrin
(a) 3500 ml (b) 4600 ml (33) The covering of heart is .......... .
(c) 500 ml (d) 1200 ml (a) perichondrium (b) pericardium
(24) The exchange of gases between alveolar air (c) periosteum (d) peritoneum
and alveolar capillaries occurs by .......... . (34) Left atrioventricular aperture is guarded by
(a) osmosis (b) active transport .......... .
(c) absorption (d) diffusion (a) tricuspid valve
(25) Oxygen dissociation curve will shift to right (b) Eustachian valve
on the decrease of .......... . (c) bicuspid valve
(a) acidity (d) semilunar valve
(b) carbon dioxide concentration (35) The pulmonary trunk and systemic aorta
(c) temperature are joined by .......... .
(d) pH (a) chordae tendinae
(26) Respiratory organs in scorpion are .......... . (b) columnae carnae
(a) gills (b) book lungs (c) ligamentum arteriosum
(c) skin (d) book gills (d) Purkinje fibres
(27)
Breakdown of alveoli of lungs resulting in (36) Atrioventricular node is located in .......... .
reducing surface area for gas exchange is (a) left atrium (b) right atrium
known as .......... . (c) left ventricle (d) right ventricle
(a) emphysema (b) sneezing (37) .......... is most commonly used to feel pulse.
(c) pneumonia (d) tuberculosis (a) Radial vein
(28) During inspiration, the diaphragm .......... . (b) Brachial artery
(a) relaxes (b) contracts (c) Brachial vein
(c) expands (d) shows no change (d) Radial artery

(38) QRS is related to .......... . (46) Decrease in platelet count is called .......... .
(a) atrial contraction (a) thrombocytopenia (b) thrombocytosis
Chapter 8
(b) ventricular contraction (c) thrombokinase (d) thromboplastin
(c) atrial relaxation (47) Atrioventricular groove is also called a
(d) ventricular relaxation .......... .
(39)
Blood is a fluid connective tissue derived (a) foramen ovale
from .......... . (b) ligamentum arteriosum
(a) ectoderm (b) mesoderm (c) coronary sulcus
(c) endoderm (d) epithelium (d) ductus arteriosus
(40)
What is the increase in number of RBCs (48) The coronary sinus opens into the .......... .
called ? (a) left atrium (b) right atrium
(a) Erythropoiesis (b) Polycythaemia (c) left ventricle (d) right ventricle
(c) Erythrocytopenia (d) Erythroblastosis (49) Name the valve from the following that
(41) What is the increase in the number of WBCs guards the opening of inferior vena cava.
called ? (a) Tricuspid valve (b) Semilunar valve
(a) Leucopoiesis (b) Leukopenia (c) Eustachian valve (d) Thebesian valve
(c) Leucocytosis (d) Leukaemia (50) Name the valve from the following guarding
(42) In which of the following diseases there is the opening of coronary sinus .......... .
uncontrolled increase in number of WBCs ? (a) Thebesian valve (b) Eustachian valve
(a) Leucopoiesis (b) Leukopenia (c) Tricuspid valve (d) Semilunar valve
(c) Leucocytosis (d) Leukaemia (51) What is an oval aperture in the interatrial
(43) What is the decrease in the number of WBCs septum of the foetus called ?
called ? (a) Fossa ovalis (b) Foramen ovalis
(a) Leucopoiesis (b) Leukopenia (c) Ligamentum arteriosum
(c) Leucocytosis (d) Leukaemia (d) Ductus arteriosus
(44) Which is the correct arrangement of types (52) What is the meaning of stroke volume ?
of WBCs with respect to their number in (a) Amount of blood in the body
blood ? (b) Pressure of contraction of heart
(Consider Neutrophil = N, Eosinophil = E, (c) Amount of blood put out of the ventricles
Basophil = B, Monocyte = M and Lymphocyte = L) in one minute
(a) NLMEB (b) BEMLN (d) Amount of blood put out of the ventricles
(c) NEBLM (d) MEBLN in one beat
(45)
Which is the correct order in which the (53)
How much amount of blood is put out of
proteins participate in clotting of blood ? the heart during one minute ?
(a) Prothrombinase  Prothrombin  (a) Equal to cardiac output

Thromboplastin Thrombin (b) Equal to stroke volume
(b) Thromboplastin  Prothrombinase  (c) Equal to half of blood volume
Prothrombin  Thrombin (d) Equal to quarter of blood volume
(c) Prothrombin  Thromboplastin  (54) What is the time taken for one cardiac cycle
Thrombin  Prothrombinase of normal human being ?
(d) Thrombin  Prothrombin  (a) 0.1 second (b) 0.3 second
Thromboplastin  Prothrombinase (c) 0.4 second (d) 0.8 second

(55) Deposition of fatty substances in the lining (14) (a) P
of arteries results in .......... . (15) (b) lymph
Chapter 8
(a) arteriosclerosis (b) atherosclerosis (16) (c) mesethmoid

(c) hyperglycemia (d) hypotension (17) (a) 3 lobes
(56) Largest number of white blood corpuscles (18) (b) sodium bicarbonate
are .......... . (19) (c) RBCs
(a) eosinophils (b) basophils (20) (b) external respiration
(c) neutrophils (d) monocytes (21) (c) TV
(57)
Which of the following animal have open (22) (b) PPO2 104 mm Hg, PPCO2 40 mm Hg
circulatory system ? (23) (b) 4600 ml
(a) Earthworm (b) Cockroach (24) (d) diffusion
(c) Frog (d) Rabbit (25) (d) pH
(58)
Which of the following leucocytes have (26) (b) book lungs
unlobed nucleus ? (27) (a) emphysema
(a) lymphocyte (b) eosinophils (28) (b) contracts
(c) neutrophils (d) basophils (29) (c) Hering-Breuer reflex
(59) Carbonic anhydrase is found in .......... . (30) (d) cartilaginous rings
(a) WBC (b) RBCs (31) (c) Lymphocytes
(c) thrombocytes (d) blood plasma (32) (a) prothrombin
(60) The typical Lubb – Dup sounds heard in (33) (b) pericardium
the heart of a healthy person are due to (34) (c) bicuspid valve
.......... .
(35) (c) ligamentum arteriosum
(a) closing of cuspid valves followed by the
(36) (b) right atrium
closing of the semilunar valves
(37) (d) Radial artery
(b) closing of semilunar valves
(38) (b) ventricular contraction
(c) closing of tricuspid valves
(39) (b) mesoderm
(d) closing of bicuspid valves
(40) (b) Polycythaemia
Ans.
(41) (c) Leucocytosis
(1) (b) diaphragm
(42) (d) Leukaemia
(2) (a) two
(43) (b) Leukopenia
(3) (a) Larynx
(44) (a) NLMEB
(4) (b) IRV
(45) (b) Thromboplastin  Prothrombinase 
(5) (d) Diaphragm Prothrombin  Thrombin
(6) (b) cyclosis (46) (a) thrombocytopenia
(7) (c) Butterfly (47) (c) coronary sulcus
(8) (d) leucocytes (48) (b) right atrium
(9) (a) SA node (49) (c) Eustachian valve
(10) (a) Red blood corpuscle (50) (a) Thebesian valve
(11) (a) Open (51) (b) Foramen ovalis
(12) (b) WBC (52) (d) Amount of blood put out of the ventricles
(13) (c) Eustachian valve in one beat

(53) (a) Equal to cardiac output (3) Alveoli – (b) Air sacs
(54) (d) 0.8 second (4) Epiglottis – (a) Lid of larynx 
Chapter 8
(55) (b) atherosclerosis (4)
(56) (c) neutrophils Respiratory capacities Respiratory volumes
(57) (b) Cockroach (1) Residual volume (RV) (a) 500 ml
(58) (a) lymphocyte (2) Vital capacity (VC) (b) 2000 – 3000 ml
(59) (b) RBCs (3) Tidal volume (TV) (c) 1100 – 1200 ml
(60) (a) closing of cuspid valves followed by the (4) Inspiratory reserve (d) 4100 – 4600 ml
closing of the semilunar valves  volume (IRV)
Q. 2. Match the columns : (1 or 2 marks each) Ans.

 (1) (1) Residual volume (RV) – (c) 1100 – 1200 ml
(2) Vital capacity (VC) – (d) 4100 – 4600 ml
Respiratory surface Organism
(3) Tidal volume (TV) – (a) 500 ml
(1) Plasma membrane (a) Insect
(2) Lungs (b) Salamander (4) Inspiratory reserve – (b) 2000 – 3000 ml
(3) External gills (c) Bird volume (IRV) 
(4) Internal gills (d) Amoeba (5)

(5) Trachea (e) Fish Disease Symptoms
Ans. (1) Plasma membrane – (d) Amoeba (1) Asthma (a) Fully blown out alveoli
(2) Lungs – (c) Bird (2) Bronchitis (b) Inflammation of lungs
(3) External gills – (b) Salamander (3) Emphysema with cough and fever
(4) Internal gills – (e) Fish (4) Pneumonia (c) Spasm of Bronchial
(5) Trachea – (a) Insect 
muscles
(2) (d) Inflammation of bronchi
Animal Respiratory organ Ans.
(1) Fishes (a) Trachea (1) Asthma – (c) Spasm of Bronchial muscles

(2) Birds / Reptiles (b) Moist cuticle (2) Bronchitis – (d) Inflammation of bronchi
(3) Insects (c) Gills (3) Emphysema – (a) Fully blown out alveoli
(4) Earthworm (d) Lungs (4) Pneumonia – (b) Inflammation of lungs
Ans. (1) Fishes – (c) Gills with cough and fever 
(2) Birds / Reptiles – (d) Lungs (6)

(3) Insects – (a) Trachea Valves in heart Location
(4) Earthworm – (b) Moist cuticle  (1) Bicuspid/Mitral (a) Opening of inferior
(3) valve vena cava
Respiratory organs Alternative name (2) Tricuspid valve (b) Opening of coronary
(1) Larynx (a) Lid of larynx (3) Eustachian valve sinus
(2) Trachea (b) Air sacs (4) Thebesian valve (c) Left atrioventricular

(3) Alveoli (c) Sound box aperture
(4) Epiglottis (d) Windpipe (d) Right atrioventricular
Ans. (1) Larynx – (c) Sound box aperture
(2) Trachea – (d) Windpipe

Ans. (2) Neutrophils – (a) Phagocytic in function
(1) Bicuspid / Mitral valve – (c) Left (3) Eosinophils/Acidophils – (d) Anti-allergic
Chapter 8
atrioventricular aperture [Antihistamine] in function

(2) Tricuspid valve – (d) Right atrioventricular (4) B-lymphocytes – (b) Responsible for
aperture Humoral immunity 
(3) Eustachian valve – (a) Opening of inferior (9)

vena cava Waves recorded Heart activity
(4) Thebesian valve – (b) Opening of coronary in ECG
sinus 
(1) P wave (a) Ventricular
(7) repolarization
Blood vessel Functions (2) QRS complex (b) Atrial depolarization
(1) Pulmonary (a) Carries oxygenated (3) T wave (c) Isoelectric segment
aorta blood to left atrium (4) ST segment (d) Ventricular
(2) Superior vena (b) Carries oxygenated depolarization
cava blood to all body parts Ans. (1) P wave – (b) Atrial depolarization
(3) Pulmonary (c) Carries deoxygenated (2) QRS complex – (d) Ventricular
vein blood from upper parts depolarization
of body to right atrium (3) T wave – (a) Ventricular repolarization
(4) Aorta (d) Carries deoxygenated
(4) ST segment – (c) Isoelectric segment 
blood to lungs
(10)
Ans.
Events in cardiac cycle Time duration
(1) Pulmonary aorta – (d) Carries deoxygenated
(1) Atrial systole (a) 0.3 second
blood to lungs
(2) Atrial diastole (b) 0.5 second
(2) Superior vena cava – (c) Carries
(3) Ventricular systole (c) 0.1 second
deoxygenated blood from upper parts of
body to right atrium (4) Ventricular diastole (d) 0.7 second
(3) Pulmonary vein – (a) Carries oxygenated Ans. (1) Atrial systole – (c) 0.1 second
blood to left atrium (2) Atrial diastole – (d) 0.7 second
(4) Aorta – (b) Carries oxygenated blood to all (3) Ventricular systole – (a) 0.3 second
body parts  (4) Ventricular diastole – (b) 0.5 second 
(8)
Q.
3.
Classify the following to form
Cells Functions Column B as per the category given in
(1) T-lymphocytes (a) Phagocytic in function Column A : (3 marks)
(2) Neutrophils (b) Responsible for (1) Classify the following composition of blood
Humoral immunity plasma given below as per Column ‘A’ and
(3) Eosinophils / (c) Responsible for cell- complete Column ‘B’. Select from the given
Acidophils medicated immunity options :
(4) B-lymphocytes (d) Anti-allergic (i) Serum albumin (ii) Bicarbonates
[Antihistamine] in (iii) Urea (iv) Sulphates of sodium
function
(v) Fibrinogen (vi) Uric acid
Ans. (1) T-lymphocytes – (c) Responsible for
cell-medicated immunity

Column A Column B Column A Column B
(1) Plasma proteins (1) Occupational disorders
Chapter 8
(2) Nitrogenous waste (2) Disorders due to smoking
(3) Inorganic salts and air pollution
Ans. (3) Disorders due to viruses
Column A Column B and bacteria
(1) Plasma proteins Serum albumin Ans.

Fibrinogen Column A Column B
(2) Nitrogenous waste Urea, Uric acid (1) Occupational disorders Asbestosis,
(3) Inorganic salts Bicarbonates, Silicosis
Sulphates of sodium (2) Disorders due to smoking Emphysema,

and air pollution Chronic
(2)
Classify the following animals having bronchitis
different respiratory organs given below as (3) Disorders due to viruses Pneumonia,

per Column ‘A’ and complete Column ‘B’. and bacteria Laryngitis
Select from the given options : 
(i) Scorpion (ii) Reptiles (4) Classify the following white blood corpuscles
(iii) Amphibian tadpoles of frog given below as per Column ‘A’ and complete

(iv) Spiders (v)
Birds Column ‘B’. Select from the given options :
(vi) Salamanders (i) Eosinophils (ii) T-lymphocytes
Column A Column B (iii) Neutrophils (iv) Basophils
(1) External gills (v) B-lymphocytes (vi) Monocytes
(2) Book lungs Column A Column B
(3) Lungs (1) Phagocytic cells
Ans. (2) Cells involved in giving

immune response
Column A Column B
(3)
Cells that increase
(1) External gills Amphibian tadpoles
during allergic and
of frog, Salamanders
anti-allergic responses
(2) Book lungs Scorpion, Spiders
Ans.
(3) Lungs Reptiles, Birds
Column A Column B

(1) Phagocytic cells Neutrophils
(3) Classify the following disorders of respiratory
(2) Cells involved in giving Monocytes
system given below as per Column ‘A’ and
immune response T-lymphocytes-
complete Column ‘B’. Select from the given
(3)
Cells that increase B-lymphocytes
options :
during allergic and Eosinophils
(i) Pneumonia (ii) Asbestosis
anti-allergic responses Basophils
(iii) Emphysema (iv) Laryngitis
(v) Chronic bronchitis (vi) Silicosis 

(9) What is the action of carbonic anhydrase
Q. 4. Very Short Answer Questions :
in the RBCs of blood ?
(1 mark each)
Chapter 8
Ans. In the RBCs, CO2 combines with water in

(1) How many molecules of ATP are formed
the presence of a Zn containing enzyme,
when one molecule of glucose is oxidized ?
carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid.
Ans. 38 molecules of ATP are formed when one In the presence of carbonic anhydrase
molecule of glucose is oxidized. 
carbonic acid immediately dissociates into
(2)
What are the three regions of nasal HCO3– and H+ ions leading to large
chamber ? –
accumulation of HCO3 inside the RBCs. 
Ans. Vestibule, respiratory part and sensory part (10)
How much energy is required for the
are the three regions of nasal chamber.  formation of single molecule of ATP ?
(3) What is meant by respiratory cycle ? Ans. For the formation of a single molecule of
Ans. Alternate inspiration and expiration together ATP about 7.3 Kcal of energy is required. 
make one respiratory cycle.  (11) What is Hamburger’s phenomena ?
(4) Why is it dangerous to sleep in a garage Ans. The diffusion of Chloride ions into the RBCs
where automobiles have running engines ? to main the ionic balance between RBCs
Ans. It is dangerous to sleep in a garage where and the plasma is called Hamburger’s
automobiles have running engines because phenomena or chloride shift. 
it may cause carbon monoxide poisoning.  (12) What is the role of Hering – Breuer reflex
(5)
In which form major part of CO2 is in respiration ?
transported in the blood ? Ans. The Hering
–
Breuer reflex controls the
Ans. CO2 is transported in the blood in the form depth and rhythm of respiration. It also
of sodium and potassium bicarbonates.  prevents the lungs from inflating to the
(6) Which are the parts of plant that help in point of bursting. 
the process of gaseous exchange ? (13) How much blood is present in the human
Ans. The parts of plants that help in the process body and from which embryonic germ
of gaseous exchange are stomata, lenticels, layer is it derived ?
etc.  Ans. An average adult has about 4 to 6 litres of
(7)
Which respiratory membranes help in blood, which is red coloured fluid connective
gaseous exchange between the alveolar tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm. 
air and the blood ? (14) What is the percentage of plasma in the
Ans. The layer of squamous epithelium lining the blood and how much water does it
alveolus, basement membrane and a layer contain ?
of squamous epithelium lining the capillary Ans. There is 55% of plasma in the blood and it
wall help in gaseous exchange between the contains 90 to 92% water.
alveolar air and the blood.  (15) What is the average life span of RBCs ?
(8) When will the oxygen dissociation curve Ans. RBCs have a life span of about 120 days. 
shift towards the right ? (16) What is normal RBC count and total WBC
Ans. The oxygen dissociation curve will shift count ?
+
towards the right due to increase in H Ans. Average RBC count in adult human is 5.1 to
concentration, increase in ppCO2, rise in 5.8 million per cubic mm and average total
temperature and rise in DPG (2, 3 WBC count in adult human is 5000 to 9000
diphosphoglycerate), formed in RBCs during per cubic mm. 
glycolysis. 

(17) What is erythropoiesis ? (25) What is the difference between tachycardia
Ans. The process of formation of Red Blood Cells and bradycardia ?
Chapter 8
is called erythropoiesis.  Ans. The faster heart rate over 100 beats per
(18)
What is increase in the RBC number minute is called tachycardia, while the
called ? slower heart rate below 60 beats per minute
Ans. The increase in the number of RBCs is is called bradycardia. 
called polycythemia.  (26)

What is the difference between chordae
(19) What is leucopenia and erythrocytopenia ? tendinae and columnae carnae ?
Ans. The decrease in the number of white blood Ans.

Chordae tendinae are chords that connect
cells is called leucopenia whereas decrease bicuspid and tricuspid valves with the
in the number of red blood cells is called papillary muscles in ventricles while
erythrocytopenia. 
columnae carnae are series of irregular
muscular ridges present on the inner
(20) Where are Eustachian valve and Thebesian
surface of the ventricles. 
valve located ?
(27) Which valves prevent the backward flow
Ans. Eustachian valve is present at the opening
of blood at the time of ventricular systole ?
of inferior vena cava while Thebesian valve
is present near the opening of coronary Ans. Semilunar valves located at the base of
sinus. 
pulmonary artery and systemic aorta
prevent the backward flow of blood at the
(21)
What is foramen ovale and how is it
time of ventricular systole. 
related to fossa ovalis ?
(28)
What are the time intervals for atrial
Ans. Foramen ovale is an oval opening in the
systole, ventricular systole and joint
interatrial septum of the foetal heart
diastole ?
representing the fossa ovalis which lies as a
depression on the right side of interatrial Ans. Atrial systole is for 0.1 second, ventricular
septum. 
systole is for 0.3 second and joint diastole is
for 0.4 second. 
(22)
When is a person described as having
hypertension ? (29)
In the electrocardiogram shown below,
which wave represents ventricular
Ans.
When the blood pressure values are more
diastole ?
than 140 mm Hg systolic pressure and
more than 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure,
then the person is described as having
hypertension.

(23)
What are the effects of excessive
hypertension ?
Ans. Excessive hypertension of values about
220/120 mm Hg can cause blindness,
nephritis, stroke or paralysis. 
(24)
What is the difference between anemia
Ans. ‘T’ wave represents ventricular diastole. 
and leukemia ?
(30) Mention the role of pacemaker in human
Ans. Anemia is disorder caused due to the
heart.
deficiency of heaemoglobin while leukemia
is blood cancer in which there is abnormal Ans. Pacemaker can generate wave of contraction
increase in the number of white blood cells. or cardiac impulse for rhythmic contraction

of heart. 

(31)
Which structure in the heart is called during that step might result in a brief blast
pacemaker ? of light and heat and may lead to death of
Chapter 8
Ans. Sinuatrial node [S. A. node] in the heart the cell. Hence respiration is a step-wise
wall is called a pacemaker.  process. 
(32) What is electrocardiograph ? (39) Why do the veins have valves ?

Ans. The instrument which is used to record [Use your brain power! TB page no. 174]
action potentials generated in the heart Ans. The veins have valves at regular intervals to
muscles is called an electrocardiograph or prevent backflow of blood as blood flows
ECG machine.  through veins with low pressure. 
(33) What is angina pectoris ? (40) What is Bohr effect ?

Ans. Angina pectoris is the pain in the chest Ans. Bohr effect is the shift of oxyhaemoglobin
caused due to reduction in blood supply to dissociation curve due to change in partial
cardiac muscle caused due to narrowed pressure of CO in blood. 
and hardened coronary arteries.  (41) What is Haldane effect ?

(34) What is pulse pressure ? Ans. Decrease of pH of blood, due to increase in
Ans. Difference between systolic and diastolic the number of H+ ions, HCO3 -changes into
pressure is called pulse pressure which is H2O and CO2 by the presence of
normally 40 mm Hg.  oxyhaemoglobin is called Haldane effect. 
(35)
 Why does trachea have ‘C’-shaped rings Q. 5. Give definitions of the following :
of cartilage ? (1 mark each)
Ans. Trachea is supported by ‘C’-shaped rings of
(1) Respiration : It is a biochemical process of
cartilage which prevent it from collapsing
oxidation of organic compounds in an
and always keep it open. 
orderly manner for the liberation of chemical
(36) Why is respiration in insect called direct

energy in the form of ATP. 
respiration ?
(2) Breathing : It is a physical process by
Ans. Respiration in insect is called direct because which gaseous exchange takes place between
tracheal tubes exchange O2 and CO2 directly the atmosphere and the lungs. It involves
with the haemocoel which then exchange inspiration and expiration. 
them with tissues. 

(3) Tidal Volume (TV) : It is the volume of air
(37) Why is gas exchange very rapid at alveolar
 inspired or expired during normal breathing.
level
? OR It is 500 ml. 
Why does gas exchange in the alveolar (4) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) : The
region very rapid ? maximum or the extra volume of air that is
[Use your brain power! TB page no. 157] inspired during forced breathing in addition
Ans. Gas exchange is very rapid at alveolar level to TV (2000 to 3000 ml). 
because numerous alveoli (about 700 (5) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) :
The
millions) in the lungs provide large surface maximum volume of air that is expired
area for gaseous exchange. during forced breathing after normal
(38)
What would happen if respiration takes expiration. (1000 to 1100 ml). 
place in one single step ? (6) Dead space (DS) : The volume of air that is
[Use your brain power! TB page no. 153] present in the respiratory tract (from nose
to the terminal bronchioles), but not
Ans. If respiration takes place in one single step,
involved in gaseous exchange (150 ml). 
then the chemical energy released at once

(7) Residual volume (RV) : The volume of air (19) Erythrocytopenia : The decrease in the
that remains in the lungs and the dead number of RBCs is called Erythrocytopenia.
Chapter 8
space even after maximum expiration (1100 
to 1200 ml).  (20) Hematocrit : The hematocrit is ratio of the

(8)
Total lung capacity
:
The maximum volume of RBCs to total blood volume of
amount of air that the lungs can hold after blood. 
a maximum forceful inspiration (5200 to (21) Diapedesis : Leucocytes perform amoeboid

5900 ml). 
movement. Due to this kind of movement
(9) Vital capacity (VC) : The maximum amount they can move out of the capillary walls.
of air that can be breathed out after of This is called diapedesis. 
maximum inspiration. It is the sum total of (22) Leucocytosis : Increase in the number of

TV, IRV and ERV and is 4100 to 4600 ml. leucocytes or WBCs is called leucocytosis.

(10)
Oxygen dissociation curve
: The (23) Leucopenia : The decrease in the number
relationship between HbO2 saturation and of white blood cells is called leucopenia. 
oxygen tension (ppO2) is called oxygen
(24) Leukaemia : Pathological Increase in the
dissociation curve. 
number WBCs is called leukaemia or blood
(11) Phosphorylation : The process that involves cancer. 
trapping the heat energy in the form of high
(25) Thrombocytopenia : Decrease in the
energy bond of ATP molecule is called
number of blood platelets is called
phosphorylation. 
thrombocytopenia. 
(12) Artificial ventilation : It is the method of
(26) Blood Coagulation : Conversion of liquid
inducing breathing in a person when natural
blood into semisolid jelly is called blood
respiration has ceased or is faltering. 
coagulation or blood clotting. 
(13) Ventilator : A ventilator is a machine that
(27) Pericardium : Double layered peritoneum
supports breathing and is used during
that covers the heart from outside is called
surgery, treatment for serious lung diseases
pericardium. 
or other conditions when normal breathing
fails. 
(28) Pacemaker : Pacemaker is the region that
has power of generation of wave of
(14) Cyclosis :
Cyclosis is the streaming
contraction. In heart, sinoatrial node is
movement of the cytoplasm shown by almost
called pacemaker. 
all living organisms. E.g. Paramoecium,
Amoeba, etc. 
(29) Heartbeat : The rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of the heart is called heartbeat.
(15) Single circulation : The movement of blood
once through the heart during each (30) Pulse : A pressure wave that travels through
circulation cycle is called single the arteries after each ventricular systole is
circulation.  called pulse. 
(16) Double circulation : The movement of (31) Heart rate : The rate with which the heart
blood twice through the heart during one beats per minute is called the heart rate. 
circulation cycle is called double (32) Stroke volume : The amount of blood
circulation.  thrown out of the ventricles during one
(17) Erythropoiesis : The process of formation systole is called the stroke volume. 
of RBCs is called erythropoiesis.  (33) Cardiac output : The amount of blood

(18) Polycythemia : The increase in the number thrown out of the ventricles during one
of RBCs is called polycythemia.  minute is called cardiac output. 

(34) Tachycardia : Higher heart rate over into the trachea by closing the glottis
100 beats per minute is called temporarily. 
Chapter 8
tachycardia.  (2) Carbonic anhydrase.

(35) Bradycardia : Lower heart rate which is Ans. Carbonic anhydrase enzyme is found inside
lesser than 60 per minute is called the RBCs only to accelerate the rate of
bradycardia. 
formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and
(36) Myogenic : When the initiation and further H2O. 
regulation of heartbeats take place in the (3) Ventilators.

muscles then such a heart is called
Ans. Ventilators used in hospitals are part of life
myogenic. 
supporting system, which help in breathing
(37) Cardiac cycle : Consecutive systole and
by
diastole constitutes a single heartbeat or
(i) Pushing oxygen into the lungs
cardiac cycle. 
(ii) Removing carbon dioxide from the lungs 
(38) Arterial blood pressure :
The pressure
exerted by blood on the wall of artery is (4) Erythrocytes.
called arterial blood pressure.  Ans. Erythrocytes carry oxygen to all cells of the
(39) Angiology : Study of blood vessels is called body from the lungs and bringing carbon
angiology. 
dioxide from all the cells back to lungs. 
(40) Angiography : X-ray or imaging of the (5) Neutrophils.

cardiac blood vessels to locate the position Ans. Neutrophils are responsible for destroying
of blockages is called angiography.  pathogens by the process of phagocytosis.
(41) Heart transplant : Replacement of severely (6) Thrombocytes / Platelets.
damaged heart by normal heart from brain- Ans. Platelets secrete platelet factors which are
dead or recently dead donor is called heart essential in blood clotting. They also seal
transplant. 
the ruptured blood vessels by formation of
(42)
Silent Heart Attack : Silent heart attack, platelet plug/thrombus. They secrete
also known as silent myocardial infarction, serotonin, a local vasoconstrictor. 
is a type of heart attack that lacks the (7) Pericardial fluid.

general symptoms of classic heart attack
Ans. Pericardial fluid acts as a shock absorber
like extreme chest pain, hypertension,
and protects the heart from mechanical
shortness of breath, sweating and
injuries. It also keeps the heart moist and
dizziness. 
acts as lubricant. 
(43) Electrocardiogram : Graphical recording
(8) Heart walls.
of electrical variations detected at the
surface of body during their propagation Ans. The epicardium and endocardium are
through the wall of heart is electrocardiogram protective in function whereas myocardium
(ECG). 
is responsible for contraction and relaxation
of heart. 
(44) Lymph : It is a fluid connective tissue with
almost similar composition to the blood (9) Valves in heart.
except RBCs, platelets and some proteins.  Ans. Valves in the heart prevent the backflow of
the blood at the time of systole and help in
Q. 6. Give functions of the following :
maintaining a unidirectional flow of blood. 
(1 or 2 marks each)
(10) Chordae tendinae.
(1) Epiglottis.
Ans. Chordae tendinae attach the bicuspid and
Ans. The epiglottis prevents the entry of food tricuspid valves to the ventricular wall

(papillary muscles) and regulate their (4)
Name the structural and functional unit
opening and closing.  of lungs.
Chapter 8
(11) Semilunar valves. Ans. Alveolus is the structural and functional
Ans. Semilunar valves prevent the backward flow unit of lungs. 
of blood from pulmonary aorta and the (5) Name the energy currency of cell.
aorta into the respective ventricles.  Ans. ATP is the energy currency of cell. 
(12) Sinoatrial node [SA] or Pacemaker. (6)

Name the site where actual exchange of
Ans. SA node acts as pacemaker of heart because O2 and CO2 takes place between air and
it has the power of generating a new wave blood in the body of man.
of contraction and making the pace of Ans. Alveolus of lung. 
contraction. 
(7) Name any two respiratory centres required
(13) Electrocardiogram (ECG). for regulation of breathing.
Ans. ECG helps to diagnose the abnormality in Ans. Inspiratory centre, Expiratory centre,
conducting pathway, enlargement of heart Pneumotaxic centre and Apneustic centre.
chambers, damage to cardiac muscles, (8)
Name the muscles which move ribs up
reduced blood supply to cardiac muscles and down.
and causes of chest pain. 
Ans. External intercostal muscles. 
(14) Blood.
(9)
Name two phyla where haemocoel is
Ans. Functions of blood : present.
(i) Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide Ans. Phylum-Arthropoda and Phylum-Mollusca. 
(ii) Transport of food
(10) Name the animal-group which show single
(iii) Transport of waste product circulation.
(iv) Transport of hormones
Ans. Fishes 
(v) Maintenance of pH
(11)
Name the cells which produce
(vi) Water balance
thrombocytes.
(vii) Transport of heat
Ans. Megakaryocytes produce thrombocytes. 
(viii) Defence against infection
(12)
Name the process of formation of red
(ix) Temperature regulation
blood corpuscles.
(x) Blood clotting/coagulation
Ans. Erythropoiesis 
(xi) Helps in healing 
(13) Name the space in which human heart is
Q. 7. Name the following : (1 or 2 marks) located.
(1)
Name two animals in which moist skin Ans. Mediastinum is the space in which human
acts as a respiratory surface. heart is located. 
Ans. Earthworm, Frog  (14) Name the types of lymphocytes depending

(2)
Name the respiratory organs in insects upon functions.
and fish. Ans. B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. 
Ans. Insects
– Tracheal tubes and spiracles Name the layers of peritoneum that
(15)
Fish – Internal gills  surrounds the heart sequentially from
(3)
Name any two disorders of respiratory outside to inside.
system. Ans. Fibrous pericardium, parietal layer of
Ans. Asthma and pneumonia are the two serous pericardium and visceral layer of
disorders of respiratory system.  serous pericardium. 

Name the connection between the
(16)
(21)
Name the various components of
pulmonary trunk and systemic aorta. conducting system of the heart.
Chapter 8
Ans. Ligamentum arteriosum that represents Ans. Conducting system of the heart consists of
remnant of ductus arteriosus of foetus.  SA node, AV node, bundle of His and
(17)
Name the valve between left atrium and Purkinje fibers. 
left ventricle and give its significance. (22) Name the neurotransmitters that decrease
Ans. Between left atrium and left ventricle is and increase the heart rate in human
mitral or bicuspid valve which maintains beings respectively.
the unidirectional flow of blood by preventing
Ans. Acetylcholine decreases heart rate and
its backflow. 
adrenaline or epinephrine increases the
(18) Name the walls of an artery.
heart rate in human. 
Ans. Outer tunica externa, middle tunica media
(23) Name the organ which prevents the entry

and inner tunica interna. 
of food into the trachea while eating.
(19)
Name the instrument used to measure
Ans. Epiglottis prevents the entry of food into
blood pressure.
trachea while eating. 
Ans. Sphygmomanometer is used to measure
blood pressure. 
(24) Who discovered ECG ?
(20) Name the plasma proteins involved in the Ans. Willem Einthoven discovered ECG. 
process of blood clotting.

Ans. Prothrombin and fibrinogen. 
Q. 8. Distinguish between the following : (2 or 3 marks)

(1) Pharynx and Larynx.
Ans. Pharynx Larynx
1. Pharynx is a short, vertical tube. 1. Larynx is a sound producing organ located at
the end of pharynx.
2. Mouth leads to the pharynx. 2. Larynx leads to the oesophagus.
3. Vocal cords are absent. 3. Vocal cords are present.
4. Pharynx does not increase in size at the time of 4. Larynx increases in size at the time of puberty.
puberty.
5. Pharynx does not show Adam’s apple. 5. Larynx shows Adam’s apple in adult males.

(2) Inspiration and Expiration.

Ans. Inspiration Expiration
1. Inspiration is an active process. 1. Expiration is a passive process.
2. During inspiration diaphragm contracts and 2. During expiration diaphragm relaxes and
becomes flattened. becomes dome shaped.
3. During inspiration intercostal muscles contract. 3. During expiration intercostal muscles relax.
4. During inspiration ribs are pulled outwards 4. During expiration ribs are pulled inwards and
and sternum is raised. sternum is lowered.
5. During inspiration the space in the thoracic 5. During expiration the space in the thoracic
cavity increases. cavity decreases.

6. During inspiration pressure in the lungs 6. During expiration pressure in the lungs
decreases. increases.
Chapter 8
7. During inspiration the volume of the lungs 7. During expiration the volume of the lungs
increase. decreases.
8. During inspiration air comes inside the body. 8. During expiration air goes out of the body.

(3) External respiration and Internal respiration.

Ans. External respiration Internal respiration
1. The respiratory processes occurring in lungs is 1. The respiratory processes that occur in tissues
called external respiration. is called internal respiration.
2. During external respiration O2 from the lungs 2. During internal respiration O2 from the blood
enters into the lung capillaries by diffusion. enters the tissue cells.
3. During external respiration CO2 from the lung 3. During internal respiration CO2 from the tissues
capillaries diffuse into the lungs. enters into the blood.
4. During external respiration exchange of gases 4. During internal respiration exchange of gases
takes place between the air and the lungs. take place between the blood and the tissue.
5.
Formation of oxyhaemoglobin takes place 5. Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates into oxygen and
during external respiration. haemoglobin during internal respiration.
6. During external respiration CO2 is released. 6. During internal respiration carbamino
haemoglobin is formed which is carried to the
lungs.

(4) Transport of O2 and Transport of CO2.

Ans. Transport of O2 Transport of CO2
1. Transport of O2 takes place from lungs to the 1. Transport of CO2 takes place from tissues and
tissues and cells. cells to the lungs.
2. Oxygen is carried as oxyhaemoglobin to the 2.
Carbon dioxide is carried as
tissues with the help of RBCs. carbaminohaemoglobin from the tissues with
the help of plasma and RBCs.
3. Oxygen does not form oxides or other products 3. CO2 forms bicarbonates with sodium and
during its transport. potassium during its transport.
4. O2 does not form acids during its transport. 4. CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.

(5) Vital Capacity of Lung and Total Lung Capacity.

Ans. Vital Capacity of Lung Total Lung Capacity
1. It is the maximum amount of air a person can 1. It is the maximum amount of air that the lungs
expire and inspire to their maximum extent. can hold after a maximum forceful inspiration.
2. It is the sum total of inspiratory reserve volume, 2. It is the sum total of vital capacity and residual
tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume. volume.
3. It ranges from 4100 to 4600 ml. 3. It ranges from 5200 to 5800 ml.

2/Navneet Biology Digest : Standard XII (Part

8. 2) E0294
Respiration and Circulation 33
(6) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) and Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV).
Ans. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Chapter 8
1. It is the maximum volume of air, or the extra 1. It is the maximum volume of air that is expired
volume of air, that is inspired during forced during forced breathing.
breathing.
2. Its value is 2000 / 3000 ml. 2. Its value is 1000 / 1100 ml.

 (7) Arteries and veins.

Ans. Arteries Veins
1. The blood vessels that arise from the heart and 1. The blood vessels that bring blood to the heart
carry blood away from heart are called arteries. are called veins.
2. Arteries are thick walled blood vessels, situated 2.
Veins are thin walled blood vessels, situated
in deep layers in the body. superficially in the body.
3. Arteries do not have valves. 3. Veins have valves.
4. Tunica adventitia, the outermost layer of arteries 4. Tunica externa, the outermost layer of veins is
is thick and elastic. thin.
5. Tunica media is very thick and contain elastic 5. Tunica media is thin layer and contain
fibres. involuntary muscle fibres.
6. The lumen of arteries is small. 6. The lumen of the veins is very spacious.
7.
With the exception of pulmonary arteries, all 7. With the exception of pulmonary veins, all other
other arteries carry oxygenated blood. veins carry deoxygenated blood.
8. Blood in the arteries show high blood pressure. 8. Blood in the veins show lesser blood pressure.

(8) T. S. of artery and T.S. of vein.

Ans. T. S. of artery T.S. of vein
1.
Histologically in transverse section of artery 1. Histologically in transverse section of vein there
there are three walls, tunica externa, tunica are three walls, tunica externa, tunica media
media and tunica interna or endothelium. and tunica interna or endothelium.
2. Tunica media is thick and muscular. 2. Tunica media is thinner as compared to artery.
3. Lumen of artery is narrow. 3. Lumen of vein is broad.

 (9) Blood and Lymph.

Ans. Blood Lymph
1.
Contains blood plasma with proteins and all 1. Contains blood plasma without blood proteins,
three types of blood cells namely RBCs, WBCs RBCs and platelets and contains lymphocytes.
and blood platelets.
2. Red in colour due to presence of RBCs. 2. Light yellow in colour and does not contain
RBCs.
3. Carries oxygen in the body. 3. Does not carry oxygen.
4. The flow of blood in blood vessels is fast. 4. The flow of lymph in lymph capillaries is slow.
5. Lymphocytes are present. 5. Lymphocytes are present, more in number than
those present in the blood.


 (10) Blood capillary and Lymph capillary.
Ans. Blood capillary Lymph capillary
Chapter 8
1. Reddish, easy to observe. 1. Colourless, difficult to observe.
2. Joined to arterioles at one end and to venules 2. Blind (closed at the tip).
at another end.
3. Narrower than lymph capillaries. 3. Wider than blood capillaries.
4.
Wall consists of normal endothelium and 4.
Wall consists of thin endothelium and poorly
basement membrane. developed basement membrane.
5. Contains red blood. 5. Contains colourless lymph.
6. Have relatively high pressure. 6. Have relatively low pressure.

 (11) Intrinsic and Extrinsic process of clotting.

Ans. Intrinsic process Extrinsic process
1. The intrinsic pathway requires only clotting 1. The extrinsic pathway is initiated by factors
factors found within the blood itself
– in external to the blood, in the tissues adjacent to
particular, clotting factor XII (Hageman factor) damaged blood vessel
– in particular, it is
from the platelets. initiated by clotting factor III, thromoboplastin
from the damaged tissues.
2. It is a longer, multistep process and it takes a 2. It involves fewer chemical reaction steps and
little longer for the blood to clot by this produce a clot a little more quickly than the
mechanism. intrinsic pathway.

(12) Erythrocytes and Leucocytes.

Ans. Erythrocytes Leucocytes
1. Erythrocytes have a definite shape which is 1. Leucocytes do not have definite shape as they
elliptical or oval. are amoeboid.
2. They are enucleated. 2. They are nucleated.
3. Erythrocytes contain haemoglobin and hence 3. Leucocytes are devoid of any respiratory
appear red. pigment and hence appear colourless.
4. The normal erythrocyte count is 4.3 to 5.8 4. The normal leucocyte count is 4000 to 11000
million per cubic mm of blood. per cubic mm of blood.
5. The life span of erythrocytes is 100 to 120 days. 5. The life span of leucocytes is 3 to 4 days.
6. The diameter of erythrocytes is 7.2 m and 6. The size of leucocytes varies with its subtypes
thickness is about 2 to 2.2 m. and is of average size of 8 to 15 m.
7. Erythrocytes are formed by the process of 7. Leucocytes are formed by the process of
erythropoiesis in red bone marrow. leucopoiesis in bone marrow, tonsils, lymph
nodes, spleen, thymus, etc.
8. Erythrocytes transport the respiratory gases. 8. Leucocytes help in the formation of antibodies
besides fighting against foreign antigens by
phagocytic activity.


(13) Eosinophils and Basophils.
Ans. Eosinophils Basophils
Chapter 8
1.
Cytoplasmic granules present in eosinophils 1. Cytoplasmic granules present in basophils are
are stained with acidic stains. stained with basic stains.
2. Nucleus is bilobed. 2. Nucleus is twisted.
3. Eosinophils constitute 3% of total WBCs. 3. Basophils constitute 0.5% of total WBCs.

(14) Neutrophils and Eosionophils.

Ans. Neutrophils Eosinophils
1.
Cytoplasmic granules present in neutrophils 1.
Cytoplasmic granules present in eosinophils
are stained with neutral stains. are stained with acidic stains.
2. Nucleus is three to five lobes showing 2. Nucleus is bilobed.
polymorphic form.
3. Neutrophils constitute 62% of total WBCs. 3. Eosinophils constitute 3% of total WBCs.

(15) Lymphocytes and Monocytes.

Ans. Lymphocytes Monocytes
1. Large round nucleus but size of the cell is 1. Large kidney shaped nucleus and largest size
smaller. among WBCs.
2. Lymphocytes form 25 – 33% of WBCs. 2. Monocytes form 3 – 9% of WBCs.

(16) Granulocytes and Agranulocytes.

Ans. Granulocytes Agranulocytes
1.
WBCs with granular cytoplasm are called 1.
WBCs with agranular cytoplasm are called
granulocytes. Thus, cytoplasmic granules are agranulocytes. Thus, cytoplasmic granules are
present. absent.
2. Nuclei of granulocytes are variously lobed. 2. Nuclei of agranulocytes are not lobed.

(17) Single circulation and Double circulation.

Ans. Single circulation Double circulation
1. Blood flows only once through the heart in a 1. Blood flows twice through the heart during one
complete cycle. complete circulation. Systemic
– to and fro
from heart to body and pulmonary – to and fro
from heart to lungs.
2. Heart pumps deoxygenated blood only. 2. Heart pumps both deoxygenated and oxygenated
blood to lungs and body respectively.
3. Blood is oxygenated in gills. 3. Blood is oxygenated in lungs.
4. Occurs only in fishes. 4. Occurs in amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals.


 (18) Open circulation and Closed circulation.
Ans. Open circulation Closed circulation
Chapter 8
1. In open circulation, blood flows through large 1. In closed circulation, blood flows through a
open spaces and channels called lacunae and network of blood vessels all over the body.
haemocoels among the tissues.
2. Tissues are in direct contact with the blood. 2. Blood does not come in direct contact with tissue.
3. Blood flows with low pressure and usually does 3.
Blood flows with high pressure and contains
not contain any respiratory pigment like respiratory pigment like haemoglobin.
haemoglobin.
4. Exchange of material takes place directly 4. Exchange of material takes place between blood
between blood and cells or tissues of the body. and body tissues through an intermediate fluid
called lymph.
5. Volume of blood flowing through a tissue cannot 5.
Volume of blood can be regulated by the
be controlled as blood flows out in open space. contraction and relaxation of the smooth
muscles of the blood vessels.
6. Open circulatory system is found in arthropods 6. Closed circulatory system is found in annelids,
and some molluscs. echinoderms and all vertebrates.

(19) Systolic blood circulation and Diastolic blood circulation.

Ans. Systolic blood circulation Diastolic blood circulation
1. Blood is passed from right ventricle to lungs by 1.
Blood is passed to left atrium from lungs by
pulmonary artery during systolic circulation. pulmonary veins during diastolic circulation.
Similarly, from left ventricle the oxygenated Similarly, deoxygenated blood from entire body
blood is given to the entire body through is brought back to heart through vena cava
systemic aorta during systolic circulation. during diastolic circulation.
2. Systolic blood circulation is under maximum 2. Diastolic blood circulation is under minimum
pressure as heart is forcing the blood to come blood pressure as heart is relaxed during
out of heart. diastole.

(20) Atria and Ventricles.

Ans. Atria Ventricles
1. Atria are upper chambers of the heart. 1. Ventricles are lower chambers of the heart.
2. Atria are thin walled. 2. Ventricles are thick walled.
3. Atria are receiving chambers. 3. Ventricles are distributing chambers.
4. Interatrial septum divides the two auricles 4. Interventricular septum divides the two
(atria). ventricles.
5. Right atrium is larger in size than left atrium. 5. Left ventricle is larger in size than the right
ventricle.


(21) S.A. Node and A.V. Node.
Ans. S.A. Node A.V. Node
Chapter 8
1. Sinoatrial node is present in the right ventricle 1. Atrioventricular node is present in the right
near the opening near the opening of the ventricle near the opening of the coronary sinus.
superior vena cava.
2. S.A. node is the pacemaker of the heart and it 2. A.V. node starts ventricular systole through
starts atrial systole. bundles of His and Purkinje’s fibre system.

(22) Pulmonary circulation and Systemic circulation.

Ans. Pulmonary circulation Systemic circulation
1. The course of blood from the right ventricle to 1. The course of blood from the left ventricle to
the left atrium of the heart through the lungs is the right atrium of the heart through the body
called pulmonary circulation. is called systemic circulation.
2. Pulmonary circulation is mainly for sending the 2. Systemic circulation is for sending the
blood for oxygenation in the lungs from the deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart
heart and bringing it back to the heart after and sending oxygenated blood from the heart to
oxygenation. the body.

(23) Atrio ventricular valves and Semilunar valves.

Ans. Atrio ventricular valves Semilunar valves
1. Atrio ventricular valves are present between the 1. Semilunar valves are present at the opening of
atria and ventricles. On the right side there is pulmonary artery and systemic aorta.
tricuspid valve whereas on the left side there is
bicuspid valve.
2. Atrio ventricular valves prevent the back flow of 2. Semilunar valves prevent the back flow of blood
blood from ventricles to atria at the time of from pulmonary artery and systemic aorta back
systole. to the heart.

(24) Hypertension and Hypotension.

Ans. Hypertension Hypotension
1.
Blood pressure values more than 140 mm 1. Blood pressure values less than 120 mm Hg SP
Hg SP and 90 mm HG DP is called hypertension. and 70 mm HG DP is called hypotension.
2. Excessive hypertension can result into lethal 2.
Hypotension may not be lethal if immediate
complications such as stroke or paralysis. measures are taken to raise the blood pressure.

(2) This happens in the mitochondria using the

Q. 9. Give reasons : (2 or 3 marks)
oxygen present in the blood.
(1) ATP is called energy currency of the cell. (3) ATP molecules are formed during this
Ans. oxidation.
(1) During cellular respiration, the oxidation of (4) ATP is used for various vital body processes
food (glucose) takes place. and also for maintaining the body
temperature to constancy.

(5) Since energy is stored in the form of ATP, it thoracic cavity and hence automatically air
is called an energy currency of the cell.  is pushed out of the lungs.
Chapter 8
(2) The vestibule of nasal chamber has fine (4) Since the pressure on the lungs increase
hair. rushing the air to outside, expiration is
Ans. called a passive process. 
(1)
Vestibule is the anterior most part of the (6) Pericardium acts as a defence wall for the
nasal chamber. heart.
(2) The hairs present in this region trap the Ans.
dust particles and prevent them from (1) Pericardium protects the heart. It is double
entering into the interiors of the respiratory layered peritoneum, having outer fibrous
passage. and inner serous pericardium layers.
(3) Therefore, the vestibule of nasal chambers (2)
Fibrous pericardium being tough gives
has fine hair.  protection to the heart.
(3)
Glottis is guarded by a flap called (3) Serous pericardium has two layers, parietal
epiglottis. and visceral layer or epicardium.
Ans. (4) In between these two layers, there is
(1) The oesophagus and trachea lie side by side. pericardial fluid, which helps to absorb
(2) There is possibility that food particles may shocks and provide nourishment.
enter respiratory passage at the time of (5) In this way pericardium acts as a defence
gulping. wall. 
(3) However, the epiglottis prevents the entry of (7) Valves are present in veins.
food into the respiratory passage by closing Ans.
it temporarily. (1) Veins carry blood to the heart.
(4) Thus, for preventing the entry of food (2) At that time the backward flow of the blood
particles into respiratory passage, the glottis should be prevented.
is guarded by a flap called epiglottis. 
(3) Therefore, valves are present in veins. 
(4) Alveoli are very flexible. (8) Atria are thin walled than ventricles.
Ans. Ans.
(1) Alveoli are made up of collagen and elastin (1) Atria are receiving chambers, while
fibres. ventricles are distributing chambers.
(2) They are very thin (0.0001 mm) and lined (2) The blood is driven out from ventricles.
by non-ciliated squamous epithelium.
(3)
Ventricles are therefore, strong and with
(3) All the above structural components make thicker walls.
the alveoli very flexible. 
(4) Atria are thin walled as compared to
(5) Expiration is called a passive process. ventricles. 
Ans.  (9)
Human heart is called as myogenic and
(1) During expiration, intercostal muscles relax. autorhythmic.
This results in pulling the ribs inwards. Ans.
(2) Diaphragm also relaxes and returns to its (1) The heart shows auto rhythmicity because
normal dome shape. the impulse for its rhythmic movement
(3) The collective contraction of ribs and develops inside the heart. Such heart is
diaphragm results in the reduction of called myogenic.

(2) Some of the cardiac muscle fibres become (2) This septum keeps the deoxygenated and
autorhythmic (self-excitable) and start oxygenated blood separate.
Chapter 8
generating impulse during development. (3) Hence there is no mixing of the two types of
(3) These autorhythmic fibres perform two blood. 
important function, viz. acting as a (13) Blood pressure is inversely related to the
pacemaker and setting the rhythm for heart. elasticity of the blood vessels.
(4) They also form conducting system for Ans.
conduction of nerve impulses throughout (1)
When the blood gushes through the blood
the heart muscles. 
vessels, the walls of blood vessels can
(10)
 Left ventricle is thick than all other expand a little due to their elasticity.
chambers of heart. OR (2)
But as the age advances, the elasticity is
Left ventricle has thicker wall than the reduced and then the blood vessels do not
right ventricle. expand.
Ans. (3) Hence the flowing blood gets more resistance
(1) Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all and the blood pressure can rise.
parts of the body. Therefore, there is greater (4) Lesser the elasticity more will be the blood
pressure from the blood in left ventricle. pressure, whereas more the elasticity of the
(2) Right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood to vessel wall, then the pressure will not rise.
lungs for oxygenation. This does not put (5) In this way, the blood pressure is inversely
more pressure and lungs are in vicinity of related to the elasticity of the blood vessels.
the heart. 
(3) Due to these functional differences between (14) In human heart, the blood flows only in
the two ventricles, left ventricle has thicker one direction.
wall than that of the right ventricle. 
Ans.
(11) Heart is called a pump. (1) In veins there are valves, which prevent the
Ans. back flow of the blood.
(1) The heart acts as a pumping organ. It shows (2) In arteries, blood flows with unidirectional
continuous pumping action. pressure.
(2) The rhythmic contraction or systole and (3)
Hence the circulation takes place only in
relaxation or diastole of heart forms one one direction. 
heartbeat.  (15) Closed circulation is more efficient than

(3) Such heartbeats occur about 72 times per open circulation.
minute. Ans.
(4) The heart efficiently pumps about 5 litres of (1) Closed circulation considerably enhances
blood per minute. Therefore, the heart is the speed, precision and efficiency of
called a pump. 
circulation.
(12)
In normal human heart, there is no (2) The blood flows more rapidly, it takes less
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated time to circulate through the closed system
blood. and return to the heart.
Ans. (3) This fastens the supply and removal of
(1) In normal human heart, there is completely materials to and from the tissues by the
formed atrioventricular septum. blood as compared to open circulation.

(4) In open circulation, there are no blood (3) Carbonic acid being unstable, immediately
vessels such as arteries or veins, to pump dissociates into HCO3– and H+ in the
Chapter 8
the blood. presence of same enzyme, leading to large
(5) Therefore, the blood pressure is very low. accumulation of HCO3– inside the RBCs. It
(6) Organisms with an open circulatory system thus moves out of RBCs. This can bring
typically have a relatively high volume of about imbalance of the charge inside the
hemolymph and low blood pressure. Closed RBCs.
circulation is thus more efficient than open (4) To maintain the ionic balance between the
circulation.  RBCs and the plasma, Cl– diffuses into the
 (16) Arteries are thicker than veins. RBCs. This movement of chloride ions is
known as chloride shift or Hamburger’s
Ans.
phenomenon.
(1) Arteries have relatively thick walls to enable
(5) HCO3– that comes in the plasma joins to
them to withstand the high pressure of
Na+/ K+ forming NaHCO3 / KHCO3 which can
blood ejected from the heart.
maintain pH of blood. The remaining H+
(2) Arteries expand when the pressure increases
ions in the RBCs are buffered by haemoglobin
as the heart pushes blood out but then
by the formation of oxyhaemoglobin.
recoil (shrink) when the pressure decreases
(6) At the level of lungs, due to the low partial
when the heart relaxes between heartbeats.
pressure of carbon dioxide of the alveolar
(3) This expansion and recoiling occurs to
air, hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ions
maintain a smooth blood flow.
combine to form carbonic acid and under
(4) Veins, on the other hand, have thinner walls
the influence of carbonic anhydrase again
and larger lumen veins have no need for
yields carbon dioxide and water. 
thick walls as then need not have to
(2) Regulation of breathing.
withstand high pressure like arteries.
Ans.
(5) Moreover, as veins transport relatively low
(1)
Respiration is under dual control, i.e.
pressure blood, they are commonly equipped
nervous and chemical. Normal breathing is
with valves to promote the unidirectional
an involuntary process. Steady state of
flow of blood towards the heart. 
respiration is controlled by neurons located
Q. 10. Write short notes : (2 or 3 marks) in the pons and medulla and are known as
(1)
Chloride shift or Hamburger’s the respiratory centres. They regulate the
phenomenon. rate and depth of breathing.
[Use your brain power! TB page no. 160] (2) These centres are divided into three groups :
Ans. dorsal group of neurons in the medulla
(inspiratory centre), ventro-lateral group of
(1) About 70% of CO2 is transported in the
neurons in medulla (inspiratory and
form of sodium bicarbonates
/
potassium
expiratory centre) and pneumotaxic centre
bicarbonates from tissue cells to lungs.
located in the pons and apneustic centre
(2) In the RBCs, CO2 combines with water in
which is antagonistic in action to
the presence of a Zn containing enzyme,
pneumotaxic centre.
carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid.
(3) During inspiration, when the lungs expand
This action is rapid in RBCs as compared
to a critical point, the stretch receptors are
to that in the plasma.
stimulated and impulses are sent along the
vagus nerves to the expiratory centre. It

then sends out inhibitory impulses to the levels of CO2 makes carbon monoxide
inspiratory centre. dissociated from haemoglobin. 
Chapter 8
(4) The inspiratory muscles relax and expiration (4) Artificial ventilation.
follows. As the air leaves out, the lungs are Ans.
deflated and the stretch receptors are no (1) Artificial ventilation is the artificial
longer stimulated. Thus, the inspiratory respiration. It is the method of inducing
centre is no longer inhibited and a new breathing in a person when natural
respiration begins. These events are called respiration has ceased or is faltering. If
the Hering – Breuer reflex. The used properly and quickly, it can prevent
Hering – Breuer reflex controls the depth death due to drowning, choking, suffocation,
and rhythm of respiration. It also prevents electric shock, etc.
the lungs from inflating to the point of
(2) The process involves two main steps :
bursting.
a. Establishing and maintaining an open
(5) The respiratory centre has connections with
air passage from the upper respiratory
the cerebral cortex that means we can
tract to the lungs.
voluntarily change our pattern of breathing.
b.
Force inspiration and expiration as in
Voluntary control is protective because it
mouth to mouth respiration or by
enables us to prevent water or irritating
mechanical means like ventilator.
gases from entering the lungs. 
(3) A ventilator is a machine that supports
(3) Carbon monoxide poisoning.
breathing and is used during surgery,
Ans.
treatment for serious lung diseases or other
(1) Carbon monoxide poisoning is caused when conditions when normal breathing fails. 
carbon monoxide is combined with

(5) Blood plasma.

haemoglobin.
Ans.
(2)
Haemoglobin is said to have 250 times
(1) Plasma is a straw coloured, slightly alkaline
more affinity for carbon monoxide than that
viscous fluid part of the blood, having
for the oxygen.
90 – 92% water and 8 – 10% soluble proteins.
(3) Therefore, haemoglobin with carbon
(2) Serum albumin, serum globulin, heparin,
monoxide forms a stable compound, the
fibrinogen and prothrombin are the plasma
carboxyhemoglobin.
proteins which form 7% of the plasma.
(4) Due to the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin,
(3)
Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
the haemoglobin no longer carries oxygen to
glycerol are the nutrients dissolved in
the cells and tissues. Tissues then suffer
plasma.
from oxygen starvation. This leads to
(4) Nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid,
asphyxiation and in extreme cases it leads
ammonia and creatinine) and respiratory
to death.
gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) is present
(5)
Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs in
in plasma.
closed rooms with incompletely burning
(5) Enzymes and hormones too are transported
substances such as stove burners or
via plasma.
furnaces and garages having running
automobile engines. (6) Inorganic minerals are also present in
plasma such as bicarbonates, chlorides,
(6) Person suffering from carbon monoxide
phosphates and sulphates of sodium,
poisoning has to be administered with
potassium, calcium and magnesium. 
oxygen-carbon dioxide mixture, so that high

(6) Erythrocytes. (5) Interaction of these factors in a cascade
Ans. manner leads to formation of enzyme,
Chapter 8
(1) Erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles. They Thromboplastin which helps in the
are circular, biconcave, enucleated cells. formation of enzyme prothrombinase.
(2) The RBC size : 7 µm in diameter and (6) Prothrombinase inactivates heparin and
2.5 µm in thickness. also converts inactive prothrombin into
(3) The RBC count : 5.1 to 5.8 million RBCs/ active thrombin.

cu mm of blood in an adult male and 4.3 to (7) Thrombin converts soluble blood protein-
5.2 million/cu mm in an adult female. fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms
(4) The average life span of RBC : 120 days. a mesh in which platelets and other blood
cells are trapped to form the clot.
(5)
RBCs are formed by the process of
erythropoiesis. In foetus, RBC formation (8) These reactions occur in 2 to 8 minutes.
takes place in liver and spleen whereas in Therefore, clotting time is said to be 2 to 8
adults it occurs in red bone marrow. minutes. 
(6) The old and worn out RBCs are destroyed

 (8) Describe pericardium.
in liver and spleen. Ans.
(7) Polycythemia is an increase in number of (1) Pericardium is the double layered
RBCs while erythrocytopenia is decrease in peritoneum that encloses the heart. It
their (RBCs) number. consists of two layers, viz. fibrous
Functions of RBCs :
(8) pericardium and serous pericardium.
(i) Transport of oxygen from lungs to tissues (2)
Fibrous pericardium is the outer layer
and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs having tough, inelastic fibrous connective
with the help of haemoglobin. tissue whereas serous pericardium is the
(ii) Maintenance of blood pH as haemoglobin inner double layered membrane. It has in
acts as a buffer. turn an outer parietal layer and inner
visceral layer.
(iii) Maintenance of the viscosity of blood. 
(3) Parietal layer of serous pericardium lies on
 (7) Blood clotting/Coagulation of blood. OR
 Explain blood clotting in short. the inner side of fibrous pericardium.
Ans. (4)
Visceral layer also known as epicardium
adheres to heart and thus forms outer
(1) The process of converting the liquid blood
covering over the heart.
into a semisolid form is called blood clotting
or coagulation. (5) There is a pericardial fluid in the pericardial
space which is present in between the
(2) The process of clotting may be initiated by
parietal and visceral layers of serous
contact of blood with any foreign surface
pericardium. 
(intrinsic process) or with damaged tissue
(extrinsic process). (9) Heartbeat.
(3) Intrinsic and extrinsic processes involve Ans.

interaction of various substances called (1) The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of
clotting factors by a step wise or cascade the heart is called heartbeat.
mechanism. (2) Each heartbeat includes one systole and
(4) There are in all twelve clotting factors one diastole. During systole the heart
numbered as I to XII (factor VI is not in contracts and during diastole it relaxes.
active use).

(3) The rate with which the heart beats is responsible for flow of blood in the arteries.
called heart rate. The normal heart rate is Normal systolic pressure is 120 mm Hg.
Chapter 8
72 beats per minute. (3) Diastolic blood pressure is the minimum

(4) Tachycardia means faster heart rate of pressure of blood when heart undergoes
about more than 100 beats per minute. diastole. Normal diastolic pressure is
(5) Bradycardia means slower heart rate that is 80 mm Hg.
below 60 beats per minute.  (4)
Blood pressure is represented as 120/80
(10) Pulse. mm Hg for a normal human being. 
Ans. (13) Hypertension.

(1) A pressure wave that travels through the Ans.
arteries after each ventricular systole is (1) In a normal healthy person the blood
called a pulse. pressure values are 120 mm Hg (systolic)/
(2) The pulse can be felt in any artery that lies 80 mm Hg (diastolic).
near the surface of the body. (2)
When the blood pressure is persistently
(3) The radial artery at the wrist is most more than 140 mm Hg systolic pressure
commonly used to feel the pulse. and 90 mm Hg diastolic arterial blood
(4) The pulse rate per minute indicates the pressure then it is said to be hypertension
heart rate. Since each heartbeat generates or high blood pressure.
one pulse in the arteries, the pulse rate is (3) Excessively high blood pressure is very
same as that of heart rate, i.e. 72 times per dangerous as high blood pressure of about
minute.  220/120 mm Hg may cause rupturing of
(11) Peacemaker. blood vessels.
Ans. (4)
Rupture of eye blood vessels can lead to
blindness.
(1) Pacemaker is the region in the heart which
initiates the beating. (5) If blood vessels of kidney are affected then
nephritis is caused.
(2) The natural pacemaker of the heart is
sinoatrial node (SA node). (6)
Hemorrhage occurring in the brain can
lead to stroke or paralysis. Therefore,
(3) The pacemaker is autorhythmic, it is able
hypertension is commonly called silent
to repeatedly and rhythmically generate
killer. It may be present for years with no
impulses.
distinct symptoms.
(4) SA node is responsible for initiation of
(7) The factors causing hypertension are
cardiac excitation. Therefore, it is called a
arteriosclerosis (reduction of elasticity of
pacemaker. 
blood vessels), atherosclerosis (deposition
(12) Blood pressure.
of cholesterol inside the blood vessels wall),
Ans.
obesity, physical or emotional stress,
(1) Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by alcoholism, smoking, cholesterol rich diet,
the flowing blood on the walls of arteries. increased secretion of renin, epinephrine or
(2) Blood pressure described in two terms viz. aldosterone, etc. 
systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood (14) Coronary artery disease (CAD).
pressure. Systolic blood pressure is the
Ans.
maximum pressure of blood when heart
(1)
Coronary artery disease is a condition
undergoes ventricular systole. It is
caused due to problems like atherosclerosis.

(2) In this disease, coronary arteries are infections, toxins, severe anaemia or
narrowed due to deposition of fatty hyperthyroidism, etc.
Chapter 8
substances. (5) Any problem leading to degeneration of
(3) Due to this the blood flow to the heart is heart muscle, may result in heart failure. 
reduced. (17) Atherosclerosis.
(4) In coronary heart disease, the heart muscle Ans.
is damaged because of an inadequate (1) Atherosclerosis is the deposition of fatty
amount of blood due to obstruction of its substances and cholesterol on the inner
blood supply. lining of arteries.
(5) The symptoms of CAD depend upon the (2) This deposition results in the formation of
degree of obstruction. atherosclerotic plaque.
(6) Symptoms are mild chest pain or angina (3) It results in the decrease of the lumen of the
pectoris. blood vessels causing increasing resistance
(7) In severe cases it results in heart attack for the blood to flow which in turn results
known as myocardial infarction.  in the hypertension.
(15) Angina pectoris. (4) Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries
Ans. results in decrease in the blood flow to the
(1) Angina pectoris is the pain in the chest. It heart muscles.
results from a reduction in blood supply to (5) Due to such condition, coronary heart
cardiac muscle due to narrowed and disease is caused. 
hardened coronary arteries. (18) ECG.

(2) Atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis can Ans.
cause this problem. Basically, the coronary
(1) Electrocardiogram or ECG is the graphic
arteries are affected during angina pectoris.
record of electrical variations produced by
(3) It causes heaviness and severe pain in the the heart during one heartbeat or cardiac
chest. The pain can also be felt at the neck, cycle.
lower jaw, left arm and left shoulder.
(2) ECG is taken with the help of an instrument
(4) Angina pectoris often occurs during exertion, called electrocardiograph or ECG machine.
when the heart demands more oxygen and Electrocardiograph records the action
narrowed blood vessels cannot supply. It
potentials generated by the heart muscles.
disappears with rest. 
(3) The electrical activity of heart is represented
(16) Heart failure.
in the form of a graph plotted with time on
Ans. X-axis against voltage displacement on
(1)
Heart failure is caused due to progressive Y-axis.
weakening of the heart muscle. This results (4) A normal ECG is a graph having series of
in the failure of the heart to pump the blood ridges and furrows. There are waves such
effectively. as P-wave, QRS complex and T-wave.
(2) Hypertension increase the afterload on the (5) P-wave is a small upwards wave representing
heart leading to significant enlargement of impulse generated by SA node. P-wave is
the heart.
caused by atrial depolarization that results
(3) This finally results in heart failure. in atrial contraction.
(4)
Factors responsible for heart failure are (6)
QRS-complex wave begins as a downward
advanced age, malnutrition, chronic deflection, continues as a large upright

triangular wave and ends as a downward (21) Heart Transplant.
wave. Ans.
Chapter 8
(7) QRS-complex wave represents spreading of (1)

Heart transplant is the replacement of
impulse from SA node to AV node, then to severely damaged heart by normal heart
bundle of His and Purkinje fibres. It causes from brain-dead or recently dead donor,
ventricular depolarization resulting in (2)
Heart transplant is necessary in case of
ventricular contraction. patients with end-stage heart disease and
(8) T-wave is a broad upward wave which severe coronary arterial disease. 
represents ventricular repolarization

Q. 11. Short Answer Questions :
resulting in ventricular relaxation.
(2 or 3 marks)
(9) Functions of ECG are mainly for diagnosis
and also for prognosis. It is useful to detect  (1) Why is it advantageous to breathe through
abnormal functioning of heart as in coronary the nose than through the mouth ?
artery diseases, heart block, angina pectoris, Ans.
Breathing through nose is better than
tachycardia, ischemic heart disease, breathing through the mouth because of the
myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, etc.  following reasons :
(19) Angiography. (1) The nostrils are smaller than the mouth so
Ans. air exhaled through the nose creates a
(1) Angiography is an X-ray imaging of the backflow of air into the lungs.
cardiac blood vessels to locate the position (2) As we exhale more slowly through the nose
of blockages. than we do through the mouth, the lungs
(2) Depending upon the degree of blockage, have more time to extract oxygen from the
remedial procedures like angioplasty or by- air that we have already taken in.
pass surgery are performed. (3) The hairs inside nostrils filter any dust
(3) In angioplasty a stent is inserted at the site particles and microbes in the air and it only
of blockage to restore the blood supply lets the clean air pass through.
while in by-pass surgery, the atherosclerotic (4) The air gets warm and humidified in nostrils
region is by-passed with part of vein or as it passes into our bodies.
artery taken from any other suitable part of (5) Moreover breathing through the mouth can
the body, like hands or legs.  dry the oral cavity and lead to bad breath,
(20)
Silent Heart Attack or silent myocardial gum disease and tooth decay. 
infarction.  (2)
Identify the incorrect statement and
Ans. correct it.
(1) Silent heart attack is a type of heart attack (a) A respiratory surface area should have a
that lacks the general symptoms of classic large surface area.
heart attack like extreme chest pain, (b) A respiratory surface area should be kept
hypertension, shortness of breath, sweating dry.
and dizziness. (c) A respiratory surface area should be thin,
(2) Symptoms of silent heart attack are so mild may be 1 mm or less.
that a person often confuses it for regular Ans. Statement (a) and statement (c) are correct
discomfort and thereby ignores it. whereas statement (b)
is incorrect. A
(3) Men are more affected by silent heart attack respiratory surface area should be kept
than women.  moist, is the correct statement. 

 (3)
Given below are the characteristics of (3) Diffusion of gases will take place from an
some modified respiratory movement. area of higher partial pressure to an area of
Chapter 8
Identify them. lower partial pressure until the partial
(a)
Spasmodic contraction of muscles of pressure in the two regions reaches
expiration and forceful expulsion of air equilibrium.
through nose and mouth. (4) The partial pressure of carbon dioxide of
Ans. Sneezing blood entering the pulmonary capillaries is
(b)
An inspiration followed by many short 45 mm Hg while partial pressure of carbon
convulsive expiration accompanied by dioxide in alveolar air is 40 mm Hg. Due to
facial expression. this difference, carbon dioxide diffuses from
Ans. Laughing, Crying. the capillaries into the alveolus.
(4) What is meant by respiration ? How is it (5) Similarly, partial pressure of oxygen of
useful in the production of energy ? blood in pulmonary capillaries is 40 mm Hg
Ans. while in alveolar blood it is 104 mm Hg.
(1)
Respiration is the biochemical process in Due to this difference oxygen diffuses from
which organic compound such as glucose alveoli to the capillaries.
are oxidized to liberate chemical energy.
(2) During respiration energy is released in
gradual and step wise process. The released
energy is in the form of bonds of ATP
(Adenosine Tri Phosphate) molecules are
shown below :
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
(3) ATP is the biologically useful energy. ATP
drives most of the life process.
(4)
When cell requires the energy, ATP is
hydrolyzed and is converted into ADP with
subsequent release of energy.
(5) The respiratory system, blood and the body Fig. Exchange of gases between alveolus and capillary
cells play an important role in the process 
of respiration. 
(6)
What is the role of haemoglobin in the
(5) How does exchange of gases take place at transport of oxygen in the blood ?
the alveolar level ?
[Use your brain power! TB page no. 160]
Ans.
Ans.
(1) Exchange of gases between the alveolar air
(1)
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment
and the blood is known as external
present in cytoplasm of RBCs. About 97% of
respiration.
oxygen is transported by these haemoglobin
(2) Simple squamous epithelial layer of alveolus
molecules from lungs to tissues.
is intimately associated with a similar layer
(2) Haemoglobin has a high affinity for O2 and
lining the capillary wall. Both of these layers
are thin walled and together they make up combines with it to form oxyhaemoglobin.
the respiratory membrane through which One molecule of Hb has four Fe+, each of
gaseous exchange occurs between the which can pick up a molecule of oxygen (O2).
alveolar air and the blood. Hb + 4O2  Hb (4O2)

(3) Oxyhaemoglobin is transported from lungs release thromboplastin due to which further
to the tissues where it readily dissociates to blood clotting reactions take place. 
Chapter 8
release O2. (9) Describe the structure of the heart wall.

Hb (4O2)  Hb + 4O2
Ans.
(4) In the alveoli where PPO2 is high and PPCO2
(1) The heart wall is composed of three layers,
is low, oxygen binds with haemoglobin, but
viz. outer epicardium, middle myocardium
in tissues, where PPO2 is lower and PPCO2
and inner endocardium.
is high, Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and
(2) Epicardium is composed of single layer of
releases O2 for diffusion into the tissue
mesothelium having flat epithelial cells.
cells. 
(7)
What is blood ? What is the normal (3) Myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle
quantity of blood in an adult human fibres. These muscle fibres perform the
being ? function of systole and diastole by showing
contraction and relaxation of muscle wall of
Ans.
the heart.
(1)
Blood is the fluid connective tissue that
circulates in the body. (4) Endocardium is composed of single layer of
flat epithelial cells called endothelium. 
(2) Blood is derived from mesoderm.
(10) Describe valves in the human heart.

(3) It is bright red, slightly alkaline fluid having
pH about 7.4. It is salty, viscous fluid Ans. Human heart has following main valves :
heavier than water. (1) Tricuspid valve : Tricuspid valve is present
(4) The average sized adult has about 5 litres between the right atrium and right ventricle.
of blood in his/her body which constitutes It has three cusps or flaps. It prevents the
about 8% of the total body weight.  backflow of blood into right atrium.
(8)
Describe the structure and the function (2) Bicuspid valve : Bicuspid valve, also called
of thrombocytes. mitral valve is present between the left
Ans. atrium and left ventricle. It has two flaps. It
(1) Thrombocytes or platelets are non- prevents the backflow of blood in left atrium.
nucleated, round and biconvex blood Both tricuspid and bicuspid valves are
corpuscles. attached to papillary muscles with tendinous
(2) They are smallest corpuscles measuring chords or chordate tendinae to prevent
about 2.5 to 5 mm in diameter with a count valves from turning back into atria at the
of about 2.5 lakhs/cu mm of blood. time of systole.
(3) Their life span is about 5 to 10 days. (3) Semilunar valve : These are present at the
(4) Thrombocytes are formed from opening of pulmonary artery and systemic
megakaryocytes of bone marrow. They aorta. They prevent the back flow of blood
break from these cells as fragments during when ventricles undergo systole.
the process of thrombopoiesis. (4) Thebesian valve : Thebesian valve is
(5) Thrombocytosis is the increase in platelet present at the opening of coronary sinus.
count while thrombocytopenia is decrease (5) Eustachian valve : Eustachian valve is
in platelet count. present at the opening of inferior vena cava.
(6) Thrombocytes possess thromboplastin (11) What is the role of papillary muscles and

which helps in clotting of blood. chordae tendinae in human heart ?

(7)
Therefore, at the site of injury platelets Ans.
aggregate and form a platelet plug. Here they
(1) Papillary muscles are large and well-

developed muscular ridges present along b. The systemic circulation i.e. from body
the inner surface of the ventricles. to heart and back to body while the
Chapter 8
(2) Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are attached pulmonary circulation i.e. from heart to
to papillary muscles of ventricles by chordae lungs and back to heart circulate the
tendinae. blood uniformly.
(3) Chordae tendinae are inelastic fibres present (3)
Coronary and hepatic portal circulation is
in the lumen of ventricles. also achieved due to double circulation. 
(4) The chordae tendinae prevent the valves

(14)
Describe pulmonary and systemic
from turning back into the atria during the circulation.
contraction of ventricles and regulate the Ans.
opening and closing of bicuspid and (1) In human beings, there is double circulation
tricuspid valves.  because blood passes twice through the
(12)
Name the two heart sounds. How and heart during one cardiac cycle.
when are they produced ? (2) The blood follows two routes viz. pulmonary
Ans. and systemic.
(1) In one normal heartbeat the heart sounds (3) Pulmonary circulation is circulation between
like lubb and dup are produced once each. heart and lungs. Systemic circulation is the
(2) The rhythmic contraction (Systole) and circulation between the heart and body
relaxation (diastole) forms are heartbeat. The organs (except lungs).
heart sounds are due to closure of valves. (4) During pulmonary circulation, the blood
(3) Lubb sound is produced during ventricular passes from the right ventricle to the left
systole when the cuspid valves close both atrium of the heart through lungs.
the atrioventricular apertures preventing (5) The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood
blood flow into atria. into the pulmonary trunk which carries it to
(4) Dub sound is produced during ventricular lungs for oxygenation. The oxygenated blood
diastole when semilunar valves are closed, from the lungs is brought to left atrium by
preventing backflow of blood from two pairs of pulmonary veins.
pulmonary trunk and systemic aorta into (6) During systemic circulation, the blood from
ventricles.  the left ventricle passes to the right atrium
(13)
What is double circulation ? What is its of heart through body organs.
significance ? (7) The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood
Ans. into the systemic aorta which carries it to
(1) Double circulation
:
Movement of blood all body organs except lungs. The
twice through the heart during one deoxygenated blood from the body organs is
circulation cycle is called double circulation. brought to right atrium by superior and
Body  heart  lungs  heart  body is inferior venae cavae. 
the course of double circulation.  (15)

Explain in brief the factors affecting
(2) Significance of double circulation : blood pressure.
a. Double circulation is more effective type Ans.

of circulation in which oxygenated and (1) Cardiac output : Normal cardiac output is
deoxygenated type of blood do not 5 lit/min. Increase in cardiac output
intermix. increases systolic pressure.
3/Navneet Biology Digest : Standard XII (Part

8. 2) E0294
Respiration and Circulation 49
(2) Peripheral resistance : Peripheral resistance (7) Rate of heartbeat is controlled in response
Chapter 1
depends upon the diameter of blood vessels. to inputs from various receptors like
8
Decrease in diameter of arterioles and proprio-receptors. These receptors monitor

Chapter
capillaries under the effect of vasopressin the position of limbs and muscles. There
cause increase in peripheral resistance and are chemoreceptors which monitor chemical
thereby increase in blood pressure. change in blood and baroreceptors that
(3) Blood volume : Loss of blood in accidents monitor the stretching of main arteries and
decreases blood volume and thus cause veins.
decrease in blood pressure. (8) Chemical control on heart rate :
(4) Viscosity of blood
:
Blood pressure is (i)
Hypoxia, acidosis, alkalosis cause
directly proportional to viscosity of blood. decrease in cardiac activity.
(5) Age : Blood pressure increases with age due (ii)
Hormones like epinephrine and nor
to increase in inelasticity of blood vessels. epinephrine enhance the cardiac activity.
(6) Venous return : Amount of blood brought (iii) Elevated blood level of K+ and Na+
to the heart via the veins per unit time is decreases the cardiac activity. 
called the venous return and it is directly (17) What are the main features of respiratory
proportional to blood pressure. surface ?
(7) Length and diameter of blood vessels : Ans. The respiratory surface, for the efficient
Blood pressure is directly proportional to gaseous exchange should have the following
the total length of the blood vessel. Blood features :
pressure can also be affected by (1) It should have a large surface area.
vasoconstriction or vasodilation.
(2) It should be thin, highly vascular and
(8) Gender : Females have slightly lower BP permeable to allow exchange of gases.
than males of her age before menopause.
(3) It should be moist. 
However, the risk of high B. P. increases in
(18)
What is the co-relationship between
the females after menopause sets in. 
activeness of organism and complexity of
(16) How is cardiac activity regulated ?
transport system ?
Ans.
(1) Normal activities of the heart are auto
Ans.
regulated. The specialized muscles help in
(1) As the size of an organism increases, its
this regulation.
surface area to volume ratio decreases. This
(2) The heart is said to be myogenic due to this
means it has relatively less surface area
ability.
available for substances to diffuse through.
(3) In the medulla oblongata of brain, there is
(2) Large multicellular organisms therefore
cardiovascular centre,
cannot rely on diffusion alone to supply
(4)
From this centre, sympathetic and their cells with Substances such as food
parasympathetic nerves innervate the and oxygen and to remove waste products.
sinoatrial node. Large multicellular organisms require
(5) Sympathetic nerves secrete adrenaline and specialized transport system.
it stimulates and increases the heartbeat. (3) In short for the organisms to become active,
(6) Parasympathetic nerves secrete acetylcholine they must be having complex transport system
and it decreases the heart rate. to bring about their vital functions rapidly.

(19)
What are the granules in granulocytes ? (22)
Why is it difficult to hold one’s breath
[Think about it. TB page no. 166] beyond a limit ?
Chapter 8
Ans. [Think about it. TB page no. 162]
(1) Neutrophils : Granules of neutrophils Ans.
contain cationic proteins and other proteins 1. It is difficult to hold one’s breath beyond a
that are used to kill bacteria, some enzymes limit because the pressure of oxygen and
to breakdown bacterial proteins, lysozymes carbon dioxide in blood changes as one
to breakdown bacterial cell wall. etc. holds his breath.
(2) Eosinophils : Granules of eosinophil 2. When the breath is held beyond a limit, the
contains a unique toxic basic protein urge to breath becomes irresistible.
receptors that bind to IgE used to help in
3.
When the breath is held forever, body
killing parasites.
becomes starved of oxygen and person may
(3) Basophils : Granules of basophils contain fall unconscious and the instinct to breath
abundant histamine, heparin and platelet would take over. 
activating factor. 
(23) Why and when do the leucocytes perform
(20)
What is haemoglobin count in normal
diapedesis ?
human beings ? What is the function of
[Think about it. TB page no. 166]
haemoglobin ?
Ans. Ans.
(1) The normal haemoglobin in adult male is (1) Diapedesis is the movement of leucocytes
13 – 18 mg /100 ml of blood. through the wall of blood capillaries into
(2) In a normal adult female, it is about the tissue space.
11.5 – 16.5 mg /100ml of blood. (2) Leucocytes perform diapedesis as an
(3) In anaemic individuals there is lesser important part of their reaction to tissue
amount of haemoglobin. injury or infection.
(4)
Functions of haemoglobin is to transport (3) This process forms the part of the innate
oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon immune response, involving recruitment of
dioxide from tissues of lungs. non-specific leucocytes.
(5) Haemoglobin acts as a buffer and maintains (4)
Monocytes also use this process during
the blood pH.  their development into macrophages.
(21) Why has the heart-recipient to rely upon (5) Diapedesis helps leucocytes to perform
life-time supply of immunosuppressants ? their functions like phagocytosis, production
[Think about it. TB page no. 175] of antibodies, secretion of inflammatory
Ans. Person who has undergone heart response chemicals, etc. 
transplant needs lifetime supply of (24)

Why are obese persons prone to
immunosuppressants because in these hypertension ?
persons organ rejection is a constant threat.
Keeping away the immune system from
Ans.
attacking the transplanted organ requires
constant supply of immunosuppressant (1) Being overweight or obese is a major cause
drugs. These drugs help prevent immune of hypertension, accounting for 65% to 75%
system from attacking (“rejecting”) the of the risk for human primary hypertension.
donor organ. Typically, these drugs are (2) Following factors play an important role in
taken for the life-time for maintaining initiating obesity hypertension :
transplanted organ. 

(i) Physical compression of the kidneys by (4) Therefore, large animals cannot carry out
fat. respiration without the help of circulatory
Chapter 8
(ii) Activation of the renin-angiotensin – system. 
aldosterone system (27) What is immunity ? Name its types.

(iii) Increased sympathetic nervous system Ans.
activity. (1) Immunity is the general ability of a body to
(iv) Obesity means more body-surface area. recognize, neutralize or destroy and
In order to supply blood to these parts. eliminate foreign substances or resist a
Heart and blood vessels work more particular infection or disease.
resulting into hypertensions. There are two basic types of immunity, viz.
(2)
(3)
Blood pressure rises as body weight innate immunity and acquired immunity,
increases and therefore obese persons are Acquired immunity is further divided into
prone to hypertension.  four types, i.e. Natural acquired active
(25) Why does the transplanted heart beats at immunity, Natural acquired passive
higher rate than normal ? immunity, Artificial acquired active passive
[Think about it. TB page no. 175] immunity and Artificial acquired passive
immunity.
Ans.
(28) Why does the platelet count decrease in
(1) The transplanted heart beats at higher rate
dengue patient ?
than normal (about 100 to 110 beats per
Ans.
minute) because the nerves leading to the
heart are cut during the operation. These (1) The causative pathogen of dengue is dengue
nerves stimulate the pacemaker i.e. virus which induces bone marrow
Sinoatrial node. suppression. Since in bone marrow blood
cells are formed its suppression causes the
(2) The new heart also responds more slowly to
deficiency of blood cells leading to low
exercise and does not increase its rate as
platelet count.
quickly as before. 
(2) The dengue virus also links with platelets in
(26)
Why do large animals cannot carry out
the blood when there is a virus-specific
respiration without the help of circulatory
antibody present in the human body.
system ?
(3)
When vascular endothelial cell which are
infected with dengue virus gets combined
Ans.
with platelets, they tend to destroy platelets.
(1) Large animals have various organ systems This is one of the major causes of low
which always work in a coordinated manner. platelet count in dengue fever.
(2) These animals provide large respiratory (4) Even the antibodies that are produced after
surfaces (numerous alveoli) for the exchange infection of the dengue virus also cause the
of gases. But these respiratory gases must destruction of platelets, thus lowering the
be carried to the cells of tissues which are platelet count.
away from the respiratory surfaces. (29) Why does our immune system fail against
(3) To carry these gases to tissues, there is pathogens like Trypanosoma cruzi and
need of transport system. These gasses are Plasmodium ?
transported from respiratory surfaces to Ans.
the cells of tissues through blood as a
(1)
Microbes have evolved a diverse range of
transporting medium.

strategies to destroy the host immune Ans. Monocytes can perform phagocytosis. They
system. The protozoan parasite do this by using intermediary or opsonising
Chapter 8
Trypanosoma cruzi and Plasmodium show proteins such as antibodies or complement
similar such adaptations to disturb host that coat the pathogen. They also bind to the
defence mechanism. microbe directly via pattern-recognition
(2) This parasite attacks host tissues including receptors that recognize pathogens. In this
both peripheral and central lymphoid way they perform amoeboid movement and
tissues. indulge in phagocytosis. 
(3) This causes systemic acute response in host

(32)
How do monocytes modify into
body which the parasite tries to overcome. macrophages ?
The parasite in fact weakens both innate Ans. Monocytes upon having inflammation,
and acquired immunity. selectively travel to the sites of inflammation.
(4) It interferes with the antigen presenting Here they produce inflammatory cytokines
function of dendritic cells via an action on and contribute to local and systemic
hosts like lectin receptors. These receptors inflammation. They are highly infiltrative.
also induce suppression of CD4+ T cells They differentiate into inflammatory
responses. macrophages, which then remove PAMPs or
Therefore, our immune system fail against pathogen-associated molecular patterns and
such pathogens.  cell debris. 
(30)
What is the relation between immunity Q. 12. Chart based / Table based questions :
and organ transplantation ?
(2 or 3 marks)
Ans.
(1) Complete the following :
(1) Those who undergo an organ transplant
Respiratory
face the possibility that their immune Organism Habitat
surface/organ
system will reject their new organ and that
they will always be at a higher risk for 1. Insects Terrestrial
infections. 2. Amphibian
(2) The immune system is able to recognize the tadpoles of frog,
difference between cells that belong to our salamanders
body and those that do not by learning to 3. Fish Aquatic
identify protein markers (antigens) that are 4. Reptiles, Birds
found on cell and infection surfaces. and Mammals
(3) In people, the antigens or markers that Ans.
identify their immune system are referred
Respiratory
to as the human leukocyte antigen (HLA). Organism Habitat
surface/organ
(4) Antigens that are recognized as unfriendly 1. Insects Terrestrial Tracheal
invaders stimulate an immune response to tubes and
destroy them. spiracles
(5) Therefore, when organ transplantation is 2. Amphibian Aquatic External gills
done, the immune responses are temporarily tadpoles of frog,
stalled. This helps in acceptance of the graft salamanders
in the recipient’s body. 
3. Fish Aquatic Internal gills
4. Reptiles, Birds Terrestrial Lungs
(31)
How do monocytes perform amoeboid
and Mammals
movement and phagocytosis ?


(2) Ans.
Partial pressure Pulmonary Partial pressure Pulmonary
Alveolar air Alveolar air
Chapter 8
of gases capillaries of gases capillaries

PPO2 PPO2 104 mm Hg 40 mm Hg
PPCO2 PPCO2 40 mm Hg 45 mm Hg

(3)
WBCs % Nucleus Function
Neutrophils 70%
Twisted Secretes heparin, histamine and serotonin
Fosinophils Antihistamin / Antiallergic in function
Manocytes 3 – 5%
Responsible for cell mediated as well as humoral immunity
Ans.
WBCs % Nucleus Function
Neutrophils 70% Multilobed Phagocytic
Basophils 0.5 – 1% Twisted Secretes heparin, histamine and serotonin
Fosinophils 1 – 3% Bilobed Antihistamin / Antiallergic in function
Manocytes 3 – 5% Kidney shaped Phagocytic
Lymphocytes 25 – 30% Spherical Responsible for cell mediated as well as humoral immunity

(4) Complete the following flow chart :

Extrinsic pathway Intrinsic pathway
Inactive factor X
Tissue Thromboplastin Cascade of clotting factors
Blood clot
Ans.
Extrinsic pathway Intrinsic pathway

Inactive factor X
Tissue Thromboplastin Cascade of clotting factors
Activated factor X
Prothrombin Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin Blood clot



(5) Complete the following table :
Waves on ECG Heart Activity Caused due to
Chapter 8
P wave Atrial contraction
QRS wave Ventricular depolarization
T wave Ventricular repolarization
Ans.
Waves on ECG Heart Activity Caused due to
P wave Atrial contraction Atrial depolarization
QRS wave Ventricular contraction Ventricular depolarization
T wave Ventricular contraction Ventricular repolarization

(6)
Cardiovascular disorders Symptom
Coronary Artery Diseases (CAD) Deposition of calcium, fat, cholesterol and
Pain in chest resulting from reduction in the blood supply to the

cardiac muscles.
Silent Heart Attack Myocardial infarction without
Ans.
Cardiovascular disorders Symptom
Coronary Artery Diseases (CAD) Deposition of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues in blood
vessels.
Angina pectoris Pain in chest resulting from reduction in the blood supply to the
cardiac muscles.
Silent Heart Attack Myocardial infarction without showing symptoms of classical
heart attack.

(7)
Instrument / Technique Purpose of use
Sphygmomanometer
X-ray imaging of the cardiac blood vessels to locate the position of blockages.
To measure ECG.
Ans.
Instrument / Technique Purpose of use
Sphygmomanometer To measure blood pressure.
Angiography X-ray imaging of the cardiac blood vessels to locate the position of blockages.
Electrocardiograph To measure ECG.


Ans. Label A  Blood from pulmonary artery
Q. 13. Diagram based questions :
Label B  Alveolus
(2, 3 or 4 marks)
Chapter 8
(a) The partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air is

(1) Give the name and function of ‘A’ and ‘B’
104 mm Hg.
from the diagram given below :
(b) The partial pressure of CO2 in pulmonary
capillaries is 45 mm Hg.
(c) There are about 700 million alveoli in the
lungs. 
(3)
Label parts ‘A’ and ‘B’ from the given
diagram and give their functions.
Fig. Larynx
Ans.
Name Function
(A) Epiglottis Epiglottis prevents the
entry of food into trachea.
Fig. Conducting systems of human heart
(B) Tracheal Tracheal cartilage
Ans. Part A  Sinoatrial [SA] node
cartilage prevents collapse of
Function : SA node acts as pacemaker of
trachea and always
heart because it has the power of generating
keeps it open.
a new wave of contraction and making the

pace of contraction.
(2) Label parts ‘A’ and ‘B’ from the following Part B  Atrioventricular [AV] node
diagram and answer the following
Function : Atrioventricular [AV] node acts
questions :
as pace-setter of heart. 
(4)
Sketch and label the dorsal (posterior)
view of human heart.
Ans. For the figure, refer to Q. 14. (16). 
(5)
Sketch and label the ventral (anterior)
view of human heart.
Ans.
Fig. Exchange of gases between

alveolus and capillaries
(a) What is the partial pressure of O2 in part

‘B’ ?
(b)
What is the partial pressure of CO2 in
part ‘A’ ?
Fig. Anterior (Ventral) view :
(c)
How many alveoli are present in the External structure of human heart
lungs ?


(6)
Sketch and label – Electrocardiogram or (9) Observe the diagrammatic representation
ECG. of double circulation and answer the
Chapter 8
given questions.
Fig. Normal (ECG) 
(7)
Sketch and label – T.S. of Artery, Vein
and Capillary.
1.
Why the circulation shown in the above
Ans. For the figure, refer to Q. 14. (12). 
diagram is called double circulation ?
(8) Observe the diagrams of blood cells and
2. What are the two main routes of double
answer the following questions :
circulation ?
3.
Which blood vessels carry oxygented
blood to heart and deoxygenated blood to
lungs ?
(a) Which of the above is agranulocyte ? 4.
Which blood vessels carry deoxygented
(b) Describe its origin and structure. blood to heart and oxygenated blood to
body organs ?
(c) Mention its types.
Ans.
(d) Explain its function.
1. During circulation, blood passes twice
Ans.
through the heart, therefore it is called
(a) The figure ‘D’ is agranulocyte.
double circulation.
(b) Structure
: Agranulocytes do not show
2.
(1) Pulmonary circulation which is from
cytoplasmic granules and their nucleus is
heart to lungs and back from lungs to
not lobed.
heart.
(c) Agranulocytes are of two types, viz.

(2) Systemic circulation which is from heart
lymphocytes and monocytes.
to body and back from all body organs
(d) Functions of agranulocytes : Agranulocytes
to the heart.
are responsible for immune response of
3. Oxygenated blood is carried to the heart by
body by producing antibodies and monocytes
pulmonary veins. Dexoygenated blood is
are phagocytic in function. 
carried to the lungs by pulmonary artery.
4. Deoxygenated blood is carried to heart by
superior and inferior vena cavae. Oxygenated
blood is carried to the body organs by
systemic or dorsal aorta.

(10)
Observe the cardiac cycle given below and water vapour are also released out of
and answer the following questions : the body through the same passage i.e. the
Chapter 8
nostrils.
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of cardiac cycle
1. Which phases of cardiac cycle are shown

in the above diagrammatic representation ?
2. How much time is taken for entire heart
to be in diastole ?
3. How much longer is ventricular systole as
compared to atrial systole ?
Ans.
1. There are four main phases of cardiac cycle
shown in the above diagram. They are
(1) AS : Arterial systole. (2) AD : Atrial
diastole. (3) VS : Ventricular systole. Fig. Human Respiratory System
(4) VD : Ventricular diastole which is along
(2) Internal nares open into the pharynx. The
with joint diastole.
space between external and internal nares
2. Diastole of entire heart is called joint
is knows as nasal chamber which is lined
diastole, which is for about 0.4 second.
internally by mucous membrane and ciliated
3. Ventricular systole is almost for the double
epithelium.
time than the atrial systole. Atrial systole is
for 0.15 second whereas ventricular systole (3) Nasal chamber is divided into two parts by
is for 0.3 second. 

a cartilage called mesethmoid. Each part of
these halves is further divided into three
Q. 14. Long Answer Questions :
regions, viz. vestibule, respiratory part and
(4 marks each)
sensory part.
(1) Describe the respiratory system of human.
(4) Vestibule is the anteriormost part of nasal
Ans. Respiratory system of human
: Human
chamber. In the vestibule fine hairs are
respiratory system consists of nostrils,
present. They filter out the dust particles
nasal chambers, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
and prevent them from going inside.
bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, diaphragm and
intercostal muscles. (5) Respiratory part is the second region which
1. Nostrils and nasal chambers : is richly supplied with the capillaries. Air is
(1) Oxygen rich air is taken in the body through made warm and moist in this region.
the nostrils or external nares. They are (6) Sensory part is lined by sensory epithelium.
external opening of the nose. Carbon dioxide It is concerned with the detection of smell.

2. Pharynx : larynx. These particles are then gulped and
(1) Pharynx is a short and vertical tube taken into the oesophagus.
Chapter 8
measuring about 12 cm in length. In pharynx 5. Bronchi and bronchioles :
the respiratory and food passages cross (1) At the distal end, the trachea divides into
each other. two bronchi (Singular – bronchus). Bronchi
(2) The upper part of pharynx is known as lie below the sternum or breast bone.
naso-pharynx which conducts the air. The (2) Each bronchus has a complete ring of
lower part is called laryngo-pharynx or oro- cartilage for support. The two bronchi enter
pharynx which conducts food to the into the lungs on either side.
oesophagus. (3) After entering into the lungs each bronchus
(3) Tonsils that are made up of lymphatic tissue divides into secondary and tertiary bronchi.
are present in the pharynx. They kill the The tertiary bronchi divide and re-divide to
bacteria by trapping them in the mucus. form minute bronchioles.
3. Larynx : (4) Bronchioles do not have cartilages in their
(1) Larynx produces sound. In males it walls. Each bronchiole ends into a balloon-
increases in size at puberty. This is termed like alveolus.
as Adam’s apple. It is clearly seen in the (5) Owing to the presence of alveoli the lungs
neck region. become spongy and elastic.
(2)
From pharynx air enters the larynx. The 6. Lungs :
opening through which it enters is called (1) Lungs are principal respiratory organs
glottis. Glottis is guarded by a flap called located in the thoracic cavity.
epiglottis. (2) They are pinkish, soft, hollow, paired,
(3) Epiglottis prevents the entry of food particles elastic and distensible organs.
into the trachea. (3) Each lung is enclosed in a pleural sac which
(4) Two folds of elastic tissue called vocal cords consists of two membranes, viz. an outer
are seen along the side of glottis. When they parietal and inner visceral.
vibrate the sound is produced. (4) The parietal and visceral membranes
4. Trachea : enclose pleural cavity which is filled with
(1) The trachea or wind pipe is about 12 cm pleural fluid. The pleural fluid lubricates
long and 2.5 cm wide. and prevents friction when pleural
(2) It is situated in front of the oesophagus and membranes slide on each other.
runs downwards in the thorax through the (5) Lungs are highly vascular as they are richly
neck. supplied with blood capillaries.
(3) The trachea is made up of fibrous muscular (6) The left lung has two lobes while the right
tissue wall which is supported by ‘C’-shaped lung has three lobes. Each lobe has many
cartilages. These cartilaginous rings are 16 bronchioles and alveolar sacs. The alveolar
to 20 in number. sacs are spherical and thin walled. Each
(4) Internally the tracheal wall bears ciliated alveolar sac contains about 20 alveoli. The
epithelium and mucous glands. alveoli appear as a bunch of grapes. The
(5) When any foreign particle enters the trachea lobule in the lung thus consists of alveolar
inadvertently. It is thrown out by coughing ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli.
action. (7) Each alveolus has thin and elastic walls. It
(6) Mucous and ciliary action remove the dust is about 0.1 mm in diameter. Alveoli are
particles and push them upwards to the covered by network of capillaries from

pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein. A 2. Expiration :
network of pulmonary capillaries supply (1) Expiration is the process in which air
Chapter 8
the alveolus. containing carbon dioxide and water vapour

(8) The alveolar wall is 0.0001 mm thick and is expelled out of the lungs.
made up of simple, non-ciliated, squamous (2) Expiration is a passive process.
epithelium. It has collagen and elastin (3) During expiration, intercostal muscles relax
fibres. and ribs are pulled inwards.
(9) Every lung has about 700 million alveoli. (4) The diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome
They increase the surface area of the lungs shaped. Intercostal muscles contract
for exchange of gases. 
simultaneously and due to these events, the
(2)
Describe the process of respiration in volume of the thoracic cavity is reduced.
man. OR (5) The pressure on the lungs is thus increased
Describe the mechanism of respiration in as a result of which they are compressed.
human beings. (6) Due to this, air rushes out of the lungs and
Ans. is expelled out through the nose.
(1)
Respiration includes breathing, external
respiration, internal respiration and cellular
respiration.
A. Breathing : During breathing air comes in
and goes out of the lungs. The rate of
gaseous exchange is speeded up by
breathing. Breathing involves two processes,
viz. inspiration and expiration
1. Inspiration :
(1) Inspiration is the process in which the air
containing oxygen is taken inside the lung.
(2) Inspiration is the active process which is
possible due to intercostal muscles, sternum
and diaphragm.
(3) During inspiration, intercostal muscles
contract, ribs are pulled outward as a result
Fig. Breathing
of which the space in the thoracic cavity is
increased. B. External respiration : The process of
external respiration takes place in the lungs
(4) At the same time the lower part of the breast
where oxygen from the lungs diffuses into
bone is raised and diaphragm flattens by
the blood capillaries present in the lung
contraction.
tissue. Similarly carbon dioxide from the
(5) The volume of thoracic cavity is thus
blood capillaries diffuses out and enters in
increased.
the alveoli in the lungs.
(6) Pressure in the lungs decreases as the lungs
C. Internal respiration : Internal respiration
expand and their volume is increased.
takes place in the cells of the body. Oxygen
Owing to this the atmospheric air enters
brought by the blood is given to the cells
inside the body through respiratory passage
and the tissues during internal respiration.
and reaches the lungs.

Similarly carbon dioxide passes into the While working with the car engine in a
blood cells from the cells and tissues. closed garage, John suddenly felt dizzy
Chapter 8
D. Cellular respiration : Cellular respiration and fainted what is the possible reason ?
takes place in the mitochondria of the cell, [Use your brain power! TB page no. 158]
where oxygen is utilised to liberate energy Ans.
in the form of ATP molecules. (1) As Smita and John were working with the
(3) Describe the respiratory disorders. car engine running in a closed garage, they
Ans. must be suffering from carbon monoxide
(1)
Following are some respiratory poisoning.
disorders : Emphysema is caused due to (2) Carbon monoxide (CO) is a highly toxic gas
alveolar abnormalities. Chronic bronchitis produced when fuels burn incompletely
results into coughing and shortness of from automobile engines.
breath. (3)
Because of strong affinity of haemoglobin
(2) Viral and bacterial respiratory diseases : with carbon monoxide, it readily combines
Acute bronchitis, sinusitis, laryngitis and with carbon monoxide to from a stable
pneumonia are some of the inflammatory compound, carboxyhaemoglobin. Thus, less
diseases caused either due to virus or due haemoglobin is available for oxygen
to bacteria. transport depriving the cells of oxygen.
(3) Allergens like pollen or pet dander can (4) Exposure to carbon monoxide can usually
cause asthma. In asthma constriction of leads to throbbing headache, drowsiness,
bronchioles takes place causing periodic breathlessness and often person gets
wheezing and difficulty in breathing. fainted. In extreme cases carbon monoxide
(4) Occupational hazards cause respiratory poisoning usually leads to unconsciousness,
diseases like silicosis or asbestosis. In these convulsions, cardiovascular failure, coma
disorders there is inflammation fibrosis and eventually death.
leading to lung damage. (5) The breathless persons can be treated by
(5) Treatments of respiratory diseases : following method :
(i)
Bacterial diseases can be completely (i) Oxygen treatment : The best way to treat
cured by specific antibiotics. carbon monoxide poisoning is to breathe
in pure oxygen (high-dose oxygen
(ii) Viral diseases need to be taken care of
treatment)
by using vaporizers and decongestants.
(ii) Oxygen chamber : Doctor may
(iii) Asthma needs treatment by inhalers
temporarily place her in a pressurized
and nebulizers.
oxygen chamber (also known as a
(iv)
For occupational disorders proper
hyperbaric oxygen chamber) 
mask and other protective gear is a
 (5)
Shreyas went to a garden on a wintry
must.
morning. When he came back, he found
(v) Lethal diseases like pneumonia should
it difficult to breath and stated wheezing.
be controlled by medication and rest.
What could be the possible condition and
 (4)
Smita was working in a garage with the
how can he be treated ?
doors closed and automobiles engine
Ans.
running. After some time she felt
(1) It indicates that Shreyas might be suffering
breathless and fainted. What would be
from allergic reactions. He may have come
the reason ? How can she be treated ?OR

in contact with allergens such as pollen, (3) The pressure in the arteries can be felt
dust, pet dander or other environmental every time the heart beats, especially in
Chapter 8
substances on his way in the garden. arteries which come to surface of the body
Or Shreyas may be already a patient of like that of the wrist and neck but not in
Asthma and his symptoms may have veins.
aggrevated due to wintry climate. (4) The pressure in veins is always weaker than
(2) If a person is allergic to a substance, such in arteries, resulting in a weaker pulse to
as pollen, his immune system reacts to the the point that it is undetectable by touch
substance as if it was foreign and harmful, alone.
and tries to destroy it. (5) Owing to this, when we keep finger on the
(3) The body reacts to these allergens by making arteries of wrist or neck, we feel a pulse but
and releasing substances known as IgE not when we keep it on a vein. 
antibodies. These IgE antibodies attach to  (7)

A man’s pulse rate is 68 and cardiac
most cells in the body which release output is 5500 cm3. Find the stroke
histamine. Histamine is the main substance volume.
responsible for pollen allergy symptoms Ans.
Cardiac output is the volume of blood
such as difficulty in breathing, wheezing, pumped out per min for a normal adult
sneezing, itchy throat, etc.
human being it is calculated as follows :
(4) Treatment : There are several drugs to

Cardiac output = Heart rate × Stroke volume
treat the allergic reactions :
Given : Cardiac output = 5500 cm3
(i) Antihistamines such as cetirizine or
Pulse rate = Heart rate = 68
diphenhydramine.
By using these values stroke volume of is
(ii) Decongestants, such as pseudoephedrine
calculated as follows :
or oxymetazoline.
 Cardiac output  Heart rate  Stroke volume

(iii)
Medications that combine an
antihistamine and decongestant such as
 Stroke volume = Cardiac output / Heart rate
Actifed and Claritin-D.  = 5500/68
 (6) Why can you feel a pulse when you keep = Approx. 80.  Stroke volume is 80 ml. 
a finger on the wrist or neck but not  (8)
Which blood vessel leaving from the

when you keep them on a vein ? heart will have the maximum content of
Ans. oxygen and why ?
(1) When the heart contracts, it creates pressure Ans.
that pushes blood out of heart. This pressure (1) The Aorta leaving the heart from left
acts like a wave. This “wave” of pressure is ventricle carry the maximum content of
the pulse you feel. But this pressure is not oxygen.
constant. (2) Deoxygenated blood becomes oxygenated in
(2) When the heart pumps the blood out of it at the pulmonary capillaries surrounding the
the time of systole, there is maximum alveoli of lungs. The oxygenated blood from
pressure in the arteries. This pressure lungs is collected by the four pulmonary
weakens considerably when it reaches veins.
capillaries, and so the veins which are away
(3) These pulmonary veins carry that oxygenated
from the heart are under less pressure. Due
blood to left atrium of heart. During atrial
to low pressure veins have valves to prevent
systole that blood is carried to left ventricle.
backflow of blood.

(4) Left ventricle then pumps that oxygenated move our limbs, they squeeze the blood in
blood to Aorta during ventricular systole. veins and the blood is then pushed towards
Chapter 8
Therefore, aorta has the maximum content the heart.
of oxygen.
(3) The veins in legs also have valves to keep
 The textual question is modified for
this process going and prevent blood from
appropriate language.
flowing back down towards the feet.

(4) In this way blood is kept moving in the large
 (9)
If the duration of the atrial ‘systole is
veins of the legs. 
0.1 second and that of complete diastole
(11)
How does transport of O2 and CO2 take
is 0.4 second, then how does one cardiac
place in man ?
cycle complete in 0.8 second ?
Ans.
Ans.
1. Transport of O2 :
(1) The time duration required to complete one
(i) Only 3% of the total oxygen is transported
cardiac cycle is 0.8 second.
in a dissolved state by the plasma.
(2) Cardiac cycle is divided into three important
(ii) The remaining 97% is transported in the
phases, viz, atrial systole, ventricular systole
form of oxyhaemoglobin in the RBCs.
and joint diastole.
(iii) Hemoglobin present is RBCs combines with
(3) Atrial systole in normal condition lasts for
oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
0.1 second, ventricular systole follows atrial
systole and lasts for 0.3 second whereas Hb + 4O2  Hb (4O2)
joint diastole or complete diastole lasts for (iv) Oxyhaemoglobin is transported from lungs
about 0.4 second. to the tissues where it readily dissociates to
(4) In this way one cardiac cycle is completed release O2.
in 0.8 second.  (v) Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin in the

 (10)
How is blood kept moving in the large alveoli and release of oxygen into the tissue
veins of the legs ? cells depends upon the difference in partial

pressure of O2 and CO2.
Ans.
2.
Transport of CO2 : Carbon dioxide is
(1) When heart undergoes systole, it pushes the
transported by RBCs and plasma in three
blood with pressure in aorta. This pressure
different forms.
moves the entire circulation of the blood
throughout the body. Aorta gives rise to (i)
By plasma in solution form (7%) : About
dorsal aorta after supplying to upper parts 7% of CO2 is transported in a dissolved
of body. Then it divides into two arteries form as carbonic acid (which can be broken
which enter two legs. The blood is forced to down into CO2 and H2O).
move in the legs due to blood pressure and CO2 + H2O = H2CO3.
also aided by gravity. (ii)
By bicarbonate ions (70%) : Nearly 70%
(2) In addition, the muscles in legs help of carbon dioxide is transported in the
transport blood back to our heart. As the form of sodium bicarbonate
/
potassium
muscles of our body contract and relax to bicarbonate in the plasma.

(iii)
RBCs contains an enzyme, carbonic (12)
 Describe histological structure of artery,
anhydrase. In the presence of this enzyme vein and capillary.
Chapter 8
CO2 combines with water to form carbonic

acid.
(iv)
Carbonic anhydrase also brings about
dissociation of carbonic acid immediately
tending to large accumulation of
HCO3 – ions inside the RBCs.
CO2 + H2O Carbonic anhydrese H2CO3
Carbonic anhydrase H+ + HCO3–
(v) The bicarbonate ions moves out of RBCs
and this would bring about imbalance of
the charge inside the RBCs. Fig. T. S. of Artery, Vein and Capillary
–
(vi) To maintain the ionic balance, Cl ions Ans. Histological structure of artery and vein.
diffuse from plasma into the RBCs. This (1) Artery is a thick walled blood vessel that
movement of chloride ions is known as carries oxygenated blood. (Exception is
chloride shift or Hamburger’s phenomenon. pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated
(vii) HCO3 – ions from the plasma then joins to blood from heart to lungs for oxygenation.)
Na+ / K+ forming NaHCO3 / KHCO3 (to (2) All the arteries arise from heart and carry
blood away from the heart.
maintain PH of blood).
(3) Each artery is made up of three layers, viz.
HCO3– + Na+  NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate
tunica externa, tunica media and tunica
(viii) H+ is taken up by haemoglobin to form interna.
Reduced Hb (HHb). (4) Tunica externa or adventitia is the thickest
(ix) At the level of the lungs due to the low layer of all. It is the outermost coat made
partial pressure of the alveolar air, hydrogen up of connective tissue with elastic and
ion and bicarbonate ions recombine to form collagen fibres.
carbonic acid and in presence of carbonic (5) Tunica media is the middle coat made up of
anhydrase it again yields carbon dioxide smooth muscle fibres and elastic fibres. It
withstands high blood pressure during
and water.
ventricular systole. It is also thick.
H+ + HCO3 –
Carbonic anhydrase H2CO3
(6) Tunica interna or intima is the innermost
Carbonic anhydrase CO2 + H2O.
coat made of endothelium and elastic layer.
3. By red blood cells (23%) : Histology of Capillaries :
(i) Carbon dioxide binds with the amino group (1)
Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest
of the haemoglobin and form a loosely blood vessels. Capillaries are formed by the
bound compound carbaminohaemoglobin division and re-division of the arterioles.
Hb + CO2 = HbCO2 (2) The wall of the capillary is made up of
endothelium or squamous epithelium.
(ii) Due to low partial pressure of CO2 at
(3) The capillary wall is permeable to water
alveolus carbaminohaemoglobin decomposes
and dissolved substances.
releasing the carbon dioxide. 

(4) Exchange of respiratory gases, nutrients, pressure in the cuff is slowly lowered till the
excretory products, etc. takes place through first pulsatile sound is produced. At this
Chapter 8
the capillary wall. moment, pressure indicated in manometer
(5) Capillaries unite to form venules.  is systolic pressure. Sounds heard during
(13)
 What is blood pressure
? How is it this measurement of blood pressure are
measured
? Explain factors affecting called as Korotkoff sounds.
blood pressure. (5) Pressure in the cuff is further lowered till
Ans. any pulsatile sound cannot be heard due to
smooth blood flow. At this moment, pressure
1. Blood pressure :
indicated in manometer is diastolic pressure
(1) The pressure exerted by blood on the wall
an optimal blood pressure (normal) level
of the blood vessels is called blood pressure.
reads 120/80 mm Hg.
Pressure exerted by blood on the wall of
3. Factors affecting blood pressure :
arterial wall is arterial blood pressure.
Blood pressure is described in two terms For answer, refer to Q. 11. (15). 
viz. systolic blood pressure and diastolic (14)

 Describe human blood and give its
blood pressure. functions.
(2) Systolic blood pressure is the pressure Ans. Blood Composition :
exerted on arterial wall during ventricular (1)
Blood is a red coloured fluid connective
contraction (systole). For a normal healthy tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm.
adult the average value is 120 mm Hg. (2) It has two components – the fluid plasma
(3) Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure on (55%) and the formed elements i.e. blood
arterial wall during ventricular relaxation cells (44%).
(diastole). For a normal healthy adult it is (3) Plasma is a straw coloured, slightly alkaline
80 mm Hg. and viscous fluid having 90% water and
(4)
B. P. = SP
/ DP = 120/80 mm
Hg. Blood 10% solutes such as proteins, nutrients,
pressure is normally written as 120/80 nitrogenous wastes, salts, hormones, etc.
mm
Hg. Difference between systolic and (4)
Blood corpuscles are of three types, viz.
diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure erythrocytes (RBCs), white blood corpuscles
normally, it is 40 mm Hg. (WBCs) and thrombocytes (platelets).
2. Measurement of blood pressure :
(1) Blood pressure is measured with the help
of an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
(2) The instrument consists of inflatable rubber
bag cuff covered by a cotton cloth. It is
connected with the help of tubes to a
mercury manometer on one side and a
rubber bulb on the other side.
(3) During measurement, the person is asked
to lie in a sleeping position. The instrument
is placed at the level of heart and the cuff is
tightly wrapped around upper arm.
(4) The cuff is inflated till the brachial artery is
blocked due to external pressure. Then Fig. Granulocytes and Agranulocytes

(5) Red blood corpuscles or Erythrocytes : (v) They are phagocytic in function and engulf
For answer, refer to Q. 10. (6). microorganisms.
Chapter 8
(6) White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes : (II) Eosinophils or acidophils :

For answer, refer to Q. 14. (15). (i)
Cytoplasmic granules of eosinophils take
(7) Thrombocytes/Platelets : up acidic dyes such as eosin. They have
bilobed nucleus.
For answer, refer to Q. 11. (8).
(ii) Eosinophils are about 3% of total WBCs.
(8) Functions of blood :
(iii) They are non-phagocytic in nature.
For answer, refer to Q. 6. (14). 
(iv) Their number increases (i.e. eosinophilia)

(15) Describe different types of leucocytes.
during allergic conditions.
OR
(v) They have antihistamine property.
Describe five types of leucocytes, with
the help of diagrams. Add a note on their (III) Basophils :
functions. (i) The cytoplasmic granules of basophils take
Ans. For diagram of Granulocytes and up basic stains such as methylene blue.
Agranulocytes, refer to figure in Q. 14 (14). (ii) They have twisted nucleus.
1. Leucocytes or White Blood Corpuscles (iii) In size, they are smallest and constitute
(WBCs) are colouriess, nucleated, amoeboid about 0.5% of total WBCs.
and phagocytic cells. (iv) They too are non-phagocytic.
2. Their size ranges between 8 to 15 µm. Total (v) Their function is to release heparin which
WBC count is 5000 to 9000 WBCs/cu mm acts as an anticoagulant and histamine that
of blood. The average life span of a WBC is is involved in inflammatory and allergic
about 3 to 4 days. reaction.
3. They are formed by leucopoiesis in red 6. Agranulocytes : There are two types of
bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, agranulocytes, viz. monocytes and
thymus and Payer’s patches, whereas the lymphocytes. Agranulocytes do not show
dead WBCs are destroyed by phagocytosis cytoplasmic granules and their nucleus is
in blood, liver and lymph nodes. not lobed. They are of two types, viz.
4. Leucocytes are mainly divided into two lymphocytes and monocytes.
types, viz., granulocytes and agranulocytes. (I) Lymphocytes :
5. Granulocytes : Granulocytes are cells with (i) Agranulocytes with a large round nucleus
granular cytoplasm and lobed nucleus. are called lymphocyte.
Based on their staining properties and (ii) They are about 30% of total WBCs.
shape of nucleus, they are of three types, (iii) Agranulocytes are responsible for immune
viz. neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. response of the body by producing
(I) Neutrophils : antibodies.
(i) In neutrophils, the cytoplasmic granules (II) Monocytes :
take up neutral stains. (i) Largest of all WBCs having large kidney
(ii) Their nucleus is three to five lobed. shaped nucleus are monocytes. They are
(iii) It may undergo changes in structure hence about 5% of total WBCs.
they are called polymorphonuclear (ii) They are phagocytic in function.
leucocytes or polymorphs. (iii) They can differentiate into macrophages for
(iv) Neutrophils are about 70% of total WBCs. engulfing microorganisms and removing

cell debris. Hence they are also called the body is brought through superior vena
scavengers. cava and inferior vena cava and poured into
Chapter 8
(iv) At the site of infections they are seen in right atrium. Oxygenated blood from lungs
more enlarged form.  is brought to heart by two pairs of pulmonary
(16)
Give an account of external features of veins which carry it to the left atrium.
the human heart. (7) Pulmonary trunk is seen arising from the
Ans. right ventricle, which carries deoxygenated
blood to lungs. While systemic aorta arises
(1) The heart is hollow, muscular, conical organ
from the left ventricle and carries oxygenated
about the size of one’s fist with broad base
blood to all parts of the body.
and narrow apex tilted towards left
measuring about 12 cm in length. 9 cm in (8) The pulmonary trunk and systemic aorta
breadth and weighing about 250 to 300 are connected by ligamentum arteriosum
grams. that represents remnant of ductus arteriosus
of foetus. 
(2) The human heart has four chambers, two
atria which are superior, small, thin walled (17)
With the help of well labelled diagram
receiving chambers and two ventricles describe the internal structure of human
which are inferior, large, thick walled, heart. OR
distributing chambers. Sketch and label internal view of heart.
Ans.
Fig. Posterior (dorsal) view :

External structure of human heart Fig. Internal structure of human heart
(3) Externally there is a transverse groove The heart shows four chambers with two
between the atria and the ventricles which atria and two ventricles.
is known as atrioventricular groove or I. Atria :
coronary sulcus. 1. Right atrium :
(4) Between the right and left ventricles there is (1) There are two atria which are separated
interventricular sulcus (pl. sulci). In these from each other by interatrial septum. They
sulci the coronary arteries and coronary are thin walled receiving chambers on the
veins are present. upper side.
(5) Oxygenated blood to the heart is supplied (2) The right atrium receives deoxygenated
by coronary arteries while coronary veins blood from upper part of body through
collect deoxygenated blood from the heart. superior vena cava and from the lower part
The coronary veins join to form coronary of the body by inferior vena cava. In the
sinus which opens into the right atrium. right atrium opens the coronary sinus which
(6) Right atrium is larger in size than the left brings blood from the heart muscles.
atrium. Deoxygenated blood from all over

(3) Eustachian valve guards the opening of (7) From the left ventricle arise systemic aorta
inferior vena cava while opening of coronary which distributes oxygenated blood to all
Chapter 8
sinus is guarded by Thebesian valve. parts of the body.

(4) On the right side of interatrial septum is (8) Pulmonary aorta and systemic aorta has
seen an oval depression called the fossa three semilunar valves at the base which
ovalis. In the interatrial septum of the foetus prevent backward flow of blood during
there is an oval opening called foramen ventricular diastole.
ovale. Fossa ovalis is remnant of this
(18)
With the help of suitable diagram,
foramen ovale. describe the conducting system of human
(5) Right atrium opens into the right ventricle. heart.
2. Left atrium : Ans.

(1) The human heart is myogenic.
(1) The oxygenated blood from the lungs is
brought into left atrium through four (2) Conducting system of the heart consists of
openings of pulmonary veins. sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node,
bundles of His and Purkinje’s fibre system.
(2) Left atrium opens into the left ventricle.
(3) The pacemaker of the heart is sinoatrial
II. Ventricles :
node because here the heartbeat originates.
(1) There are two ventricles which are separated
Pacemaker has power of generation of wave
from each other by interventricular septum. of contraction. This is modified cardiac
They are two thick walled distributing tissue, also called a nodal tissue.
chambers situated on the lower side of the
(4) SA node is situated in the wall of right
heart.
atrium near the opening of superior vena
(2) Left ventricle has thickest wall as it pumps cava. The wave of contraction generated by
blood to all parts of the body. SA node is conducted by cardiac muscle
(3) The inner surface of the ventricle is thrown fibres to both the atria. This results in
into a series of irregular muscular ridges contraction resulting into atrial systole.
called columnae carnae or trabeculae
carnae.
(4) Each atrium opens into the ventricle of its
side through atrioventricular aperture.
These apertures are guarded by valves made
up of connective tissue. The right
atrioventricular valve has three flaps hence
called tricuspid valve. Left atrioventricular
valve has two flaps hence called bicuspid
Fig. Conducting system of human heart
valve or mitral valve.
(5) The atrioventricular node (AV node) is
(5) Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are attached
located in the wall of right atrium near the
to papillary muscles of ventricles by chordae
opening of coronary sinus. AV node receives
tendinae. The chordae tendinae prevent the
the wave of contraction generated by SA
valves from turning back into the atria
node through intermodal pathways.
during the contraction of ventricles.
(6)
Bundle of His arises from AV node and
(6)
From the right ventricle arises pulmonary divides into right and left bundle branches.
trunk which carries deoxygenated blood to These are located in the interventricular
lungs for oxygenation. septum.

(7) The bundle branches further form Purkinje order to stop the blood flow and resuting
fibres which penetrate into myocardium of blood loss at the time of injury.
Chapter 8
ventricles. (2) When the blood vessel is intact, blood does
(8) The bundle of His and Purkinje fibres not clot due to the presence of active
conduct the wave of contraction from AV anticoagulants like heparin and
node to myocardium of ventricles causing antithrombin. But when there is an injury
ventricular systole.  causing rupture of a blood vessel, bleeding
(19) Describe the detail cardiac cycle. OR starts.
Explain the working of heart. (3) This bleeding is stopped by the process of
Ans. blood clotting during which liquid blood is
(1) The working of heart or cardiac cycle is converted into semisolid jelly.
formed by atrial systole, ventricular systole (4) The events occurring during blood clotting
and joint diastole. It takes place in are as follows :
0.8 second. (i)
Release of thromboplastin from
(2) During atrial systole from right atrium, the thrombocytes and injured tissue.
deoxygenated blood is poured into right (ii)
Formation of enzyme prothrombinase
ventricle through atrioventricular aperture.
in the blood due to initiation of
Similarly, from left atrium, the oxygenated
thromboplastin.
blood enters the left ventricle through
(iii)
Conversion of inactive prothrombin
atrioventricular aperture. This entire atrial
into active thrombin by prothrombinase
systole lasts for 0.1 second.
in the presence of Ca ions.
(3) After auricular systole follows the ventricular
(iv)
Conversion of soluble fibrinogen into
systole. During ventricular systole, the
deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle insoluble fibrin by thrombin.
enters the pulmonary trunk, which carries (v)
Formation of a clot by enmeshing
blood to lungs for oxygenation. At the same platelets, other blood cells and plasma
time, the oxygenated blood from the left in the fibrin fibres enmesh.
ventricle enters the aorta which is then (5) These reactions occur in 2 to 8 minutes.
supplied to all parts of the body. The Therefore, clotting time is said to be 2 to 8
ventricular systole lasts for 0.3 second. minutes. 
(4) Joint diastole or complete cardiac diastole (21) What is repolarization and depolarization ?
is the phase taking place after the systole, Ans. Repolarization is a stage of an action
when the entire heart undergoes relaxation,
potential in which the cell experiences a
for 0.4 second.
reduction of voltage due to the efflux of
(5) During joint diastole, the right atrium potassium (K+) ions along its electrochemical
receives deoxygenated blood from all parts gradient. This phase occurs after the cell
of the body through superior vena cava,
reaches its highest voltage from
inferior vena cava and coronary sinus. The
depolarization.
left atrium receives oxygenated blood from
Depolarization occurs in the four chambers
the lungs through two pairs of pulmonary
of the heart : both atria first and then both
veins. 
ventricles. The SA node sends the
(20)
What is blood clotting ? How and when
depolarization wave to the atrioventricular
does it occur ?
(AV) node which – with about a 100 minutes
Ans.
delay to let the atria finish contracting – then
(1)
Blood clotting is coagulation of blood in

causes contraction in both ventricles, seen (8) Depolarization and repolarization are
in the QRS wave.  electrical activities which cause muscular
Chapter 8
(22)
What is the correlation between activity.
depolarization and repolarization as well (9) The electrical changes in the myocardial
as contraction and relaxation of the cell during the depolarization
–
heart ? repolarization cycle is detected on ECG. 
Ans. Depolarization and Repolarization :

(23)
How are the signals detected and
(1)
When cardiac cells are at rest, they are amplified by electrocardiograph ?
polarized, meaning no electrical activity Ans.
takes place. (1) The action potential created by contractions
(2) The cell membrane of the cardiac muscle of the heart wall spreads electrical currents
cell separates different concentrations of from the heart throughout the body.
ions, such as sodium, potassium, and (2) The spreading electrical currents create
calcium. This is called the resting potential. different potentials at points in the body,
(3) Electrical impulses are generated by which can be sensed by electrodes placed
specialized cardiac cells automatically. on the skin.
(4) Once an electrical cell generates an electrical (3) The electrodes are made of metals and salts
impulse, this electrical impulse causes the and they act as biological transducers.
ions to cross the cell membrane and causes (4) Ten electrodes are attached to different
the action potential, also called points on the body while taking ECG.
depolarization. (5) There are three main leads responsible for
(5) The movement of ions across the cell measuring the electrical potential difference
membrane through sodium, potassium and between arms and legs.
calcium channels, is the drive that causes (6) Electrical potential difference between
contraction of the cardiac cells / muscle. electrodes is recorded.

(6) Depolarization with corresponding (7) As in all ECG lead measurements, the
contraction of myocardial muscle moves as electrode connected to the right leg is
a wave through the heart. Depolarization considered the ground node.
thus corresponds with contraction of heart.
(8) These ECG signals are acquired using a
(7) Repolarization is the return of the ions to biopotential amplifier and then displayed
their previous resting state, which using instrumentation software. This is
corresponds with relaxation of the recorded on ECG machine or
myocardial muscle. Repolarization thus electrocardiograph. The recorded ECG is
corresponds with relaxation of heart. analysed by an expert. 

Chapter 8

(TB page no. 179)
(1) Prepare a chart for different types of heart muscles and their functions.
Ans. Two major types of heart muscles
1.
Cardiac muscle cells or Myocardial 1. Specialized cardiac muscle cells Or
contractile cells. Myocardial conducting cell.
2. Constitute 99% of the cells in the atria and 2.
Constitute 1% of the cell in heart wall
ventricles. forming the conducting system of heart.
3. Cardiac muscle cells are not in direct with 3.
Myocardial conducting cell are in direct
nervous system. Their working is under the contact with nervous system. The nervous
control of myocardial conducting cells called system sends signals to pacemaker cells that
pacemakers. speed up or slow down the heart rate.
Contractile cells perform co-ordinated
4. 4. The conducting cells within the heart
contractions that allow heart to pump blood establish heart rate and transmit it through
through our circulatory system. the myocardium.
5.
Contractile cells are generally larger than 5. Except for purkinje cells, they are smaller
conducting cells and have many myofibrils than the contractile cells and have few of the
needed for contraction. myofibrils needed for contraction.

(2) Differentiate between the functioning of heart in frog and human.

Ans.
Frog Heart Human Heart
1. Frog heart has two atria and one ventricle. 1. Human heart has two atria and two ventricles.
2. The single ventricle of frog heart receives both 2. The right side of heart receives deoxygenated
deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and blood from the body and left side of the heart
oxygenated blood from left atrium. So, the receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
type of blood in frog heart is mixed. Normally there is no mixing of deoxygenated
and oxygenated blood in the human heart.
3.
Mixed blood is pumped from the heart and 3.
100% oxygenated blood is pumped from the
circulated to the body. heart and circulated to the body.

So its main purpose is to improve the

appearance of nose.
(TB page no. 155) (2)
Rhinoplasty is required for the people to
(1)
Kavya underwent a surgical procedure repair their nose after an injury, to correct
called Rhinoplasty. What could have been breathing problems or a birth defect or
the reason for such a surgery ? On which because they are unhappy with the
part of the body is it carried out ? appearance of their nose. 
Ans.
(1) Rhinoplasty is a plastic surgery procedure
for correcting and reconstructing the nose.

(2) What is the role of tonsils in our body ?
How many pairs of tonsils do we have ?
Chapter 8
Ans. (TB page no. 162)

(1) The main role of tonsils is to trap germs (1) Observe the diagram and discuss the
(bacteria and viruses) which we may have process with your friends.
breathed in. Antibodies produced by the
immune cells in the tonsils help to kill
germs and to prevent throat and lung
infections.
(2) There are three pairs of tonsils in the back
of the mouth – the adenoids, the palatine
tonsils and the lingual tonsils. 
(TB page no. 156)

l Count the number of breaths you take in
the following situations.
(a) After a good night’s sleep. Ans.
(b)
During a vigorous activity (running, (1) The above diagram indicates the function
climbing stairs, etc.) co-relation between digestive system,
(c) After the vigorous activity. respiratory system, circulatory system and
urinary system.
Do you find any difference is the count ?
(2) Digestive system is mental for ingestion,
Ans.
Yes, definitely there is difference in the
digestive and absorption of food in different
breathing count in these three different
parts of alimentary canal. The remaining
situations.
undigested and undigestable food (faeces) is
(a) After a good night’s sleep, the breathing rate
thrown out through anus by the process,
slightly decreases and become very regular.
called egestion or defecation.
(b) During a vigorous activity (running, climbing
(3) The absorbed simpler food substances
stairs, etc.) the rate and depth of breathing
(nutrients) are carried through blood to
increases.
heart first and then by its pumping action
(c) After the vigorous activity, initially breathing
these nutrients are carried to every cells of
rate is more and after some time it returns
the body.
to the normal resting value. 
(4) During breathing there is exchange of gases
between alveoli of lungs and the blood
capillaries. Here the deoxygenated blood
becomes oxygenated or pure and again pure
blood through heart is supplied to each and
every cell of the body.
(5) At the cellular level with the help of oxygen,
the respiratory substrates like simple
sugars, fats or proteins are completely
oxidized and energy is released to carry out
vital functions.

(6) Various wastes are produced during the Ans.
metabolic activities in these cells. These (1) The above flow chart represents the process
Chapter 8
wastes of metabolism are carried through of blood coagulation or clotting.
blood to organs of urinary system. In these (2) Clotting is a sequential process that involves
organs these wastes are filtered and urine is the interaction of numerous blood
formed which is eliminated out of the body by components called coagulation factors.
the process called micturition or urination.  (3)
Coagulation can be initiated through the
(TB page no. 163) activation of two separate pathways, named
(2) Observe the diagram and given appropriate as extrinsic and intrinsic pathways.
labels. (4) The extrinsic pathway is stimulated in
response to a proteins called tissue factors

that are normally found external to blood
vessels when blood vessel breaks these
tissue factors trigger a cascade of reaction
that results in rapid production of factor X.
(5) The intrinsic pathway is activated when
blood circulation over injured surface of
blood vessels.
(6) Both these pathways result in the production
of factor X.
(7) The production of factor X results in the
cleavage of prothrombin to thrombin.
(8) Thrombin, in turn catalyzes the conversion
of fibrinogen a soluble plasma protein into
Ans. Label 1 – Anterior aorta / dorsal aorta
long, sticky threads of insoluble fibrin.
Label 2 – Alary muscles
(9) These fibrin fibrestraps platelets, blood
Label 3 – Chambers of heart. 
cells and plasma to form the clot.
(TB page no. 168)
(3)
Observe the flow chart and discuss the
process with your friends. l Visit pathology laboratory to study various
blood tests like Hb detection, CBC. Blood
groups.
l Visit hospital to study how to take ECG,
stress test, measurement of BP, etc.
l Evaluation of ECG on broad basis.
l Use of Stethescope.
l Differential count of WBCs.

Chapter 8
1. Importance of pleural fluid :

https://www.verywellhealth.com/Commonfunctionsanddisordersofthepleuralfluid
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/Pleuralcavity
2. Various modified respiratory movements :
https://www.quia.com/Matchmodifiedrespiratorymovements
https://quizlet.com/Modifiedrespiratorymovements
3. Various respiratory pigments present in blood :
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/Respiratorypigment
https://link.springer.clink.springer.com//7respiratorypigments
4. Difference between coelom and haemocoel :
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/Differentiatebetweencoelomandhaemocoel
https://www.differencebetween.com/Differentiatebetweencoelomandhaemocoel
5. Percentage and functions of different blood proteins :
https://www.sciencedirect.com//Bloodproteins
https://en.m.wikipedia.org//Bloodproteins
6. Difference between plasma and serum :
https://www.easybiologyclass.com/Differencebetweenserumandplasma
https://microbenotes.com/Differencebetweenserumandplasma
7. Comparison between myoglobin and haemoglobin :
https://vivadifferences.com/Haemoglobinvsmyoglobin
https://biodifferences.com/Difference between haemoglobin and myoglobin
8. Importance of complete blood count :
https://www.srlworld.com/CBCimportance
https://www.mayoclinic.org/Completebloodcount
9. Location of lymph nodes in human body :
https://www.verywellhealth.com/Lymphnodes
https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/Lymphnodes

9 Control and Coordination
CHAPTER OUTLINE
9.0 Introduction ... 75
Nervous Coordination
9.1 Nervous System in Hydra ... 75
9.2 Nervous System in Planaria (flatworm) ... 75
9.3 Neural tissue ... 76
9.4 Synapse ... 76
9.5 Transmission of nerve impulse along the axon ... 77
9.6 Human Nervous System ... 77
9.7 Sensory Receptors ... 84
9.8 Disorders of nervous system ... 87
Chemical Coordination
9.9 Endocrine system ... 87
9.10 Major endocrine glands ... 88
2.
Animals control and coordinate the body
SUMMARY activities by electrical and chemical signals.
Unit 3.
The nervous system and endocrine control
9.0 Introduction system are two coordinating systems in them.
1.
Plants show a control and coordination by
sending chemical signals and bringing about
various types of movements.
Phylum Animals Nervous System Position Composition
Porifera Sponges Lack nervous system ----- -----
Cnidaria Hydra Diffused, nerve net Scattered Sensory cells and nerve
cells (neurites)
Platyhelminthes Planaria Ladder like, ganglionated Ventral, solid CNS, PNS and scattered
sensory cells
Annelida Earthworm Ganglionated Ventral, solid CNS, PNS, Sympathetic NS
Arthropoda Cockroach Ganglionated Ventral, solid CNS, PNS and ANS
Chordata Human Non-ganglionated Dorsal, hollow CNS, PNS and ANS
NERVOUS COORDINATION 3.
Sensory cells scattered in the body wall and
tentacles, but no sense organs
Unit
4. No sensory and motor nerves.
9.1 Nervous System in Hydra
Unit
1.
Hydra  diffused nervous system in the form
of nerve net. 9.2 Nervous System in Planaria (flatworm)
2.
Two nerve nets in the mesoglea, one connected 1.
Primitive animal with a central nervous system
towards the epidermis and second towards (CNS) located on the ventral side of body.
the gastro-dermis.
9. Control and Coordination 75

2.
Mass of cerebral or cephalic ganglion 5. Grey matter and white matter :
appearing like an inverted U-shaped brain. (1)
Grey matter is darker part of CNS. This is
3.
Ventral pair of nerves arising from ganglia. due to presence of cytons.
Interconnected to each other by transverse (2)
White matter is lighter part of CNS. This is
nerve or commissure in a ladder like manner. due to presence of myelin sheaths around
4.
The peripheral nerve plexus arising laterally axons.
from VNC. In PNS however, the accumulation of cyton causes a
swelling on the nerve. Such a swelling is called
Chapter 9
Unit
ganglion. [cytons within CNS form nuclei while those
9.3 Neural tissue in PNS form ganglia]
1.
Two types of cells in neural tissue
– the 6. Connective tissue layers in a nerve are :
neurons and the neuroglia or glial cells. (1) Endoneurium : covers each nerve fibre
2.
Nerve is bundle of axons. Outside the CNS, it Perineurium :
(2) covers each nerve bundle
is called nerve while inside it is called tract. having a number of neurons
3.
Types of nerves
:
Sensory (with sensory Epineurium : covers many nerve bundles to
(3)
fibres), motor (with motor fibres) and mixed form a peripheral nerve
type (with both sensory and motor fibres). 7. Neuroglial cells :
4. Neurons / Nerve cells : (1) More in number than the neurons.
(1) Neuron is structural and functional unit of (2) They are supporting cells of the Central
the nervous system. Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous
(2) Each multipolar neuron has three parts – cyton System (PNS).
or cell body, dendron and axon. (3) Neurilemma is the plasma membrane of
Schwann cell.
8. Types of neuroglial cells :

CNS – glial cells PNS – glial cells Functions
Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells Secrete myelin sheath

[cells with few branches]
Astrocytes Satellite cells Protect, cushion and supply nutrients

[star-shaped and most abundant glial to nearby neurons. Help in maintaining
cells in CNS] blood-brain barrier.
Microglia Macrophages Phagocytosis

[small cells with few branches]
Ependymal cells lining the ventricles of Ependymal cells lining central Secrete cerebrospinal fluid
brain [mostly columnar] canal of spinal cord
2. When the telodendria are connected to muscle

Unit fibre, it is called motor end plate or neuro-
9.4 Synapse muscular junction.
3. Properties of nerve fibres :
1.
Junction between two nerve cells with a
minute gap (synaptic cleft) in between them (1) Excitability / Irritability
which allows transmission of impulse by a (2) Conductivity
neurotransmitter bridge. (3) Stimulus

(4) Summation effect Unit
(5) All or none law
9.5 Transmission of nerve impulse along the
(6) Refractory period axon
(7) Synaptic delay
1.
The excitable neurons transmit the impulse
(8) Synaptic fatigue
through changes in electrical charges across
(9) Velocity the neuronal membrane.
4.
Types of synapses : Electrical synapse and The external tissue fluid has both Na+ and K+
2.
Chapter 9
Chemical synapse. ions.
(1) Electrical synapses are found in those places 3.
This process is called sodium pump or Na-K
of the body requiring fastest response as in exchange pump.
the defence reflexes.
4.
Generation of nerve impulse : Occurs through
(2) A chemical synapse between a motor neuron depolarization.
and a muscle cell is called a neuromuscular
5.
Saltatory conduction takes place in medullated
junction or motor end plate.
nerve fibres.
There are three components of a typical
Unit
chemical synapse.
9.6 Human Nervous System
(i) The pre-synaptic terminal
(ii) The synaptic cleft
(iii) The post-synaptic neuron
5.
Transmission of nerve impulse across a
synapse :
(1) This transmission takes place with the help of
neurotransmitters.
(2) Once the neurotransmitters bind to the
receptors of the post-synaptic cell, the action
is either excitatory or inhibitory depending on
the type of neurotransmitter.
1. Central nervous system (CNS) :
(3) The enzyme like acetyl cholinesterase
l
Brain is enclosed within the brain box/
destroys the neurotransmitter after the
cranium of the skull, whereas the spinal
transmission and the synapse is ready to
cord lies in the vertebral canal of the
receive a new impulse.
vertebral column.
l Inner to these bony structures, there are
3 protective membranes called meninges.
2. Meninges :
Name of membrane Position Structure Function
Dura mater Outermost Tough, thick and fibrous Protective
Sub-dural space–serous fluid
Arachnoid mater Middle, spider web appearance Thin and vascular Nutritive
Sub-arachnoid space–lymph-like, watery fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Pia mater Innermost in contact with CNS, highly vascular Thin Nutritive

3. CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) : l Maintaining constant pressure inside as
l About 100–120 cc lymph like extra cellular well as outside the CNS.
fluid with specific gravity of 1.005, present l Exchange of nutrients and wastes between
in and around the CNS. blood and brain tissue.
l It is secreted by the pia mater, the choroid l Supply of oxygen to the brain.
plexuses and the ependymal cells lining the 5. The Human brain :
ventricles of the brain and central canal of l Encephalology : Study of all aspects of the
Chapter 9
spinal cord. brain.

4. Functions of meninges and CSF :
l About 1300–1400 g in weight and
l Shock absorber, protection, prevention of 1300 –1500 cc in volume
desiccation.
6. Functional areas of cerebrum :

Areas Functions
1. Frontal lobe l Motor area  controls voluntary motor activities or movements of muscles.
l Premotor area  higher centre for involuntary movements and autonomus nervous
system.
l Association area  coordination between sensation and movements.
l Broca’s area  motor speech area.
2. Parietal lobes Somaesthetic sensation of pain, pressure, temperature, taste
3. Temporal lobes Centres for smell (olfactory), hearing (auditory), speech and emotions.
4. Occipital lobes Visual area mainly for sense of vision.
5. Wernicke’s area Present partly in temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. Sensory speech area.
6. Basal nuclei or Control precise muscular activities at subconscious level.
basal ganglia
7. Corpus striatum At the floor of cerebrum is the largest basal nucleus.

7. Parts of the Forebrain (Prosencephalon) :
Parts Peculiarities Structures associated with Functions
Olfactory lobes Paired, small bodies, lying Two parts : Olfactory bulbs Sense of smell
(Rhinencephalon) ventrally in the forebrain and olfactory tracts
Cerebrum l Cerebral fissure divides l Corpus callosum : l Three functional areas :
(Telencephalon) 85% it into two cerebral band connecting two Sensory, motor and
of brain hemispheres. hemispheres. association.
l Outer cortex, inner l Pallium : Roof of brain. l
Control of voluntary
Chapter 9
medulla. l Corpora striata : Ventro- activity
l Gyri-ridges and sulci- lateral walls. l
Perception of senses :
depressions Vision, taste, sound,
l Three deep sulci :
touch, speech.
Central, lateral and l
Centre of memory, will-
parieto-occipital. power, intelligence,
l Four lobes of reasoning and learning.
cerebrum : l
Centre for emotions,
Anterior frontal, thoughts, feelings,
middle parietal, weeping and laughing.
posterior occipital and l
Centre for temperature,
lateral temporal pressure and pain.
l
Centre for micturition
and defecation.
Diencephalon l Present below corpus l Epithalamus : l Pineal gland secretes
(Thalamencephalon) callosum and above Roof has anterior choroid serotonin (metabolic acti-
midbrain. plexus. vities) and melatonin
l Epithalamus shows l Thalami, Reticular acti- (biological rhythm).
pineal body attached to vating system (RAS) is in l Relay centre for motor
pineal stalk. thalami. and sensory impulses
l Habencular commissure l Hypothalamus
between spinal cord,
connects two thalami. Floor of diencephalon brain stem and cerebrum.
l Pituitary gland is l Maintaining homeostasis.
attached by infundibular l Control of ANS

stalk. l Coordinator of nervous
and endocrine systems.
l Secretion of ADH and
oxytocin.
l Secretion of
neurohormones to
control pituitary.
l Thermoregulation,
hunger, thirst, sexual

desire, etc.
l Regulation of heartbeats,
blood pressure and water

balance.
l Secretion of cerebrospinal
fluid by anterior choroid

plexus.

8. Parts of the Midbrain (Mesencephalon) :
Corpora quadrigemina l Two pairs of lobes. Connection of cerebrum to l Control and coordination
l 1st pair superior cerebellum of eye movement and
colliculi : Receives head movement.
optic nerves. l Control and coordination
l 2nd pair inferior of auditory reflexes.
colliculi : Receives
Chapter 9
auditory nerves.
Crura cerebri Thick bands of nerve l Relay centre of impulses.
fibres l Controlling muscle tone.
9. Parts of the Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) :

Cerebellum l Posterior most part. Arbor vitae : Tree like l Control of equilibrium,
(Metencephalon) l Three lobes : Median processes of inner white posture, balancing and
11% of the brain, vermis, two lateral matter extending into the orientation.
second largest cerebellar outer grey matter. l Regulatory centre for
region. hemispheres. neuromuscular activities.

l Control of voluntary
muscular movements.
l Coordination of activities of
both cerebellar hemispheres.
pons Varolii l Nerve fibres that l Control of consciousness of
form bridges between brain.
cerebrum and l Reflex centre for breathing.
medulla oblongata.
l Outer white and
inner grey matter.

l Nerve fibres cross
over here.
Medulla oblongata l Posteriormost part l Controlling all involuntary
(Myelencephalon) that continues as a activity.
spinal cord. l Heartbeat, respiration,
l Outer white and vaso-motor activities,

inner grey matter. peristalsis, reflex activities.
l It has a posterior l Coughing, sneezing, vomiting,
choroid plexus. yawning, hiccupping,
Cranial nerves arise swallowing, secretions of
from medulla. glands, etc.
10. Ventricles of brain : The cavities present in the different parts of the brain are called ventricles.
Ventricle number Name Connections Located within
I and II Lateral ventricles Between lateral ventricles and diocoel there is Cerebral
or paracoel foramen of Monro. hemispheres
III Diocoel Diocoel opens into IVth ventricle by iter or Diencephalon
aqueduct of Sylvius.
IV .......... In continuation with central canal of spinal cord. Medulla oblongata

11. Important terms associated with brain. l Corpora quadrigemina : Four rounded
l Corpus callosum : Transverse band of elevations on the dorsal surface of the
nerve fibres which connects right and left midbrain. The two superior colliculi are
cerebral hemisphere. It is the largest involved in visual reflexes and the two
commissure of the brain. inferior colliculi are for auditory reflexes.
l Crura cerebri : Two thick fibrous tracks,
l Cerebral cortex : The outer surface of
also called cerebral peduncles, situated in
cerebrum, composed of grey matter.
the floor midbrain.
Chapter 9
l Cerebral medulla : Inner part composed of
l Red nucleus : Grey matter near the centre
white matter.
of the midbrain, controlling posture and
l Gyri (elevations) and Sulci (depressions) : muscle tone, modifying some motor
convolutions and grooves on the surface of activities and motor coordination.
cerebrum. l Pons varolii : Rounded bulge on the
l Central sulcus : Between frontal lobe and underside of the brain stem.
the parietal lobes. l Brain stem : Consist of midbrain, pons and
l Parieto-occipital sulcus : Between parietal medulla.
and occipital lobes. l Arbor vitae : The mixing of white matter
l Lateral or Sylvian sulcus : Between with the grey matter showing a branched
temporal lobe and frontal and parietal tree-like pattern.
lobes. l Cerebellar peduncles : Three pairs of
myelinated nerve bundles connecting
l Insula or insular cortex : Fifth lobe which
cerebellum to the other parts of CNS.
is folded deep within the lateral sulcus.
l A pair of lateral – foramina of Luschka
l Foramen of Monroe
: Narrow opening
and a median – foramen of Magendie :
through which two lateral ventricles
apertures on the posterior choroid plexus.
communicate with diocoel (third ventricle).
12. Spinal Cord :
l Pineal gland : Vestigial 3rd eye and an
l Spinal cord is the lower extension of the
important endocrine gland, producing
medulla oblongata of the brain.
hormones melatonin and serotonin.
l It lies within the neural canal of the vertebral
l Habenular commissure : Connects two column and is surrounded by three
thalami. meninges.
l RAS (Reticular Activating System) : Relay l Externally, the spinal cord appears as long
centre as it transmits all sensory impulses cylindrical rod.
except those of olfactory to the cerebrum. l It is 42 to 45 cm long and 2.0 to 2.5 cm
Situated in thalami. broad.
l Aqueduct of Sylvius or iter : Connection l Conus medullaris : Terminal nervous part
between third and fourth ventricle through of the spinal cord.
hypothalamus and midbrain. l Filum terminale : Thread like non-nervous
l Limbic system : A complex neuronal circuit extension.
formed by the hypothalamus, amygdala, l 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from lateral
parts of epithalamus and thalamus, sides of the spinal cord.
hippocampus and other areas. l Cauda equina – Filum terminale with some
l Optic chiasma : Crossing of the two optic spinal nerves running parallel to it.
nerves. (appearing like a horse-tail)
4/Navneet Biology Digest : Standard XII (Part9. E0294 and Coordination

2)Control 81
13. T. S. of spinal cord : l The white matter consists mainly of bundles
l The spinal cord has a deep, narrow dorsal of myelinated nerve fibre called ascending
fissure and a broad ventral fissure. and descending tracts.
l The inner grey matter is H-shaped and the Functions :
outer white matter surrounds it.
l The spinal cord is the main centre for the
l Grey matter is divisible into six horns,
most reflex actions.
namely dorsal, lateral and ventral horns.
l The white matter is divisible into 6 columns l It provides pathway for conduction of
Chapter 9
or funiculi, namely dorsal, lateral and sensory and motor impulses.

ventral funiculi. 14.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
:
The
l The dorsal and ventral horns extend out of peripheral nervous system connects the
the spinal cord as dorsal root and ventral central nervous system to the different parts
root. of the body having receptors and effectors.
l The dorsal root has dorsal root ganglion
Two types of peripheral nerves :
which is a collection of unipolar sensory
neurons. No such ganglia on ventral root. (1) Cranial nerves : arise from the brain.
l The adjustor
/
association or inter-neurons (2) Spinal nerves : arise from the spinal cord.
lie inside the grey matter.
15. Cranial Nerves :

No. Name Type Origin Distribution Function
I Olfactory Sensory Olfactory Temporal lobe and olfactory Sense of smell
lobe epithelium of nose
II Optic Sensory Optic lobe Retina of the eye Sense of vision and light
III Occulomotor Motor Cerebrum Eye muscles (4) Movement of eyeball
IV Pathetic (Trochlear) Motor Floor of Eye muscles (2) Rotation of eyeball
midbrain
V Trigeminal (Dentist Mixed Anterior side Tongue, Touch receptors, jaws, Sensation of touch, taste
nerve) of medulla Lachrymal glands, cheek, lips, and jaw movements
(i) Opthalmic Sensory oblongata gums, Lower jaw, tongue,
(ii) Maxillary Sensory pinna, etc.
(iii) Mandibular Mixed
VI Abducens Motor Medulla Lateral rectus muscles of Movement of eye
oblongata eyeball
(ventral
surface)
VII Facial Mixed pons Varolii Muscles of neck, face, taste Facial expression, movement
(lateral side) buds and salivary glands of neck, tongue, etc. and
saliva secretion
VIII Auditory Sensory Medulla Internal ear Hearing and equilibrium
(Vestibulocochlear) (lateral side)
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed Medulla Muscles of pharynx, tongue Taste, pharyngeal contractions
(lateral side) and parotid salivary glands and saliva secretion
X Vagus Mixed Medulla Larynx, pharynx, oesophagus, Visceral movements and
(lateral side) trachea, lungs, heart, intestines sensations
XI Spinal accessory Motor Medulla Lateral and posterior side of Motor movements of
(Lateral and pharynx, neck and shoulders pharynx, larynx, neck,
posterior side) shoulder, etc.
XII Hypoglossal Motor Medulla Muscles of tongue Movement of tongue
(Ventral
side)

16. Spinal Nerves : Activities Types of Reflexes
l Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves originate Swimming Conditional
from the spinal cord. Dancing Conditional
Cycling Conditional
l Spinal Nerves : All spinal nerves are mixed
Salivation Unconditional, conditional*
nerves.
Blinking of eyes Unconditional
Name of No. of
No. Origin Sneezing Unconditional
the group pairs
(*at the sight or smell of the food.)
Chapter 9
1 Cervical 8 Neck
2 Thoracic 12 Chest (5) According to recent studies, the ANS is under
the control of CNS and nerves arising from it
3 Lumbar 5 Upper back
(PNS).
4 Sacral 5 Lower back
According to this view, the PNS is divided into
5 Coccygeal 1 Coccygeal (tail) region
(i) Somatic nervous system
17. Formation of a typical spinal nerve :
Autonomic nervous system
(ii)
l Each spinal nerve is formed inside the
19. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) :
neural canal of vertebral column.
l Autonomic nervous system transmits
l The dorsal sensory and the ventral motor impulses from CNS to the involuntary
nerves together form the mixed spinal nerve. organs and smooth muscles of the body.
l As soon as it emerges out of vertebral l It includes – autonomic ganglia,
column, it shows three branches, viz. preganglionic fibres and postganglionic
a. Ramus dorsalis fibres.
b. Ramus ventralis l Autonomic ganglia include

c. Ramus communicans (i)

Sympathetic ganglia – present near CNS
in the form of sympathetic cord.
18. Reflex Action :
(ii) Parasympathetic ganglia – present near or
(1) It is a quick, automatic, involuntary and
on the effector organs.
spontaneous response to stimulus.
l Preganglionic fibres arise from grey matter

(2) The path along which the action is carried out
of CNS and end at autonomic ganglia.
is called reflex arc.
l Postganglionic fibres arise from autonomic

(3) Components of a reflex arc : ganglia to the effector organs.
a. Receptor / sense organ Autonomic nervous system consists of
b. Sensory / afferent neuron sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
c. Association / adjustor neuron system.
d. Motor / efferent neuron (1) Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) :
e. Effector organ l Also called thoraco-lumbar outflow.
(4) Types of reflexes : l Consists of 22 pairs of sympathetic ganglia
which lie near vertebral column.
a. Somatic and visceral
l
Post ganglion is neuron which produce
b. Cranial and spinal
adrenaline. Hence they are called adrenergic
c.
Simple [monosynaptic] and complex
fibres.
[polysynaptic]
l It works in emergencies. It is also called
d. Unconditional and conditional 3 Fs system [fright, fight and flight]. It
has excitatory and stimulating effect on
most organs of the body.

(2) Parasympathetic Nervous System : organ. Hence these are also called
l It is also called cranio-sacral outflow. cholinergic fibres.
l It consists of ganglia which are very close or l All activities which are stimulated by the
within the wall of the effector organs. sympathetic system are brought back to
l Acetylcholine is produced at the terminal normal by this system. Hence it is also
end of postganglionic nerve at the effector called housekeeping system.
Comparison between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System :

Chapter 9
Organ/Region Sympathetic effect Parasympathetic effect

Heartbeat Increases Decreases
Blood vessels Constricts Dilates
Arterial B.P. Increases Decreases
Pupil of Eye Dilates Constricts
Gastrointestinal movements (stomach and intestine) Retards peristalsis Accelerates peristalsis
Urinary bladder Relaxes the bladder Contracts the bladder
Unit
9.7 Sensory Receptors
1.
Specialised structures in the body modified to receive the various stimuli from the external or
internal environment.
2.
Classification of receptors : Receptors are classified on the basis of their location, function and
their sensitivity to specific stimuli. Their classification is given in the following chart.
Types of exteroceptors and interoceptors, their locations and functions :
No. Types of Exteroceptors Location Function
1. Mechanoreceptors Touch corpuscles in skin Sensitive to touch, Tangoreceptors (Pressure),
Tactile receptors (touch)
2. Thermoreceptors Skin Frigido receptors (cold)
Heat receptors (warmth)
3. Chemoreceptors Tongue, nasal mucosa Gustatoreceptors (taste)
Olfactoreceptors (smell)
4. Statoacoustic receptors Internal ear Cochlea (hearing)
Semicircular canals (balance and equilibrium)
5. Photoreceptors Retina of the eye Rods-black and white image, dim light vision.
Cones – coloured, bright light vision.
No. Types of Interoceptors Location Function

1. Propioceptors Muscles and joints Pain, tension, vibrations
2. Enteroceptors Visceral organs Hunger, thirst, pain, temperature, pH, osmotic
changes, etc.
3. Baroreceptors Wall of carotid artery Changes in blood pressure.
3. Eye :
l The eyes are a pair of sensory organs of vision located in the orbit of skull.
l Each eye is spherical/rounded and called eyeball.

l Wall of the eyeball is made up of 3 layers : (1) sclera, (2) choroid (3) retina.
Name of layer Parts associated with that layer Important features
Sclera (outer) l Anterior part cornea Dense connective tissue layer
Choroid (middle) l Anterior part thick forms ciliary body. Bluish, with many blood vessels.
l Forward part of ciliary body is iris. Iris is the coloured part of an eye.
l Lens present in between the iris. Transparent and crystalline.
l Lens held by ligament of ciliary body. Pupil regulated by eye muscles for vision.
l Aperture of iris is pupil.
Chapter 9
l Posterior part of choroid is thin.
Retina (inner) Three sublayers : Ganglion cells, bipolar cells Rods Cones

and photoreceptor cells. Photoreceptor cells – Photopigment Photopigment
Two types, viz. rods and cones. Rods and Rhodopsin Idopsin
cones possess photosensitive pigments for
particular vision. Dim light or Daylight or photopic
scotopic vision vision and colour
vision
l Generation of image / Mechanism of vision :
Changes in retina when light rays fall on it
Light falls on rod and cone cells in Retina
Breaking up of light sensitive pigments by specific wavelength of light
Stimulation of rod and cone cells and generation of nerve impulse
Nerve impulse transmitted to bipolar nerve cells
Nerve impulse transmitted to ganglion cells
Nerve impulse in the axons of ganglion cells converge and leave via the optic nerve
Nerve impulse transmitted by optic nerve to brain
Perception of image by the brain cells (in the visual area of cerebrum)

4. Ear :
(1)
The human ear is called statoacoustic organ as it has two functions – hearing and body equilibrium.
(2)
Anatomically the ear is made up of three divisions : the external ear, middle ear and inner ear.
l Anatomically, the ear is composed of three divisions :
Divisions Parts Connections Structure Function
Outer ear/ Pinna and external External auditory canal – Fine hairs and wax The pinna collects the
External auditory meatus circular tube leads to secreting sebaceous sound waves.
Chapter 9
ear (canal). tympanic membrane (ear glands on pinna and

drum). in meatus.
Middle l Three ossicles (ear l Tympanic membrane  Chain of 3 bones l Transmission of
ear bones) malleus, malleus  incus  sound waves from
incus and stapes stapes  oval window external auditory
l Eustachian tube
of the internal ear. canal to internal ear.
l
l Eustachian tube Equalizing the air
connects the middle ear pressure on either
cavity with the pharynx. side of the tympanic
membrane.
Internal l Fluid filled l The membranous l Membranous l Organ of Corti is
ear structure called labyrinth has fluid labyrinth : Coiled located on the basilar
labyrinth consisting called endolymph. cochlea the membrane. It
of two parts : outer l Bony labyrinth filled Reissner’s and contains the hair
bony and the inner with perilymph. basilar cells which act as
l Membranes
membranous. divide membranes. auditory receptors.
l Above the cochlea, surrounding into upper l Scala media is l
Crista and macula
vestibular scala vestibule and a space within are the specific
apparatus lower scala tympani. cochlea which is receptors of
consisting of three l The scala vestibule filled with vestibular apparatus.
semicircular canals ends at the oval window endolymph. Function is
and the otolith at the base of cochlea. maintenance of body
l The
organ formed of scala tympani posture and the
the sacculus and terminates at the round balance.
utriculus. window which opens to
the middle ear.
(3) The organ of hearing : (4) Other parts of the ear :

l Organ of Corti is a pea sized structure l
Besides the cochlea, the internal ear also
located on basilar membrane. It has a sensory has the vestibular apparatus.
epithelium over the basilar membrane. l It is composed of three semi-circular canals
l The sensory cells have sensory hair on their and the utriculo saccular region.
free end so also called hair cell. In between l All three semi-circular canals lie in different
the rows of hair cells are present supporting planes at right angles to each other.
cells. l These canals are filled with endolymph.
l
Hair cells have long stiff microvilli called The base of each of the canal has an ampulla
stereocillia on their apical surfaces. Above in which there is a sensory ridge called
these stereocilia, is a jelly like membrane crista. The structure is crista ampullaris.
called tectorial membrane. l The vestibule has two sensory spots – macula
l This organ acts as a transducer, converting of saccule and utricle. The utricle is larger
sound vibrations into nerve impulses. than saccule.

(5) Mechanism of Hearing : 2. Parkinson’s disease :
Pinna receives sound waves l Degeneration of dopamine-producing
neurons in the CNS causes Parkinson’s
Directs them to ear meatus disease.
l Symptoms develop gradually over the years.
Sound waves strike tympanic membrane
l Symptoms are tremors, stiffness, difficulty
in walking, balance and coordination.
Tympanum vibrates
3. Alzheimer’s disease :
Chapter 9
Sound waves are transmitted through ear l It is the most common form of dementia.
ossicles to oval window l Its incidence increases with the age.
l
Symptoms include the loss of cognitive
Vibrations cause endolymph to develop functioning – thinking, remembering,
ripples in it reasoning and behavioural abilities. It
interferes with the person’s daily life and
These ripples stimulate the hair cells of
activities.
basilar membrane to press against tectorial
membrane CHEMICAL COORDINATION
This generates action potential in the Unit

afferent neuron 9.9 Endocrine system
1.
The cells in organisms communicate with
It takes the nerve impulse to brain via
each other through chemical signals. These
auditory nerve
cells are broadly of four types as follows :
l Autocrines : Cells release
secretion to
Sound is interpreted in the auditory centre
stimulate themselves.
of brain
l Paracrines : Cells release secretion
to
Unit stimulate neighbouring cells.
9.8 Disorders of nervous system l Endocrines : Cells release

secretion to
stimulate distant cells.
1. Psychological disorders :
l Pheromones : Cells /Organs release

l
Commonly called mental disorders. There secretions to stimulate other organism.
is a wide range of conditions that affect the
2.
Chemical coordination is carried out by
mood, thinking or behaviour.
secretions of ductless glands or endocrine
l Some of the major categories of psychological glands. Hence this chemical coordination
disorders are : system is also called the endocrine system.
– Intellectual disability (earlier known as 3. Endocrine system :
mental retardation), l The endocrine system controls body
– Autism spectrum disorder activities by means of chemical messengers
– Bipolar disorder called hormones.
– Depression l
Hormones are released directly into the
– Anxiety disorder blood.
– ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity 4. Properties of Hormones :
Disorder) l They act as chemical messengers and are

effective in very low concentration.
– Stress related disorders.

l
Hormones can function as regulators that l In the nucleus, the hormone receptor
inhibit or stimulate or modify specific complex binds to a specific regulatory site
processes. of DNA.
l
Hypersecretion or Hyposecretion of Unit
hormones leads to various disorders. 9.10 Major endocrine glands
l These are metabolised after their function
1. Hypothalamus :
and are excreted through urine.
l Ectodermal in origin.
Chapter 9
5. Mechanism of hormone action :

l Forms the floor of diencephalon.
l
Hormones are released in a very small l Major function is to maintain homeostasis.
quantity. l
Controls the secretory activity of pituitary
l They produce their effect on the target gland by the release and inhibiting
organs
/
cells by binding to hormone hormones.
receptors. l All hormones of hypothalamus are peptide
l The hormone receptors may be on the cell hormones.
membrane or may be intracellular. 2. Hormones of hypothalamus :
l A hormone receptor complex is formed and (1) Somatotropin/GHRF
this leads to biochemical change in the (2) Somatostatin/GHRIF
target tissue. (3) Adrenocorticotropin Releasing Hormone
(a) Mode of hormone action through membrane (4) Thyrotropin Releasing Factor
receptors : (5) Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
l Hormones like catecholamines, peptide and (6) Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (Prolactostatin)
polypeptide hormones are not lipid soluble. (7) Gastrin Releasing Peptide (GRP)
Therefore they cannot enter their target (8) Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (GIP)
cells through plasma membrane. 3. Pituitary gland or hypophysis :
l Molecules of amino acid derivatives, peptide (1) External morphology :
hormones bind to specific receptor l Pea sized reddish-grey coloured gland.
molecules located on the plasma membrane. l Controls almost all other endocrine glands,
l The hormone receptor complex causes the hence previously it was called the master
release of an enzyme adenylate cyclase from endocrine gland.
the receptor site. This enzyme forms cyclic l However, hypothalamus controls it through
AMP from ATP of the cell. the releasing and inhibiting factors.
l The hormone acts as the first messenger l Located just below the hypothalamus and is
and cAMP is the second messenger. attached to it by a stalk called infundibulum
(b)
Mode of hormone action through or hypophyseal stalk.
intracellular receptors : l Remains lodged in a bony depression called
l
Steroid and thyroid hormones are lipid sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
soluble and easily pass through plasma l Consists of two lobes called anterior lobe
membrane of target cell into the cytoplasm. (Adenohypophysis) and posterior lobe
l In the cytoplasm, they bind to specific intra- (Neurohypophysis). Intermediate lobe (Pars
cellular receptor proteins forming a intermedia) is a small reduced part lying in
hormone-receptor complex that enters the the cleft between the anterior and posterior
nucleus. lobe.

l Neurohypophysis is connected directly to the hypothalamus by axon fibres forming hypothalamo-
hypophyseal tract,
l Adenohypophysis and intermediate lobe are connected to the hypothalamus through hypothalamo-
hypophyseal portal system.
(2) Parts, morphology, histology and functions of pituitary in a glance :
Parts of pituitary Name of the
Morphology Histology Functions
(Lobes) regions
Chapter 9
Adenohypophysis Pars distalis Largest anterior region Secretory epithelial cells Secrete GH, TSH,
(75% of pituitary) composed of loose cords with blood capillaries. ACTH, LTH, GTH
Develops from the of epithelial secretory Has chromophobe and (FSH, LH/ICSH)
roof of buccal cells, having blood chromophil cells.
cavity as an sinusoids. It is connected Chromophil cells are of
outgrowth called to hypothalamus by two types, viz. acidophils
Rathke’s pouch portal system. and basophils.
Acidophils are of two
types, viz. somatotropes
and lactotropes.
Basophils are of three
types, viz. thyrotropes,
gonadotropes and
corticotropes.
Pars tuberalis Tubular region lying No secretion
below the hypothalamus.
It surrounds the
infundibulum.
Pars Narrow cleft between Not well defined in man. Larger and
intermedia the pars distalis and functional in lower
pars nervosa. vertebrates
Neuro-hypophysis Median Swollen median part of
(25% of pituitary) eminence the hypothalamus.
It grows from
hypothalamus as
an extension called
neural bud.
Infundibulum Forms the hypophyseal Connection between
stalk. Axonic fibres pass pituitary and
through this region. hypothalamus
Pars nervosa Lowermost and largest Pituicytes and axonic Store ADH and
region having axons knobs (Herring’s bodies) Oxytocin. It is
between pituicytes. neurohaemal organ.
(3) Hypothalamo – Hypophyseal portal system :

l Various hormones secreted by hypothalamus reach the pituitary gland through this portal system.
l The portal vein collects blood from various parts of hypothalamus and opens into anterior lobe of
pituitary.
l From pituitary, the vein finally carries the blood into the superior vena cava.

(4) Hormones of pituitary and their role :
Full form of the Cells secreting

Hormone Regulation Functions Disorders
hormone the hormone
GH or STH Somatotropin or Acidophils of Dual control of General growth of Hyposecretion :
Somatotropic adenohypophysis hypothalamus the body Dwarfism;
hormone or growth (Somatotropes) GHRF and GHIF pituitary
hormone or somatostatin infantilism in
childhood (Frohlic
dwarfs –mentally
Chapter 9
abnormal and
Lorain dwarfs–
mentally normal).
Also called
midgets.
Simmond’s
disease in
adulthood.
Hypersecretion :
Gigantism in
childhood,
Acromegaly in
adulthood.
TSH Thyrotropin or Basophils of TRF from Stimulates thyroid Hyposecretion :
Thyroid stimulating adenohypophysis hypothalamus. gland and helps in Thyroid atrophy.
hormone (Thyrotropes) Negative feedback the formation of Hypersecretion :
between level of thyroxine. Increased BMR,
thyroxine and loss of weight and
TSH. increased heart
rate and blood
pressure.
ACTH Corticotropin or Basophils called CRF from Stimulates adrenal Hyposecretion :
Adrenocorticotropic corticotrophs hypothalamus. cortex and helps it Rheumatoid
hormone Negative feedback to secrete arthritis,
between level of glucocorticoids Addison’s disease.
cortisol and and Hypersecretion :
ACTH. mineralocorticoids. Cushing’s disease
FSH Follicle stimulating Basophils Regulation by In females : Stimulation of germinal
hormone gonadotropin epithelium of ovary, oogenesis,
releasing factors stimulation of ovarian follicular cells
of hypothalamus. to secrete estrogen. Estrogen helps in
Negative feedback the development of secondary sexual
between the sex characters in female.
hormones– In males : Stimulation of seminiferous
especially estrogen tubules and spermatogenesis,
and FSH. maturation of sperms. Hyposecretion
or deficiency causes infertility in both
the sexes.
LH in Luetinizing Basophils Negative feedback Ovulation. formation of corpus leuteum,
females hormone between LH and stimulation of corpus leuteum to
progesterone. produce progesterone. Maintenance of
pregnancy.

ICSH in Interstitial Cell Basophils Negative feedback Stimulates interstitial cells of Leydig,
males Stimulating between ICSH and stimulation to secrete testosterone.
Hormone testosterone. Testosterone develops secondary
sexual characters in males.
LTH or PL Luteotropic Acidophils of PRF and PIF from Mammotropic : Development of
hormone or adenohypophysis hypothalamus mammary glands. Lactogenic : Milk
Prolactin regulate it. secretion. Luteotropic : Maintenance of
corpus luteum, Stimulation of corpus
luteum to produce progesterone.
Chapter 9
MSH Melanocyte Pars intermedia Hypothalamic Stimulation of melanocytes of skin and
Stimulating melanostatin synthesis of melanin, darkening the
Hormone skin.
ADH or Antidiuretic Hypothalamic Regulation Increasing Hyposecretion :
Vasopressin hormone neurons secrete through osmotic permeability of Diabetes
and neuro- pressure of the distal convoluted insipidus–causes
hypophysis blood. tubule in nephron. polydipsia and
stores these two Osmoreceptors in Facilitates polyuria.
hormones. hypothalamus ultrafiltration in Hypersecretion :
Neuro- thus indirectly kidneys. Decreases Antidiuresis and
hypophysis is regulate ADH urine output. water retention in
called neuro- secretion. Constricts the body.
haemal organ arterioles and
due to such increases blood
storage. pressure.
Oxytocin Birth hormone Secreted in large Contraction of uterine myometrium
amount during during parturition. Ejection of milk
childbirth or through mammary glands. Ascent of
parturition spermatozoa during copulation.
Excitation of musculature of gall
bladder, ureters, urinary bladder and
intestine.
Coherin Induce
contractions of
jejunum
4. Pineal gland : follicles held together by interfollicular

l The pineal body / pineal gland is given off connective tissue called stroma.
from the roof of diencephalon. It is located l
The stroma contains blood capillaries and
between the two cerebral hemispheres. small group of parafollicular cell or
‘C’ cells.
l The pineal gland is sensitive to the
biochemical signals of light. l Thyroid follicles are composed of cuboidal

epithelium resting on a basement membrane
l It secretes a hormone called melatonin also
and is filled with a gelatinous colloid.
known as sleep hormone.
(3) Thyroid hormones :
5. Thyroid gland :
l The two hormones secreted by the follicular
(1) Morphology : cells are Thyroxine / tetra iodothyronine / T4
l It is the largest endocrine gland. (four atoms of iodine) and Triiodothyronine
l The two lobes of thyroid gland are connected or T3 (three atoms of iodine).
a non-secretory band called isthmus. l
Parafollicular cells produce a hormone
(2) Internal structure : thyrocalcitonin whose production is not
under the control of TSH.
l The thyroid lobes are composed of rounded

(4) Formation of T3 and T4 : (2)
Problems associated with thyrocalcitonin
l Thyroxine is synthesized by attaching iodine secretion
to amino acid tyrosine by enzymatic action. Hypocalcaemia Hypercalcaemia
l The amino acid tyrosine molecule binds to (3) Problem with iodine uptake or deficiency of
iodine to produce Monoiodotyronine (T1) or iodine :
2 atoms of iodine to produce Diiodothyronine Simple goitre.
(T2). 6. Parathyroid gland :
Chapter 9
l T1 and T2 molecules bind end to end to (1) Situated on the posterior surface of the lobes
make colloidal mass inside the follicle. They of thyroid gland.
are further metabolised to prepare T3 and
(2)
2 pairs, named as superior and inferior
T4.
parathyroid glands.
(5) Functions of Thyroid hormones :
(3) Cells are arranged in a compact mass.
l Regulation of the basal metabolic rate of
(4) Hormones :
body.
l The parathyroid secretes a peptide hormone
l Regulation of metabolism by stimulating
called parathormone (PTH). It is also called
protein synthesis and promotes growth of
Collip’s hormone.
body tissues.
l Regulates calcium and phosphate balance
l
Calorigenic effect as it helps in
between blood and other tissues. It is a
thermoregulation by increasing heat
hypercalcemic hormone. Release of
production.
parathormone increases blood calcium
l Increases action of neuro transmitters – level.
adrenaline and nor adrenaline.
l It stimulates osteoclast of bones to stimulate
l
Supports the process of RBC production bone resorption.
and maintenance of water and electrolyte
l Thus, parathormone and calcitonin are
balance.
antagonistic hormones.
l Regulates reproductive cycles in females.
(5) Disorders :
l Parafollicular cells or ‘C’ cells produce
Hyposecretion of Hypersecretion of
thyrocalcitonin hormone, which regulates
parathormone parathormone
calcium metabolism.
Parathyroid tetany or Osteoporosis.
l
Calcitonin is the active form of hormone, hypocalcaemic tetany.
which is hypocalcemic hormone. It regulates
Lowers concentration of Responsible for more
the concentration of calcium and phosphorus calcium in the blood. resorption of calcium
in the blood. This increases excitability from bones i.e.,
(6) Disorders related to thyroid gland : of nerves and muscles demineralization of bones
(1) Problems associated with thyroxine secretion causing muscle twitch resulting in softening,
and spasm. bending and fracture of
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
bone.
In children In adults In children In adults 7. Thymus gland :
Cretinism Myxoedema Nil Exopthalmic (1) Located in the upper part of thorax on the
(Gull’s goitre dorsal side of the heart just behind sternum.
disease) (Grave’s (2) Prominent gland at birth till puberty but gets
disease) gradually atrophied in the adult due to action
of sex hormones.

(3) Functions : 8. Adrenal gland/Suprarenal gland :
l Secretes the hormone thymosin. (1) Adrenal glands have dual origin from
l Important role in the development of mesoderm and ectoderm.
immune system by maturation of (2) Located on the upper border of each kidney.
T-lymphocytes.
(3) Small, conical yellowish glands having two distinct regions, outer cortex and inner medulla.
(A) Adrenal cortex (outer) (B) Adrenal medulla (inner)
Chapter 9
l Derived from embryonic mesoderm. l
Derived from embryonic ectoderm.
l Secretes many hormones together called corticoids. Secretes main two hormones
l
l Main two hormones : (1) Glucocorticoids (1) Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Emergency hormone,

(2) Mineralocorticoids also called 3F hormone – (fight, flight and fright).
(2) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine). (Regulates the
blood pressure under normal condition, acts as
vasoconstrictor)
(4) Three concentric regions of adrenal cortex :

Name of the Zona glomerulosa Zona fasciculata Zona reticularis
layer
Location Outer thin cortical area. Middle thick zone of cortex. Inner thin region of cortex
Hormone Mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids like cortisol. Sex corticoids
secreted Aldosterone (Gonadocorticoids)
Androgens [testosterone]
Estradiols.
Functions of Regulate sodium and It regulates metabolism of Role in development and
the hormone potassium on concentration. carbohydrates, proteins and maintenance of external sex
Aldosterone balances Na-K lipids. characters in males
levels. Cortisol is responsible for Excess sex corticoids in female
It is a salt retaining hormone. increase in blood glucose causes adrenal virilism and
level. hirsutism, in males it causes
gynaecomastia.
(5) Disorders related to Adrenal cortex :

Problem Hyposecretion of corticoids Hypersecretion of corticoids
Name of the disorder Addison’s disease Cushing’s disease
Symptoms Characteristic features of this disease It leads to high blood sugar level,
are low blood sugar, low Na+ and high excretion of glucose in urine, rise Na+,
K+ concentration in plasma, increased low K+ in blood plasma, high blood
loss of Na+ and water in urine. It leads pressure, obesity and wasting of limb
to weight loss, weakness, nausea, muscles.
vomiting and diarrhoea.
9. Pancreas : Langerhans which secrete hormones.
(1) Develops from endoderm. Alpha (  ) cells (20%) secrete glucagon.
(i)
(2) It is heterocrine i.e. both exocrine and Beta (  ) cells (70%) secrete insulin.
(ii)
endocrine gland. Delta (  ) cell (5%) secrete somatostatin
(iii)
(3)
Endocrine cells of pancreas form groups of (iv) PP cells or F cells (5%) secrete pancreatic
cells called Islets of Langerhans. polypeptide (PP).
(4) There are four kinds of cells in islets of

Disorder related to pancreas
(5) : Diabetes (2) TYPE-2 diabetes i.e. Non insulin dependent
mellitus diabetes mellitus (NIDDM).
l Hyperglycemia i.e. It leads to increased blood l Diabetes
causes glucosuria, excessive
glucose level. urination and dehydration of body tissues,
l Cause : Under activity of Beta cells, which degradation of fats and increase in formation
results in reduced secretion of insulin. of ketone bodies (ketosis).
l Types of diabetes : l Administration of insulin lowers blood glucose
level.
Chapter 9
(1) TYPE-1 diabetes i.e. insulin dependent

diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
10. Gonads : Gonads are sex organs (the testes and the ovaries).
(1) Ovaries :
Hormone Source of secretion Characteristic Functions
Oestrogen Developing follicle, cells Estradiol is the main It is responsible for secondary sexual
of theca interna and oestrogen. characters in female.
corpus luteum.
Progesterone Corpus luteum Pregnancy hormone 1. Essential for thickening of uterine
[anti-abortion endometrium, thus preparing the
hormone] uterus for implantation of fertilized
ovum.
2. Responsible for development of
mammary glands during pregnancy.
3. Inhibits uterine contractions during
pregnancy.
Relaxin Corpus luteum of the Peptide hormone 1. Relaxes the cervix of the pregnant
ovary at the end of related to insulin. female.
gestation period. 2. Relaxes ligaments of pelvic girdle
during parturition.
Inhibin Secreted by Sertoli cells Protein hormones It inhibits the FSH and GnRH production.
in males and granulosa antagonistic to activins.
cells and corpus luteum
in females.
(2) Testes : Testes secrete male sex hormones 11. Placenta :

called androgens such as testosterone. l Temporary endocrine source in pregnant
l Testosterone : women which forms intimate connection
(i) It is secreted from interstitial cells or between foetus and uterine wall of the
Leydig cells by the influence of luteinising mother for physiological exchange of the
hormone (LH). materials.
(ii) Rise in testosterone level in blood above l During pregnancy, placenta secretes
normal inhibits LH secretion. hormones such as estrogen, progesterone,
(iii) It is also responsible for appearance of HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin) and
secondary sexual characters such as human placental progesterone.
facial and pubic hair, deepening of voice, 12. Diffused endocrine glands :
broadening of shoulders, male (1) Gastro-intestinal tract :
Certain cells of
aggressiveness, etc. gastrointestinal mucosa are endocrine in

function. Their hormones play vital role in
digestive processes and flow of digestive
() Indicates question from the textbook
juices.
Hormone of GI tract Function Q. 1. Multiple choice questions :
1. Gastrin Stimulates gastric (1 mark each)
glands to produce  (1) The nervous system of mammals uses both
gastric juice. electrical and chemical means to send
signals via neurons. Which part of the
Chapter 9
2. Secretin Responsible for
secretion of pancreatic neuron receives impulse ?
juice and bile from (a) Axon (b) Dendron
pancreas and liver. (c) Nodes of Ranvier (d) Neurilemma
3. Cholecystokinin Stimulates gall bladder  (2) .......... is a neurotransmitter.
CCK/ to release bile and (a) ADH (b) Acetyl CoA
Pancreozymin stimulates the pancreas
(c) Acetyl choline (d) Inositol
PZ : to release its enzymes.
 (3) The supporting cells that produce myelin
4. Entero- Slows gastric
sheath in the PNS are .......... .
gastrone / Gastric contractions and
(a) Oligodendrocytes (b) Satellite cells
inhibitory peptide inhibits the secretion of
(c) Astrocytes (d) Schwann cells
(GIP) gastric juice.
 (4) A collection of neuron cell bodies located
(2) Kidney :
outside the CNS is called .......... .
l Hormones of kidney – renin, erythropoietin
(a) tract (b) nucleus
and calcitriol (calcitriol is the active form of
(c) nerve (d) ganglion
vitamin cholecalciferol -D3).
 (5) Receptors for protein hormones are located
l Renin along with angiotensin helps in
.......... .
maintaining the blood pressure in the renal
(a) in cytoplasm (b) on cell surface
artery by vasoconstriction.
(c) in nucleus (d) on Golgi complex
l Erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis.
 (6) If parathyroid gland of man are removed,
l Calcitriol helps in absorbing calcium from
the specific result will be .......... .
the stomach.
(a) onset of aging
(3) Heart :
(b) disturbance of Ca++
l Hormone of heart – Atrial natriuretic Factor
(c) onset of myxoedema
/ANF.
(d) elevation of blood pressure
l Increases sodium excretion [natriuresis]
 (7) Hormone thyroxine, adrenaline and non-
along with water by kidneys.
adrenaline are formed from .......... .
l Reduces blood pressure by lowering blood
(a) Glycine (b) Arginine
volume.
(c) Ornithine (d) Tyrosine
13. Hormone therapy / HT :
 (8) Pheromones are chemical messengers
l Use of hormones in medical treatment.
produced by animals and released outside
l Required for the patients during pregnancy, the body. The odour of these substance
menopause, osteoporosis, growth hormone affects .......... .
deficiency, insulin resistance, cancer, etc. (a) skin colour (b) excretion
(c) digestion (d) behaviour

 (9) Which one of the following is a set of discrete (b) Corpora quadrigemina
endocrine gland ? (c) Habencular commissure
(a) Salivary glands, thyroid, adrenal, ovary (d) Corpus callosum
(b) Adrenal, testis, ovary, liver (18) Grey matter of the brain shows large
(c) Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, thymus collection of .......... .
(d) Pituitary, pancreas, adrenal, thymus (a) dendrons (b) cytons
(10) After ovulation, Graafian follicle changes
 (c) axons (d) synapsis
Chapter 9
into .......... . (19) Masses of grey matter in white matter of the

(a) corpus luteum cerebrum are called .......... .
(b) corpus albicans (a) corpora striata (b) corpus callosum
(c) corpus spongiosum (c) paracoel (d) basal ganglia
(d) corpus callosum (20) Parietal and temporal lobes of cerebrum are
(11) Which one of the following pairs correctly
 separated by .......... sulcus.
matches a hormone with a disease resulting (a) lateral (b) parieto occipital
from its deficiency ? (c) central (d) median longitudinal
(a) Parathyroid hormone – Diabetes (21) .......... area is motor speech area
insipidus (a) Acoustic (b) Wernike’s
(b) Luteinising hormone – Diabetes mellitus (c) Somato sensory (d) Broca’s
(c) Insulin – Hyperglycaemia (22) Maxillary nerve is a branch of ......... nerve.
(d) Thyroxine – Tetany (a) Occulomotor (b) Trochlear
(12) .......... is in direct contact of brain in

(c) Trigeminal (d) Facial
humans.
(23) Spinal accessory is ..........th cranial nerve.
(a) Cranium (b) Dura mater
(a) IV (b) VI (c) IX (d) XI
(c) Arachnoid (d) Pia mater
(24) Rotation of eye ball is controlled by .......... .
(13) The supporting cells that produce myelin
(a) Optic nerve
sheath in the CNS are .......... .
(b) Pathetic nerve
(a) Oligodendrocytes (b) Satellite cells
(c) Auditory nerve
(c) Astrocytes (d) Schwann cells
(d) Hypoglossal nerve
(14) Human brain develops to its full size at an
(25) The spinal nerves emerge out of vertebral
age of .......... year/s.
column through .......... .

(a)
1 (b)
6 (c)
12 (d)
18
(a) intervertebral foramina
(15) Telencephalon is the other name of .......... .
(b) neural canal
(a) pons varolii (b) medulla oblongata
(c) central canal
(c) cerebrum (d) cerebellum
(d) foramen magnum
(16) Olfactory tracts merge in olfactory area of
(26) The neuro transmitter is removed by an
.......... lobe.
enzyme called .......... .
(a) Frontal (b) Parietal
(a) noradrenaline
(c) Occipital (d) Temporal
(b) acetylcholine
(17) .......... is the largest commissure of the
(c) hyaluronidase
human brain.
(d) cholinesterase
(a) Corpora striata

(27) The reflex action originates in .......... . (36) Gustatory senses are noted by .......... .
(a) sensory neuron (b) motor neuron (a) retina (b) skin
(c) receptor organ (d) effector organ (c) nose (d) tongue
(28) Cytons of .......... neurons are located in (37) .......... is attached to the eardrum.
dorsal root ganglion. (a) Malleus (b) Incus
(a) afferent (b) efferent (c) Stapes (d) Cochlea
(c) adjustor (d) association (38) Eustachian tube is present in .......... .
Chapter 9
(29) Wall of carotid arteries contain .......... . (a) external ear (b) internal ear
(a) thermoreceptors (c) heart (d) middle ear
(b) mechanoreceptors (39) The internal ear is a fluid filled structure
(c) baroreceptors called .......... .
(d) statoacoustic receptors (a) cochlea (b) vestibule
(30) The electronegativity inside the membrane (c) labyrinth (d) otolith
is due to .......... . (40) The space within cochlea is known as
(a) less anions than cations .......... .
(b) less cations than anions (a) scala vestibule (b) scala tympani
(c) bicarbonates (c) aqueous chamber (d) scala media
(d) carbonates (41) Thermoregulatory centre in the body is
(31) The neuro transmitters stimulate .......... . ……… .
(a) presynaptic membrane (a) hypothalamus (b) cerebellum
(b) cyton (c) spinal cord (d) pituitary
(c) axon terminals (42) Which of the following is a sensory nerve ?
(d) postsynaptic membrane (a) Vagus (b) Auditory
(32) .......... is an extero-receptor. (c) Facial (d) Lumbar
(a) Thermoreceptor (b) Baroreceptor (43) Chemical transmission in synapse occurs
(c) Proprioreceptor (d) Enteroreceptor due to ……… .
(33) The .......... are described as windows for (a) cholesterol (b) ADH

brain. (c) acetylcholine (d) cholinesterase
(a) sensory neurons (44) Voluntary muscular coordination is under
(b) motor neurons the control of ……… .
(c) effectors (a) medulla (b) pons
(d) sense organs (c) hypothalamus (d) cerebrum
(34) Otolith organ is formed of .......... . (45) All involuntary vital activities are under the
(a) cochlea and vestibule control of ……… .
(b) sacculus and utriculus (a) medulla oblongata (b) cerebellum
(c) semicircular canals (c) cerebral hemispheres (d) pons Varolii
(d) ear ossicles (46) Cerebellum is controlling centre for .......... .
(35) Olfactory bulbs are extensions of brain’s (a) muscular strength
.......... . (b) memory
(a) cerebrum (b) limbic system (c) equilibrium
(c) RAS (d) pons varolii (d) muscular coordination

(47) Which receptors are present in the retina ? (58) Development of secondary sexual
(a) Chemoreceptors (b) Thermoreceptors characteristics in female is under the control
(c) Photoreceptors (d) Baroreceptors of ……… .
(48) Breathing is controlled by ……… . (a) growth hormone (b) TSH
(a) trachea (b) medulla oblongata (c) estrogen (d) progesterone
(c) lungs (d) hypothalamus (59) Hypersecretion of STH in children causes

…… .
(49) Corpus callosum is a nerve fibre bridge
Chapter 9
which connects ……… . (a) cretinism (b) gigantism
(a) two cerebral hemispheres (c) dwarfism (d) myxoedema
(b) cerebrum and cerebellum (60) Milk secretion in lactating woman is

controlled by ……… .
(c) cerebellum and medulla
(a) LH (b) prolactin
(d) midbrain and hindbrain
(c) relaxin (d) oestrogen
(50) Centre for thirst and hunger are located in
……… . (61) ADH is secreted by ……… .
(a) cerebrum (b) cerebellum (a) adrenal gland (b) thyroid
(c) hypothalamus (d) medulla (c) hypothalamus (d) pancreas
(51) Gyri in the brain are present in ……… . (62) BMR is increased by the administration of
......... .
(a) cerebral cortex (b) olfactory lobes
(a) insulin (b) GH
(c) medulla oblongata (d) hypothalamus
(c) thyroxine (d) testosterone
(52) Which of the following is a structure of
mesencephalon ? (63) The largest endocrine gland in the body is
…… .
(a) Inferior colliculi (b) Thalamus
(a) pituitary (b) adrenal
(c) Cerebellum (d) Pons varolii
(c) liver (d) thyroid
(53) Third ventricle lies in ………. .
(64) Diabetes insipidus is caused by the
(a) midbrain (b) forebrain
deficiency of ……… .
(c) cerebellum (d) medulla oblongata
(a) calcitonin
(54) Medulla oblongata encloses ……… .
(b) oxytocin
(a) third ventricle (b) fourth ventricle
(c) atrial natriuretic factor
(c) first ventricle (d) second ventricle
(d) vasopressin
(55) Loss of memory may result from injury to
the ……… . (65) Simple goitre is caused by the deficiency of
.......... .
(a) corpora quadrigemina (b) pons varolii
(a) TSH (b) thyrocalcitonin
(c) cerebellum (d) cerebrum
(c) thyroxine (d) iodine
(56) Terminal non-nervous part of spinal cord is
……… . (66) Exopthalmic goitre is also known as ……… .
(a) funiculus (b) filum terminale (a) Grave’s disease (b) Gull’s disease
(c) cauda equina (d) conus terminalis (c) Simple goitre (d) Cushing’s disease
(57) Which part of the pituitary is neurohaemal (67) Cushing’s syndrome is developed due to
organ ? ……… .
(a) Pars distalis (b) Infundibulum (a) hyposecretion of ACTH
(c) Pars nervosa (d) Pars intermedia (b) hypersecretion of corticoids

(c) hyposecretion of thyroxine (79) Corticotropin is the other name of ......... .
(d) hypersecretion of thyroxine (a) ACTH (b) STH
(68) Pituitary gland is under the control of ........ . (c) Aldosterone (d) ADH
(a) thyroid (b) adrenal (80) Adrenal failure leads to ......... .
(c) pineal (d) hypothalamus (a) Acromegaly (b) Simmond’s disease
(69) FSH is secreted by ……… . (c) Midget (d) Addison’s disease
(a) pituitary gland (b) thyroid gland (81) Prolactin inhibiting factor is secreted by
Chapter 9
(c) ovary (d) adrenal gland ......... .
(70) ICSH stimulates ……… . (a) Hypophysis (b) Hypothalamus
(a) ovary (b) Leydig cells (c) Thyroid (d) Mammary glands
(c) seminiferous tubules (d) kidney (82) Which one of the following is not applicable
(71) Which of the following secrete LH ? to prolactin ?
(a) Pituitary (b) Thyroid (a) Mammotropin
(c) Ovary (d) Adrenal (b) Lactogenic hormone
(72) TSH regulates ……… secretion. (c) Somatotropin
(a) thyroxine (b) MSH (d) Luteotropin
(c) androgens (d) insulin (83) ......... is a gonadotropic hormone.
(73) Deficiency of thyroxine in adults cause (a) STH (b) LTH
……… .
(c) ACTH (d) FSH
(a) cretinism (b) myxoedema
(84) Rhythmic integrated contractions of jejunum
(c) diabetes (d) Cushing’s disease
are controlled by .......... .
(74) Osmotic pressure and blood pressure are
(a) coherin (b) insulin
maintained by ……… .
(c) glucagon (d) ADH
(a) glucocorticoids (b) aldosterone
(85) Thyroid gland is derived from ......... of
(c) TRF (d) MSH
embryo.
(75) Hormone secreted by corpus luteum is
(a) ectoderm (b) mesoderm
……… .
(c) endoderm (d) ecto-endoderm
(a) aldosterone (b) progesterone
(86) Deficiency of thyroxine in infants causes
(c) testosterone (d) cortisol
.......... .
(76) .......... is also called hypophyseal stalk.
(a) Cretinism (b) Grave’s disease
(a) Infundibulum (b) Median eminence
(c) Myxoedema (d) Exophthalmos
(c) Pars intermedia (d) Sphenoid bone
(87) ......... is a hypercalcemic hormone.
(77) .......... is like a collar around hypophyseal
stalk. (a) PTH (b) TCT
(a) Pars distalis (b) Pars nervosa (c) Thyroxine (d) ACTH
(c) Pars intermedia (d) Pars tuberalis (88) ......... is a middle layer of adrenal cortex.
(78) Herring bodies are the parts of ......... . (a) Zona fasciculata (b) Zona pellicida
(a) hypothalamo-hypophyseal tracts (c) Zona glomerulosa (d) Zona reticularis
(b) pituicytes (89) Decrease in the blood calcium level is ........ .
(c) hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system (a) hyperglycemia (b) hypercalcemia
(d) pituitary cleft (c) hypoglycemia (d) hypocalcemia

(90) ......... stimulates RBC production. A. Pineal i. Epinephrine
(a) Aldosterone (b) Cortisol B. Thyroid ii. Melatonin
(c) Epinephrine (d) Parathormone C. Ovary iii. Estrogen
(91) Chemicals which are released at the synaptic D. Adrenal medulla iv. Tetraiodothyronine
junction are called .......... .
(a) A-iv, B-ii, C-iii, D-i
(a) hormones
(b) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii
(b) neurotransmitters
(c) A-iv, B-ii, C-i, D-iii
Chapter 9
(c) cerebrospinal fluid

(d) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i
(d) lymph
(92) Potential difference across resting membrane (100) Listed below are the hormones of anterior
is negatively charged. This is due to pituitary origin. Tick the wrong entry.
differential distribution of the following (a) Growth hormone (b) FSH
ions. (c) Oxytocin (d) ACTH
(a) Na and K+ ions
(101) Mary is about to face an interview. But
(b) Ca++ and CI – ions during the first five minutes before the
(c) Ca++ and Mg++ ions interview she experiences sweating,
(d) Mg++ and CI  ions increased rate of heartbeat, respiration, etc.
(93) Which of the following is not involved in Which hormone is responsible for her
Knee-jerk reflex ? restlessness ?
(a) Muscle spindle (b) Motor neuron
(a) Estrogen and progesterone
(c) Brain (d) Inter neurons
(b) Oxytocin and vasopressin
(94) An area in the brain which is associated
(c) Adrenaline and noradrenaline
with strong emotions is ......... .
(d) Insulin and glucagon
(a) Cerebral cortex (b) Cerebellum
(c) Limbic system (d) Medulla (102) The steroid responsible for balance of water
(95) Which is the vitamin present in Rhodopsin ? and electrolytes in our body is .......... .
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B (a) Insulin (b) Melatonin

(c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D (c) Testosterone (d) Aldosterone
(96) Wax gland present in the ear canal is (103) Thymosin is responsible for .......... .
modified .......... . (a) raising the blood sugar level
(a) Sweat gland (b) Vestibular gland (b) raising the blood calcium level
(c) Cowper’s gland (d) Sebaceous gland (c) increased production of T lymphocytes
(97) The part of internal ear responsible for (d) decrease in blood RBC
hearing is .......... .
(104) In the mechanism of action of a protein
(a) cochlea (b) semicircular canal
hormone, one of the second messengers is
(c) utriculus (d) sacculus .......... .
(98) The organ of corti is a structure present in
(a) Cyclic AMP (b) Insulin
.......... .
(c) T3 (d) Gastrin
(a) external ear (b) middle ear
(105) Leydig cells produce a group of hormones
(c) semi circular canal (d) cochlea
called ......... .
(99) Select the right match of endocrine gland
and their hormones among the options (a) androgens (b) estrogen
given below. (c) aldosterone (d) gonadotropins

(106) Corpus luteum secretes a hormone called Ans. (1) (b) Dendron
......... . (2)
(c) Acetyl choline
(a) prolactin (b) progesterone (3)
(d) Schwann cells
(c) aldosterone (d) testosterone (4)
(d) ganglion
(107) Cortisol is secreted from .......... . (5)
(b) on cell surface
(a) pancreas (b) thyroid (b) disturbance of Ca++
(6)
(c) adrenal (d) thymus (7)
(d) Tyrosine
Chapter 9
(108) A hormone responsible for normal sleep- (8)
(d) behaviour
wake cycle is ......... .
(9)
(c) Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, thymus
(a) epinephrine (b) gastrin
(10) (a) corpus luteum
(c) melatonin (d) insulin
(11) (c) Insulin – Hyperglycaemia
(109) Match the pairs and choose the correct
(12) (d) Pia mater
answer among the following options.
A. Epinephrine (13) (a) Oligodendrocytes
i. Increase in muscle growth (14) (b) 6
B. Testosterone (15) (c) cerebrum
ii. Decrease in blood pressure (16) (d) Temporal
C. Glucagon (17) (d) Corpus callosum
iii. Decrease in liver glycogen content
(18) (b) cytons
D. Atrial natriuretic factor
(19) (d) basal ganglia
iv. Increase in heartbeat
(20) (a) lateral
(a) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv
(b) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii (21) (d) Broca’s
(c) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (22) (c) Trigeminal
(d) A-i, B-iv, C-ii, D-iii (23) (d) XI
(110) Blood calcium level is a resultant of how (24) (b) Pathetic nerve
much dietary calcium is absorbed, how (25) (a) intervertebral foramina
much calcium is lost in the urine, how (26) (d) cholinesterase
much bone dissolves releasing calcium into (27) (c) receptor organ
the blood and how much calcium from
(28) (a) afferent
blood enters tissues. Several factors play an
(29) (c) baroreceptors
important role in these processes. Mark the
one which has no role. (30) (b) less cations than anions
(a) Vitamin D (31) (d) postsynaptic membrane
(b) Parathyroid hormone (32) (a) Thermoreceptor
(c) Thyrocalcitonin (33) (d) sense organs
(d) Thymosin (34) (b) sacculus and utriculus
(111) All the following tissues in mammals except (35) (b) limbic system
one consists of a central ‘medullary’ region (36) (d) tongue
surrounded by a cortical region. Mark the (37) (a) Malleus
wrong entry. (38) (d) middle ear
(a) Ovary (b) Adrenal (39) (c) labyrinth
(c) Liver (d) Kidney (40) (d) scala media

(41) (a) hypothalamus (82) (c) Somatotropin
(42) (b) Auditory (83) (d) FSH
(43) (c) acetylcholine (84) (a) coherin
(44) (d) cerebrum (85) (c) endoderm
(45) (a) medulla oblongata (86) (a) Cretinism
(46) (c) equilibrium (87) (a) PTH
(47) (c) Photoreceptors (88) (a) Zona fasciculata
Chapter 9
(48) (b) medulla oblongata (89) (d) hypocalcemia

(49) (a) two cerebral hemispheres (90) (b) Cortisol
(50) (c) hypothalamus (91) (b) neurotransmitters
(51) (a) cerebral cortex (92) (a) Na+ and K+ ions
(52) (a) Inferior colliculi (93) (c) Brain
(53) (b) forebrain (94) (c) Limbic system
(54) (b) fourth ventricle (95) (a) Vitamin A
(55) (d) cerebrum (96) (d) Sebaceous gland
(56) (b) filum terminale (97) (a) cochlea
(57) (c) Pars nervosa (98) (d) cochlea
(58) (c) estrogen (99) (d) A-ii, B-iv, C-iii, D-i
(59) (b) gigantism (100) (c) Oxytocin
(60) (b) prolactin (101) (c) Adrenaline and noradrenaline
(61) (c) hypothalamus (102) (d) Aldosterone
(62) (c) thyroxine (103) (c) increased production of T lymphocytes
(63) (d) thyroid (104) (a) Cyclic AMP
(64) (d) vasopressin (105) (a) androgens
(65) (d) iodine (106) (b) progesterone
(66) (a) Grave’s disease (107) (c) adrenal
(67) (b) hypersecretion of corticoids (108) (c) melatonin
(68) (d) hypothalamus (109) (b) A-iv, B-i, C-iii, D-ii
(69) (a) pituitary gland (110) (d) Thymosin
(70) (b) Leydig cells (111) (c) Liver
(71) (a) pituitary
Q. 2. Match the columns : (2 or 3 marks)
(72) (a) thyroxine
Match the organism with the type of
 (1)
(73) (b) myxoedema
nervous system found in them.
(74) (b) aldosterone
(75) (b) progesterone Column A Column B
(76) (a) infundibulum (1) Neurons (a) Earthworm

(77) (d) Pars tuberalis (2) Ladder type (b) Hydra
(78) (a) hypothalamo-hypophyseal tracts (3) Ganglion (c) Flatworm
(79) (a) ACTH (4) Nerve net (d) Human
(80) (d) Addison’s disease Ans. (1) Neurons – (d) Human

(81) (b) Hypothalamus (2) Ladder type – (c) Flatworm

(3) Ganglion – (a) Earthworm
Q. 3. Classify the following to form Column B
(4) Nerve net – (b) Hydra 
as per the category given in Column A :
(2) Match the hormones with their source : (3 marks each)
Column A Column B (1) Brain structures :
(1) Glucagon (i) Neurohypophysis Olfactory Lobes, Pons Varolii, Corpus
(2) Adrenaline (ii) Islets of Langerhans Callosum, Vermis, Superior Colliculi, Iter
(3) Somatotropins (iii) Adenohypophysis Column A Column B
Chapter 9
(4) ADH (iv) Medulla (1) Forebrain
Ans. (2) Midbrain
(1) Glucagon – (ii) Islets of Langerhans (3) Hindbrain
(2) Adrenaline – (iv) Medulla Ans.

Column A Column B
(3) Somatotropins – (iii) Adenohypophysis
(1) Forebrain Olfactory lobes, Corpus callosum
(4) ADH – (i) Neurohypophysis 
(2) Midbrain Superior colliculi, Iter
(3)
Match the layer of adrenal with its (3) Hindbrain Pons varolii, Vermis
hormone. 
Column A Column B (2) Types of nerves :

(Layers of adrenal (Hormones) Occulomotor, Facial, Optic, Vagus, Abducens,
cortex) Vestibulocochlear
Column A Column B
(1) Zona glomerulosa (A) Cortisols
(1) Sensory
(2) Zona fasciculata (B) Androgens
(2) Motor
(3) Zona reticularis (C) Aldosterone
(3) Mixed
Ans. Ans.
(1) Zona glomerulosa – (C) Aldosterone Column A Column B
(2) Zona fasciculata – (A) Cortisol (1) Sensory Optic, Vestibulocochlear
(3) Zona reticularis – (B) Androgens 
(2) Motor Occulomotor, Abducens
(3) Mixed Facial, Vagus
(4)
Match the disorder with the gland 
associated with it. (3) Hormones :

Column A Column B Estrogen, Glucagon, Epinephrine, Relaxin,
(Disorder) (Associated Gland) Somatostatin, Nor-Adrenalin
Column A Column B
(1) Addison’s disease (A) Hypothalamus
(2) Grave’s disease (B) Pituitary (1) Ovary
(3) Diabetes insipidus (C) Thyroid (2) Pancreas
(4) Acromegaly (D) Adrenal (3) Adrenal Medulla

Ans.
Ans.
Column A Column B
(1) Addison’s disease – (D) Adrenal
(1) Ovary Estrogen, Relaxin
(1)
Grave’s disease – (C) Thyroid (2) Pancreas Glucagon, Somatostatin
(3) Diabetes insipidus – (A) Hypothalamus (3) Adrenal Epinephrine, Nor-Adrenaline
(4) Acromegaly – (B) Pituitary  Medulla


(4) Disorders :  What is the importance
(6) of Corpora
Dwarfism, Myxoedema, Addison’s disease, quadrigemina ?
Cushing’s disease, Gigantism, Goitre Ans. Corpora quadrigemina consists of 4 solid
Column A Column B rounded structures, viz. superior and
(1) Pituitary inferior colliculi. Superior colliculi control
(2) Thyroid visual reflexes while inferior colliculi control
(3) Adrenal Cortex auditory reflexes. 
 What does
(7) the cerebellum of brain
Chapter 9
Ans.
control ?
Column A Column B
Ans. Cerebellum of brain is an important centre
(1) Pituitary Dwarfism, Gigantism which maintains equilibrium of body,
(2) Thyroid Myxoedema, Goitre posture, balancing orientation, moderation
(3) Adrenal Cortex Addison’s disease, of voluntary movements and maintenance
Cushing’s disease of muscle tone. 
 (8) What is the cause of abnormal elongation

Q. 4. Very short answer questions : of long bones of arms and legs and of
(1 mark each) lower jaw ?
(1)
What is the need for the control and Ans. Hypersecretion of growth hormones in
coordination in multicellular animals ? adults causes abnormal elongation of long
Ans. Multicellular animals need control and bones of arms and legs and of lower jaw i.e.
coordination to maintain constancy of acromegaly. 
internal environment, i.e. homeostasis.   (9) Which endocrine gland plays an important
(2)
How do plants carry out control and role in improving immunity ?
coordination ? Ans. The endocrine gland, thymus plays an
Ans. Plants carry out control and coordination important role in improving immunity. 
by sending chemical signals and bringing  (10) Mention the function of testosterone.
about various types of movements.  Ans. Testosterone is a steroid sex hormone
(3)
What is the type of nervous system of secreted by testes and cortex of adrenal
Earthworm ? glands. It controls the secondary sexual
characters in males. 
Ans. Earthworm is an annelid having ventral,
ganglionated nervous system. It consists
 (11) Give symptoms of the disease caused by
mainly of nerve ring, nerve cord and hyposecretion of ADH.
peripheral segmentally arranged nerves. 
Ans. Polydipsia, i.e. frequent thirst and polyuria,
i.e. frequent urination are the symptoms of
(4)
What kind of nervous system is seen in
the disease caused by hyposecretion of
Hydra, earthworm and cockroach ?
ADH. 
Ans. In Hydra, the nervous system is in the form
(12) What is a gland ?
of nerve net, while in earthworm and
Ans. An organized collection of secretory
cockroach the nervous system is
epithelial cells capable of producing of some
ganglionated. 
secretion is called a gland. 
 (5) What is the function of red nucleus ?
(13) What do you mean by discrete endocrine
Ans. Red nucleus plays an important role in
glands ?
controlling posture and muscle tone,
Ans. The glands which are exclusively endocrine
modifying some motor activities and motor
in function are discrete endocrine glands.
coordination. 

(14) What is genu and splenium ? (23) What is synaptic delay ?
Ans. Genu is anterior and splenium is posterior Ans. The time required for a nerve impulse to
fold of corpus callosum.  cross a synapse during transmission of a
(15) Which is the largest basal nucleus of nerve impulse is called synaptic delay, which
brain ? is about 0.3 – 0.5 milliseconds. 
Ans. Corpus striatum is the largest basal nucleus (24) What is refractory period ?
of the brain.  Ans. The time interval between two consecutive
(16) What is EEG ?
Chapter 9
nerve impulses is called refractory period,
Ans. EEG is electro encephalography. It is used during which a nerve cannot be stimulated.
to detect the electrical changes taking place Nerve is stimulated only after completion of
in the brain.  this period. 
(17)
Mention the major sulci present in the (25) What is a synaptic cleft ?
cerebral hemispheres. Ans. Small intercellular space between two
Ans. The sulci present in the cerebral hemisphere successive neurons which is about 20
–
are – central sulcus, parieto-occipital sulcus 30 nm in width, is called synaptic cleft. 
and lateral sulcus. 

(26) What is synaptic transmission ?
(18)
What is the difference in ‘tract’ and
Ans. The process by which the impulse from the
‘nerve’ ?
pre-synaptic neuron is conducted to the
Ans. A bundle of axons within CNS is called a post-synaptic neuron or cell is called
‘tract’ while the one outside the CNS is
synaptic transmission. 
called ‘nerve’. 
(27) What is a pre-synaptic neuron ?
(19)
What is a choroid plexus
? State its
Ans. The neuron carrying an impulse to the
locations.
synapse is the pre-synaptic neuron. 
Ans. Network of blood capillaries associated with

(28)
What is transmission terminal and
the brain is called choroid plexus, which
generator region ?
are anterior choroid plexus present on the
roof of epithalamus and posterior choroid Ans. The pre-synaptic membrane of a neuron is
plexus located on the roof of medulla transmission terminal while the post-
oblongata.  synaptic membrane is called generation
(20) What is a synapse ? region. 
Ans. The interconnection between two neurons (29) What is synaptic fatigue ?
or neuron with motor organ is called Ans. The synaptic fatigue is the time lag or halting
synapse.  of the transmission of nerve impulse,
(21) What is a polarised membrane ? temporarily at synapse due to exhaustion of
Ans. The cell membrane of a neuron at resting its neurotransmitter. 
stage is called polarised membrane. In such (30) What is the width of synaptic cleft ?
membrane, the outer side of the cell Ans. The width of synaptic cleft is about
membrane is more electropositive due to 20 – 30 nm. 
more Na+ ions. 

(31)
How much is the resting potential of
(22) What is summation effect ? axon ?
Ans. Many weak stimuli given in a quick Ans. The resting potential of axon is  70 mV. 
succession may produce a response due to
(32) How does Na+–K+ pump work ?
summation or additive effect of stimuli,
Ans. During repolarisation of certain part of a
which is known as summation effect. 

nerve, Na+ – K+ Pump, pumps out 3 Na+ Ans. General motor area is located on precentral
+
ions for every 2 K ions they pump into the gyrus of frontal lobe. It is concerned with all
cell.  motor activities. 
(33) What is blood-brain barrier ? (42) What is the role of Wernicke’s area ?
Ans. The barrier that keeps a check on passage Ans. Wernicke’s area is the sensory speech area
of ions and large molecules from the blood responsible for understanding and
to the brain tissue is called blood-brain formulating written and spoken language.
barrier. Endothelial cells lining the blood
Chapter 9
(43) What is the location of Wernicke’s area ?

capillaries help in this process along with Ans. Wernicke’s area is located in the area of
the astrocytes. 
contact between temporal, parietal and
(34) Enlist meninges of human brain. occipital lobes of cerebrum. 
Ans. Dura mater, arachnoid mater or membrane (44) What is the role of Broca’s area ?
and pia mater are the meninges of human Ans. The role of Broca’s area which is the motor
brain. 
speech area that translates thoughts into
(35) What is the source of CSF ? speech and controls movement of tongue,
Ans. CSF is secreted by the choroid plexuses of lips and vocal cords. 
brain and ependymal cells lining the (45) What is the location of Broca’s area ?
ventricles of brain and central canal of Ans. Broca’s area is present in the frontal lobe of
spinal cord. 
cerebrum. 

(36)
What is the function of tympanic (46)
Which areas are present in the post
membrane ? central gyrus ?
[Use your brain power ! TB page no. 206]
Ans. General sensory areas concerned with
Ans. Tympanic membrane vibrates on receiving sensation of temperature, touch, pressure,
the sound waves and then transfers the pain and speech are present in the post
vibrations to malleus, the first of the three central gyrus. 
ear ossicles. 
(47)
Which areas are located on temporal
(37) Mention the role of semicircular canals in lobe ?
ear.
Ans. The areas concerned with sense of taste,
Ans. Semicircular canals help in balancing the sense of hearing and sense of smell are
equilibrium of the body. 
located on temporal lobe. 
(38) What is the cause for diabetes insipidus ? (48)

What is the main function of occipital
Ans. Diabetes insipidus is caused by the lobe ?
deficiency of ADH. 
Ans. Occipital lobe carries sensory visual area
(39) Give role of Parathormone. which is concerned with the sense of sight.
Ans. Parathormone regulates the calcium balance Association visual area is concerned with
in the body. It increases blood calcium level perception, analysis and storing of
by increasing reabsorption of calcium from information obtained by sight. 
bones.  (49) What is neuroendocrine system ?

(40) What is meningitis ? Ans. Neuroendocrine system is an integrated and
Ans. Infection of meninges is called meningitis. coordinated system consisting of nervous
(41)
Where is general motor area located
? and endocrine system which brings about
What is the function of this area ? the coordination of the body. 

(50)
What is the quantity of cerebrospinal Ans. Optic chiasma or crossing of two optic
fluid in adult human being ? nerves is seen on the anterior side of the
Ans. Cerebrospinal fluid is about 120 ml in adult hypothalamus. 
human being.  (60) Name the parts of corpora quadrigemina

(51)
How many neurons are present in the and give their functions.
brain ? Ans. The upper two lobes of corpora quadrigemina
Ans. There are about 30,000 million neurons in are called superior colliculi which receive
the brain. impulse from optic nerves while the lower
Chapter 9

(52) Which part of the brain forms 80-85% of two lobes are called inferior colliculi which
the brain ? receive auditory stimuli. Both colliculi
Ans. Cerebrum forms 80 – 85% of the brain. 
control and coordinate head movements. 
(53)
Which sense is poorly developed in (61) What is arbour vitae ?
human beings and what is the reason for Ans. Arbor vitae is white, branching tree-like
this ? processes of white matter that are sent into
Ans. Sense of smell is poorly developed in human grey cortex of cerebellum. 
beings and it is due to less developed (62)

Which cranial nerve is called a dentist
olfactory lobes.  nerve ?
(54) Where are lateral ventricles situated and Ans. Trigeminal, the Vth cranial nerve is called a
what is its roof called ? dentist nerve. 
Ans. Lateral ventricles are the cavities filled with (63) What is central canal ?
cerebrospinal fluid, present inside the Ans. Central canal is the narrow central cavity
cerebrum and its roof is called pallium.  present inside the spinal cord. 
(55) What is foramen of Monro ? (64)

Which cranial nerves originate from the
Ans. Foramen of Monro is a narrow opening that midbrain ?
connects lateral ventricle present in Ans. Cranial nerves (III) Occulomotor, (IV)
cerebrum with third ventricle present in Pathetic and (VI) Abducens originate from
diencephalon. 
the midbrain. 
(56) What is the roof and floor of diencephalon (65) What is the other name for the auditory
called respectively ? cranial nerve ?
Ans. Roof of diencephalon is epithalamus and Ans. Vestibulocochlear. 
floor of diencephalon is hypothalamus. 

(66)
What is the difference between

(57)
Which hormones are produced from unconditioned and conditioned reflexes ?
pineal gland ? Name their functions.
Ans. Unconditioned reflexes are inborn or
Ans. Serotonin and melatonin are hormones of hereditary and permanent while the
pineal gland which are concerned with conditioned reflexes are temporary, learnt
metabolic activities and regulation of or acquired during lifetime. 
biological rhythm respectively. 
(67) Give examples of unconditional reflexes.
(58) What is Habenular commissure ?
Ans. Blinking of eyes, withdrawing of hand upon
Ans. Habenular commissure connects the lateral
pricking, suckling to breast by infant,
walls of diencephalon or thalami with each
swallowing, knee jerk, sneezing and
other. 
coughing are some of the unconditional
(59) What structure is present on the anterior reflexes. 
side of the hypothalamus ?

(68)
What do you mean by accommodation (77)
In which part thyroid gland stores its
power of the lens ? hormones ?
Ans. The ability of the lens by which the light ray [Think about it. TB page no. 212]
from far and near objects is focused on the Ans. The lumen of thyroid follicles store the
retina is called accommodation power of thyroid hormones in the form of
the lens. The lens makes fine adjustments thyroglobulins. 
to bring such sharp focus on retina.  (78) What are thymosins ?

(69) Where is pituitary located ?
Chapter 9
Ans. Thymosins are hormones secreted by

Ans. Pituitary is located inside a depression thymus gland which promote the production
called sella turcica which is present in of antibodies. 
sphenoid bone of the skull.  (79) Which hormone is secreted by the heart ?
(70)
What is the difference between Lorain Ans. Heart secretes ANF or Atrial Natriuretic
dwarf and Frohlic dwarf ? Factor. 
Ans. Lorain dwarf is mentally normal while

Q. 5. Name the following : (1 mark each)
Frohlic dwarf is mentally abnormal. 
(71) How is Simmond’s disease caused ? Write the names of hormones and the
 (1)
glands secreting them for the regulation
Ans. Simmond’s disease is caused due to
of following functions :
hyposecretion of GH during adulthood. 
(a)
Growth of thyroid and secretion of
(72) How is Addison’s disease caused ?
thyroxine.
Ans. Addison’s disease is caused by the
Ans. TSH by adenohypophysis.
hyposecretion of ACTH that leads to adrenal
failure. 
(b)
Helps in relaxing pubic ligaments to
facilitate easy birth of young ones.
(73) How is Cushing’s disease caused ?
Ans. Relaxin by degenerating corpus luteum of
Ans. Hypersecretion of corticoids causes
the ovary.
Cushing’s disease. 
(c)
Stimulate intestinal glands to secrete
(74)
What is the main difference between
intestinal juice.
diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus ?
Ans. Secretin by duodenal mucosa.
Ans. Diabetes mellitus is caused due to deficiency
of insulin while diabetes insipidus is caused (d) Controls calcium level in the blood.
due to deficiency of ADH. 

Ans. Calcitonin [hypocalcemic hormone] by
(75) Which cells secrete coherin ? What is the thyroid and parathormone [hypercalcemic
function of coherin ? hormone] by parathyroid glands.
Ans. Coherin is the hormone secreted by (e)

Controls tubular absorption of water in
hypothalamic neurons that brings about kidneys.
prolonged, rhythmic integrated contractions Ans. ADH by hypothalamus.

of the jejunum.  (f) Urinary elimination of water.
(76)
What is the difference between Gull’s Ans. Atrial natriuretic factor by atria of heart.
disease (Myxoedema) and Grave’s (g) Sodium and potassium ion metabolism.
disease ? Ans. Aldosterone by adrenal cortex.
Ans. Gull’s disease is caused due to hyposecretion (h) Basal Metabolic rate.
of thyroxine while Grave’s disease is caused Ans. T3 and T4 by thyroid gland.
due to hypersecretion of thyroxine. 

(i) Uterine contraction. (11) Name the second largest part of the brain.
Ans. Oxytocin by hypothalamus. Ans. Cerebellum. 
(j) Heartbeat and blood pressure. (12)

Name the three branches of trigeminal
Ans. Adrenaline, non-adrenaline [stimulation] nerve.
and acetylcholine [inhibition] by adrenal Ans. Ophthalmic, Maxillary and Mandibular. 
medulla. (13) Name the nerve which arises from ventral

(k) Secretion of growth hormone. side of medulla and supplies the tongue.
Chapter 9
Ans. GHRF by hypothalamus. Ans. Hypoglossal. 
(l) Maturation of Graafian follicle. (14)

Name of emergency hormones secreted
Ans. FSH by anterior pituitary.  by sympathetic nervous system.
 (2) Name the three ossicles of the middle ear. Ans. Adrenaline and nor-adrenaline are the
Ans. Malleus [hammer], incus [anvil] and stapes emergency hormones secreted by
[stirrup]. 
sympathetic nervous system. 
 (3) Name the hormone which is anti-abortion

(15)
Name the disorders caused by
hormone. hyposecretion of thyroxine in children
and adults.
Ans. Progesterone. 
Ans.
 (4) Name an organ which acts as temporary
endocrine gland. (1)
Hyposecretion of thyroxine in children :
Cretinism.
Ans. Placenta. Corpus luteum in ovary. 
(2)
Hyposecretion of thyroxine in adults
:
 Name the type of hormones binding to
(5)
Myoxedema. 
DNA and alter gene expression.
(16)
Name the dual exocrine as well as
Ans. Steroid hormones. 
endocrine gland. Name the hormones
 (6) Name the hormone secreted by the pineal
secreted by it.
gland.
Ans. Pancreas is the dual gland, exocrine as well
Ans. Melatonin. 
as endocrine, it secretes hormones like
(7) Name the region consisting of nerve fibres
insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. 
that connects cerebrum and medulla
(17) Name the four peptide hormones secreted
oblongata.
by endocrine cells of alimentary canal.
Ans. Pons Varolii. 
Ans. Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and GIPT
(8) Give the names of cranial nerve number
or Gastric inhibitory peptide. 
VIth and VIIth.
(18)
Name the disorder caused by the under
Ans. VIth cranial nerve is Abducens and VIIth
secretion of thyroxine in children.
cranial nerve is Facial. 
Ans. Cretinism is the disorder seen in children
(9)
Name the three sulci present on the
due to under secretion of thyroxine. 
cerebral hemispheres.
Ans. Central sulcus, lateral sulcus and parieto- Q. 6. Give functions of the following :
occipital sulcus. 
(2 or 3 marks)
(10)
Name the band of nerve fibres that (1) Meninges and CSF.
connect cerebrum, cerebellum and spinal Ans. Functions of meninges :
cord. (1)
Meninges give protection to the brain and
Ans. Crura cerebri.  the spinal cord.

(2) They are also nutritive in function. (5) Anterior choroid plexus which is located in
(3) Cerebrospinal fluid acts as a shock absorber. the diencephalon secretes cerebrospinal
It protects the brain from mechanical fluid.
injuries and from desiccation. (6)
Hypothalmic regions control many
(4) It also maintains constant pressure inside involuntary functions such as hunger, thirst,
and outside the CNS and regulates the thermo-regulation, fear, anger, sleep, sexual
temperature. desire, etc. 
(3) Write various functions of hindbrain.

Chapter 9
Functions of CSF :
(1)
CSF helps in exchange of nutrients and Ans. Functions of hindbrain :
wastes between the blood and the brain (i) Cerebellum :
tissue. (1)
Cerebellum is a primary centre for the
(2) CSF supplies oxygen to the brain.  control of equilibrium, posture, balancing
(2) The functions of forebrain. and orientation.
[Can you tell ? TB page no. 195] (2) Neuromuscular activities are regulated by
Ans. (A) Functions of cerebrum : the cerebellum.
(1) The cerebrum controls the voluntary (3) Coordination of walking, running, speaking,
activities. etc. is under the control of hindbrain.
(2) The cerebrum perceives various sensory (ii) Pons :
stimuli received through vision, taste, smell, (1) Activities of two cerebellar hemispheres are
sound, touch, speech, etc. coordinated by pons.
(3) It is the centre of memory, will-power, (2) Nerve fibres cross over in this area and
intelligence, reasoning and learning. thus the right side of the brain controls the
(4) The cerebrum is the centre for emotions, left part of the body and vice versa.
thoughts and feelings, pain, pleasure, fear, (3)
Pons controls the consciousness of the
fatigue, pressure, temperature, etc. brain.
(5) It is also the centre for micturition, (4)
Breathing centre is located in pons along
defecation, weeping, laughing, etc with medulla.
(B) Function of olfactory lobes : (iii) Medulla oblongata :
Sensation of smell. (1)
Medulla oblongata controls all the
(C) Functions of diencephalon : involuntary activities such as heartbeats,
(1) Diencephalon acts as a relay centre for respiration, vasomotor activities.
motor and sensory impulses between spinal (2)
Peristalsis and reflex actions such as
cord, brainstem and various areas of coughing, sneezing, swallowing, etc. are also
cerebral cortex. under the control of medulla oblongata.
(2) Diencephalon consists of epithalamus, (3)
Medulla oblongata is essential for all the
thalami and hypothalamus. Therefore it vital functions of the body. 
acts as a centre for homeostasis and higher (4) Spinal cord.

centre of autonomous nervous system. Ans. Functions of spinal cord :
(3) Hypothalamic nuclei secrete neurohormones (1)
Spinal cord is the main pathway for
which influence the pituitary gland. conduction of sensory and motor nerve
(4) Diencephalon regulates heartbeats, blood impulses.
pressure and water balance. (2) The sensory impulses travel from the body

to the brain and the motor impulses travel (4) The physical growth, development of gonads
from the brain to the body. and development of mental faculties is
(3)
Spinal reflexes are controlled by spinal under the control of thyroxine.
cord. (5) It controls tissue differentiation during
(4) The spinal cord reduces the load on the metamorphosis particularly in amphibia.
brain by taking appropriate actions in a (6)
Body weight, respiration rate, heart rate,
reflex way.  blood pressure, temperature, digestion, etc.
is regulated by thyroxine.
Chapter 9
(5) Pituitary gland.
Ans. Functions of pituitary : (7) Another hormone of thyroid, i.e. calcitonin
regulates calcium metabolism of the
(1) Pituitary secretes seven main hormones viz.
body. 
ACTH, TSH, GH or STH, LTH or Prolactin,
(7)
Give significance of relaxin and inhibin.
MSH and gonadotropins such as FSH, LH
[Can you tell ? TB page no. 217]
or ICSH.
Ans.
(2) These hormones are secreted upon receiving
proper releasing factor from hypothalamus. 1. Relaxin : Relaxin relaxes the cervix of the
pregnant female and ligaments of pelvic
(3) These hormones bring about many
girdle during parturition.
coordinating functions in the body. Almost
2. Inhibin : Inhibin inhibits the FSH and
all endocrine glands are under the control
GnRH production. 
of these hormones.
(8) Enlist hormones secreted by GI tract and
(4) The neurohypophysis part stores two
state their role.
hormones, viz. vasopressin and oxytocin
which are secreted by hypothalamus.
Ans. Gastrointestinal tract :
(5) Important functions such as growth and
In the gastrointestinal mucosa, certain ells
reproductive processes, pregnancy,
are endocrine in function. These cells
childbirth, lactation, etc. are under the
produce hormones which play vital role in
control of pituitary.
digestive processes and flow of digestive
(6) Neurohypophysis acts as a neurohaemal
juices.
organ and stores the hormones for some
1. Gastrin : This hormone stimulates gastric
time. 
glands to produce gastric juice.
(6)
Functions of hormones secreted by the
2. Secretin : This hormone is responsible for
thyroid gland.
secretion of pancreatic juice and bile from
Ans. pancreas and liver.
(1) Thyroxine is the main metabolic hormone 3. Cholecystokinin CCK / Pancreozymin PZ :
in the body. This hormone stimulates gall bladder to
(2) Thyroxine maintains basal metabolic rate release bile and stimulates the pancreas to
(BMR) by increasing glucose oxidation. It release its enzymes.
brings about calorigenic effect by energy 4. Entero-gastrone / Gastric inhibitory
production. peptide (GIP) : It slows gastric contractions
(3) It also controls normal protein synthesis. and inhibits the secretion of gastric juice.

Q. 7. Distinguish between the following : (2 or 3 marks)
(1) Electrical and chemical synapses :
Ans.
Electrical synapse Chemical synapse
1. The gap between the successive neurons in 1. The gap between two successive neurons in
electrical synapse is very less [3.8 nm]. chemical synapse is larger than electrical
synapse [10 – 20 nm].
Chapter 9
2. Transmission across the gap is faster in electrical 2. Transmission across the gap in chemical
synapse. synapse is relatively slower than electrical
synapse.
3. Electrical synapse is less common. 3. Chemical synapse is more common.
4.
Electrical synapse is found in those places of 4.
Chemical synapse is found almost everywhere
the body requiring instant response. and connects neuron to neuron, muscles or
glands.

 (2) Distinguish between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system on the basis of the
effect they have on : (a) Heartbeat (b) Urinary Bladder.
Ans. Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System
(a) Heartbeat Increases Decreases
(b) Urinary bladder Relaxes and stores urine Contracts causing micturition

(3) Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

Ans. Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system
1.
Sympathetic nervous system is formed by 1.
Parasympathetic nervous system has nerve
22 pairs of sympathetic ganglia, 2 sympathetic fibres which run along with cranial and spinal
cords which run parallel to vertebral column. nerves.
2.
Sympathetic nervous system works through 2. Parasympathetic nervous system works through
neurotransmitter, adrenaline. release of acetylcholine.
3.
Sympathetic nervous system enhances all the 3. Parasympathetic nervous system retards all the
involuntary functions. involuntary functions.
4. It brings about fight, fright and flight responses. 4. It brings about relaxation, comfort, pleasure,
etc.
5. The pre-ganglionic nerve fibres are short and 5. The pre-ganglionic nerve fibres are long and the
the post-ganglionic nerve fibres are long in post-ganglionic nerve fibres are short in
sympathetic nervous system. parasympathetic nervous system.


(4) Unconditional and conditional reflexes.
Ans. Unconditional reflexes Conditional reflexes
1. Unconditional reflexes are inborn. 1. Conditional reflexes are not inborn, they require
training.
2. Unconditional reflexes are permanent. 2. Conditional reflexes are temporary.
3. They never disappear and need no previous 3. They may disappear after sometime and need
experience. proper training for developing it.
Chapter 9
4. Unconditional reflexes are heritable. 4. Conditional reflexes are non-heritable.
5.
Sneezing, coughing, blinking of eye, etc. are 5. Cycling, driving, playing games, etc. are due to
unconditional reflexes. conditional reflexes.

(5) Epithalamus and hypothalamus.

Ans. Epithalamus Hypothalamus
1. Epithalamus is the roof of diencephalon. 1. Hypothalamus is the floor of diencephalon.
2. Epithalamus shows pineal stalk to which pineal 2.
Hypothalamus shows infundibulum to which
gland is attached. pituitary gland is attached.
3. Epithalamus is non-nervous in nature. 3.
Hypothalamus is the higher centre of auto-
nomous nervous system.
4. Epithalamus has anterior choroid plexus which 4.
Hypothalamus has neurons which secrete two
secretes cerebrospinal fluid. endocrine hormones.
5. Epithalamus controls biological rhythm. 5. Hypothalamus controls homeostasis of the body.

(6) Dura mater and pia mater.

Ans. Dura mater Pia mater
1. Dura mater is the outermost meninx. 1. Pia mater is the innermost meninx.
2. Dura mater lies on the innermost side of skull 2. Pia mater lies on outermost side of the brain.
or cranium.
3. Dura mater is tough, thick and fibrous. 3. Pia mater is thin and highly vascular.
4. Dura mater is mainly protective in function. 4. Pia mater is mainly nourishing in nature.
5. Below dura mater is subdural space. 5. Above pia mater is sub-arachnoidal space.

(7) Cerebrum and cerebellum : [Can you tell ? TB page no. 195]

Ans. Cerebrum Cerebellum
1. The cerebrum is the larger part forming 85% of 1. The cerebellum is the smaller part forming 11%
the brain. It has four lobes. of the brain. It has three lobes.
2. The cerebrum coordinates the functions of the 2. The cerebellum coordinates the equilibrium of
sensory and motor areas. muscular movements during walking and
running.
3. The cerebrum plays an important role in 3. The cerebellum plays an important role in
receiving the sensory impulses such as touch, maintaining the posture and balance of the
pain, heat, cold, etc. body.
4. The cerebrum is concerned with higher mental 4. The cerebellum is concerned with neuro-
faculties such as memory, will and intelligence. muscular mechanism.


2)Control 113
(8) Cranial and spinal nerves.
Ans. Cranial nerves Spinal nerves
1. Nerves arising from the brain are cranial nerves. 1. Nerves arising from the spinal cord are spinal
nerves.
2. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. 2. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
3.
Cranial nerves are of three types, viz sensory, 3. All spinal nerves are of mixed type.
mixed and motor.
4.
Cranial nerves are responsible for cerebral 4. Spinal nerves are responsible for spinal reflexes.
Chapter 9
reflexes.

(9) Extero and entero receptors.

Ans. Exteroceptors Interoceptors
1. Receptors receiving stimuli from outer 1. Receptors receiving stimuli from inside the body
environment of the body are called exteroceptors. are called interoceptors.
2. These are somatic receptors. 2. These are visceral receptors.
3.
Exteroceptors keep the body informed about 3. Interoceptors keep the homeostasis in the body
changes in the environment like temperature, by receiving stimuli from inside the body.
pressure, touch, etc.
4.
Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, chemical 4.
Propioceptors, enteroceptors, baroceptors are
receptors, photoreceptors and statoacoustic the different types of interoceptors.
receptors are the different types of exteroceptors.

(10) Adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.

Ans. Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
1. Adenohypophysis is the anterior lobe of pituitary. 1. Neurohypophysis is the posterior lobe of pituitary.
2. There is portal system between adenohypo- 2. There is axonal knobs and blood vessels that
physis and hypothalamus which has blood connect neurohypophysis and hypothalamus.
sinusoids.
3. Adenohypophysis forms 75% of pituitary. 3. Neurohypophysis forms 25% of pituitary.
4. Adenohypophysis has three parts, pars tuberalis, 4. Neurohypophysis has three parts, median
pars distalis and pars intermedia. eminence, infundibulum and pars nervosa.
5. Adenohypophysis has chromophil (acidophil 5. Neurohypophysis has axonic fibres and
and basophil) and chromophobe cells. pituicytes.
6. Adenohypophysis secretes seven different 6. Neurohypophysis does not produce hormones
hormones after receiving an appropriate message on its own. It is a neurohaemal organ as it
from hypothalamus through releasing factors. receives and stores two hormones from
hypothalamus.


(11) FSH and LH.
Ans. FSH LH
1. FSH is follicle stimulating hormone essential for 1. LH is luteinizing hormone responsible for
the development of ovary. ovulation in females.
2. FSH stimulates ovary (follicular cells) to produce 2. LH stimulates ovary (corpus luteum) to produce
estrogen. progesterone.
3.
FSH in males is responsible for the 3. LH in females is responsible for the development
Chapter 9
spermatogenesis. of corpus luteum.
4. Negative feedback mechanism exists between 4. Negative feedback mechanism exists between
amounts of FSH and estrogen in females. amounts of LH and progesterone in females.
5. FSH is indirectly responsible for the development 5. LH is indirectly responsible for maintenance of
of secondary sexual characters in females. pregnancy in females.

(12) Glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids : [Can you tell ? (TB page no. 216)]
Ans. Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids
1.
Glucocorticoids control carbohydrate 1.
Mineralocorticoids regulate mineral
metabolism. concentration.
2. These are secreted by the cells of zona 2. These are secreted by the cells of zona
fasciculata. glomerulosa.
3. These also regulate protein and fat metabolism. 3. These regulate salt-water balance.
4. Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid. 4. Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid.

Ans.
Q. 8. Give scientific reasons : (2 or 3 marks)
(1) Gyri are the ridges in the folds present on
 Injury to medulla oblongata may prove
(1)
the cerebral cortex.
fatal. OR
(2) The number of folds increase the surface

Injury to medulla oblongata causes
area of the cerebral cortex.
sudden death. Explain.
(3)
Cerebral cortex has sensory and motor
areas such as Wernicke’s area, Broca’s area,
Ans.
etc. If the surface area is greater, the neurons
(1) Medulla oblongata is the region of the brain in these areas are also more in number.
that controls all the involuntary activities.
(4)
Greater the number of neurons greater is
(2)
Vital activities such as heartbeats, the intelligence.
respiration, vasomotor activities, peristalsis,
(5) The number of gyri therefore is said to be
etc. are under the control of medulla
related to the degree of intelligence. 
oblongata.
(3)
A drunken person cannot maintain
(3) When medulla oblongata is injured, all these
balance of the body.
vital functions are instantly stopped.
Ans.
(4) Therefore, injury to medulla oblongata
causes sudden death. 
(1)
Cerebellum is the primary centre for
controlling equilibrium and balance of the
(2) Number of gyri is related to the degree of
body.
intelligence.

(2) Alcohol has an adverse effect on the neurons of the birds and recognize the sound of the
of cerebellum. bird. 
(3) Consciousness of brain is also controlled by (6) We can see and enjoy the beautiful colours
cerebellum. of the nature after the sunrise.
(4) When a person is drunk, the alcohol in his Ans.
or her blood affects the activities of (1) The light receptor are present in the retina
cerebellum and hence the person cannot of eyes.
maintain the balance of the body.
Chapter 9

(2) These are photosensitive rod and cone cells.
(4)
We are able to understand the smell of
Cone cells are sensitive to bright light and
the first showers of rain or the sudden
colours.
changes in the climate.
(3) On receiving the light rays, these cells
Ans.
convert them into nerve impulses.
(1) We are able to understand any smell because
(4) The cones are of three types, which contain
of our olfactory mucosa and olfactory lobes
their own characteristic photo-pigments
of the brain.
that respond to red, green and blue lights.
(2)
Volatile substances are received by the
(5)
Various combinations of these cones and
olfacto-receptors in the nose.
their photo pigments produce sensation of
(3) Nerve impulse generated are carried by
different colours.
olfactory nerve and transmitted to brain
(6) These impulses are carried to the visual
where the impulse is interpreted.
cortex of the occipital lobe where the image
(4) The characteristic earthy smell is due to a
is interpreted.
compound ‘geosmin’.
(7) In this manner, we can see and enjoy the
(5)
Geosmin is produced by some species of
beautiful colours of the nature after the
Streptomyces [ gram positive soil bacterium].
sunrise. 
(6)
Similarly, sudden change in the climate is
(7) Cerebellum is well developed in humans.
easily noticed in the form of temperature
change in the surrounding.
Ans.
(7) This change is detected by caloreceptors of
the skin. From these receptors the signal is (1) Our posture is upright and mode of
transmitted to CNS where the change is locomotion is bipedal.
perceived.  (2)
While standing, walking and running, our
(5)
We are able to hear the chirping of the body has to be in a state of balance.
birds and recognize the sound of the (3)
Cerebellum controls balancing, posture,
bird. body equilibrium and orientation.
Ans. (4) Thus to control static as well as dynamic
(1) The phonoreceptors of the body receive the equilibrium of the body, cerebellum is well
sound waves and transfer the nerve impulses developed. 
to the auditory areas of the brain. (8)

Mr. Sharma suffered from a stroke and
(2) The interpretation of the sound is a the right side of his body was paralysed.
combined effort of sensory and association However his response was normal for
areas [auditory areas] of temporal lobes of knee jerk reflex with either leg. Explain
the brain. how and why ?
(3) This is how we are able to hear the chirping [Use your brain power! TB page no. 199]

Ans. synthesis of progesterone which are
(1)
Stroke is damage to the brain due to necessary for pregnancy.
interruption of its blood supply. (2) Lactogenic hormone secreted by the pituitary
(2) Due to this brain functions and cerebral gland promotes breast development during
reflexes are severely affected. pregnancy and stimulates the secretion of
(3)
However, spinal reflexes remain largely milk after childbirth.
unaffected. (3) Oxytocin secreted by hypothalamus and
(4) In the above case. Mr. Sharma suffered sent by pituitary gland stimulates the
Chapter 9
from a stroke and developed paralysis. But contraction of the uterus during
his response to the knee jerk was normal childbirth. 
as it is controlled by spinal cord.  (12) Fall and rise in blood calcium stimulates
(9) The word hormone is a misnomer. secretion of parathyroid.
Ans. [Can you tell ? TB page no. 214]
(1) Hormone is adapted from the Greek word Ans.

‘hormein’ means to excite. (1) Normal calcium level in the blood is called
(2) But the hormones secreted by the endocrine calcemia.
glands and cells carry out two fold functions, (2) Increase in the blood calcium is called
viz. excitatory and inhibitory. hypercalcemia while decrease in the level is
(3) The word hormone is therefore a misnomer. called hypocalcemia.
 (3) Decrease in the blood calcium, stimulates

(10)
Pituitary may be considered as the the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH.
coordinator of endocrine orchestra but (4) PTH stimulates osteoclasts of bone to start
not master endocrine gland. bone resorption. This will help to cause
Ans. increase in the blood calcium level.
(1) The pituitary gland was formerly considered (5) Increase in the blood calcium above normal
as a master endocrine gland, because all will retard the secretion of PTH. Hence
other endocrine glands are under the control further increase in the blood calcium is
of pituitary hormones. stopped. 
(2) But now it is known that the pituitary gland (13)

Pancreas is both exocrine as well as
itself is under the control of hypothalamus endocrine gland.
through hypothalamo-hypophysial axis. [Can you tell ? TB page no. 216]
(3) Through various releasing factors and Ans.
release inhibiting factors, the secretions of
(1)
Pancreas is heterocrine gland i.e. both
pituitary are regulated by hypothalamus.
exocrine and endocrine gland.
(4) Pituitary in turn controls growth, secretion
(2) The exocrine part is pancreatic acini. The
and maintenance of glands such as adrenal
cells of acini secrete pancreatic juice
cortex, thyroid and gonads. 
containing digestive enzymes like
(11) Pituitary gland plays an important role in
trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, etc.
pregnancy and childbirth.
Ans. Pituitary gland plays an important role in (3) Endocrine part of pancreas is made up of
pregnancy and childbirth for the following groups of cells called Islets of Langerhans.
reasons : There are four kinds of cells in islets of
(1) Luteinizing hormone secreted by the Langerhans which secrete hormones.
pituitary gland stimulates ovulation, Alpha (  ) cells (20%) secrete glucagon.
formation of corpus luteum and the Beta (  ) cells (70%) secrete insulin.

Delta (  ) cell (5%) secrete somatostatin. one connected towards the epidermis and
PP cells or F cells (5%) secrete pancreatic second towards the gastro-dermis.
polypeptide (PP). (4) Hydra lacks sensory organs, but the sensory
Hence, pancreas is said to be exocrine as cells scattered in the body wall.
well as endocrine gland.  (5) The nerve impulse shows no polarity or
(14)
Patient suffering from hypothyroidism direction. As all neurons are interconnected
shows increased level of TSH. Why ? the response is seen throughout the body.

Chapter 9
[Think about it. TB page no. 212] 
Ans. (2) Nervous system of Planaria.

(1)
Hypothyroidism means decrease in the Ans.
secretion of T3 and T4. (1) Planaria is a flatworm and belongs to the
(2) Decrease in T4, i.e. thyroxine in the blood phylum Platyhelminthes.
triggers negative feedback mechanism. (2) It is the most primitive animal with a Central
(3) The hormone receptors in hypothalamus Nervous System (CNS) located on the ventral
detect this change and secrete TRF. side of body.
(4) TRF stimulates the pituitary to secrete TSH (3) Nervous system consists of a mass of
(5) Thus, Patient suffering from hypothyroidism cerebral or cephalic ganglion appearing like
shows increased level of TSH due to negative an inverted U-shaped brain.
feedback control.  (4) Ventrally from below the ganglia arise a pair
(15)
We are advised to use iodized salt. OR of Ventral Nerve Cords (VNC) or long nerve
Why do we use iodized salt ? cords. These are interconnected to each
other by transfer nerve or commissure in a
ladder like manner.
Ans.
(5) The PNS include sensory cells arranged in
(1) Iodine is needed for synthesis of thyroid
lateral cords in the body. 
hormone.
(3) Resting potential of a nerve fibre.
(2) If there is deficiency of iodine in the diet, it
Ans.
causes enlargement of thyroid gland leading
to simple goitre. (1) The neurons have a property of excitability.
(3) This disease is common in hilly areas hence (2) The transmission of the nerve impulse along
it is also called endemic goitre. the long nerve fibre is a result of electrical
changes across the neuronal membrane
(4) Addition of iodine to table salt prevents this
during conduction of an excitation.
disease.
(3) The plasma membrane separates the outer
(5) Therefore we must use iodised salt. 
[extra cellular fluid] and inner solutions
Q. 9. Write short notes on the following : [intra cellular fluid / cytoplasm] of different
(2 or 3 marks) chemical compounds.
(1) Nervous system of Hydra. (4) The external tissue fluid has both Na+ and
Ans. K+.
(1) Hydra, a cnidarian shows the diffused (5) On the inside there is an excess of K+ along
nervous system in the form of nerve net. with large amount of negatively charged
(2) It is the most primitive nervous system. protein molecules and nucleic acid.
(3) There are two nerve nets in the mesoglea – (6) This condition of a resting nerve is also
called a polarised state and it is established

by maintaining an excess of Na+ on the nutritive function and also gives protection
outer side.  to the brain.
(4) Electrical synapse. (4) The innermost highly vascular and thin
Ans. membrane is pia mater. It lies in contact
(1) In this type of synapse gap between the with CNS. It is nutritive in function.
neighbouring neurons is very narrow. (5) There is subdural space between the dura
(2) This electrical link is formed between the mater and arachnoid mater. It is filled with
Chapter 9
pre- and post-synaptic neurons. serous fluid.
(3) At the gap junction, the two cells are within (6)
Besides, there is a sub-arachnoidal space
almost 3.8 nm distance of each other. lying between arachnoid mater and pia
(4) Transmission across the gap is faster. mater. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
(5)
Electrical synapses are found in those (7) Ventricles in human brain.
places of the body requiring fastest response Ans.
as in the defence reflexes. 
(1) Ventricles are the cavities present in different
(5) Velocity of nerve impulse.
parts of the brain.
Ans.
(2) There are four ventricles in the human
(1) The rate of transmission of impulse is
brain. All the ventricles are connected with
higher in long and thick nerves.
each other.
(2) It is higher in warm blooded animals
(3) They are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
[homeotherms] than in cold blooded animal
[poikilotherms]. (4)
Paracoel or lateral ventricles-I and-II are
present inside the cerebral hemispheres.
(3) The velocity of transmission is higher in
voluntary fibres (100 – 120 m/second in (5) The diencephalon has ventricle-III.
man) as opposed to autonomic or involuntary (6)
Ventricle-III is in connection with lateral
nerves (10 – 20 m / second). ventricles by foramen of Monro. 
(4) It is faster in medullated nerve fibre [up to (8) Sympathetic nervous system.
150 m/s], as the impulse has to jump from Ans.
one node of Ranvier to the next as compared
(1) Sympathetic Nervous System is formed by
with non-medullated nerve fibre [10 –
25
22 pairs of sympathetic ganglia. These
m/s] 
ganglia are linearly arranged on two
(6) Meninges of CNS.
sympathetic cords. Sympathetic nerve cords
Ans.
run on either side of the vertebral column.
(1)
Meninges are the connective tissue
(2)
Sympathetic nerve cords are connected to
membranes that cover the brain and the
CNS by rami communicans of spinal nerve
spinal cord. There are three meninges, viz.
fibres.
dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater
that cover the Central nervous system. (3) This system works during stress, pain,
(2) The outermost tough, thick and fibrous anger, fear or emergency. It is supposed to
meninx is dura mater. It is protective in bring about fight, flight or fright reactions.
function as it is attached to the inner side (4) Action of sympathetic nervous system is
of the cranium. dependent on adrenaline or noradrenaline.
(3) The middle, thin and vascular membrane This neurotransmitter is secreted by
formed of reticular connective tissue is sympathetic nervous system as an emergency
called arachnoid mater. It carries out hormone. 

(9) Parasympathetic nervous system. (12) Types of reflex actions.
Ans. Ans.
(1) Parasympathetic nervous system consists of (1) The reflex actions are of two types, viz.
nerve fibres of some cranial nerves, sacral cerebral and spinal.
nerves and parasympathetic ganglia. (2) Cerebral reflex actions are controlled by the
(2) These parasympathetic ganglia are present brain.
on the sides of visceral organs like heart, (3)
Spinal reflex actions are controlled by the
lungs, stomach, kidney, etc.
Chapter 9
spinal cord.
(3)
Parasympathetic ganglia gives out
(4) In man, most of the reflex actions are
parasympathetic fibres which innervates
controlled by the spinal cord. 
these involuntary organs.
(13)
Pavlov’s experiment about conditional
(4)
Parasympathetic nervous system works
reflex.
through release of acetylcholine which acts
Ans.
as neurotransmitter. It is an inhibiting
neurotransmitter which affects visceral (1)
Conditional reflex was demonstrated by
organs. Pavlov while performing experiments with
(5) This system works during rest and brings dogs.

about relaxation, comfort, pleasure, etc.  (2) Pavlov offered some food to dog and noticed
(10) Parkinson’s disease. that the dog starts salivating after smelling
and seeing the food.
Ans.
(3) Simultaneously he rang the bell so that the
(1) Degeneration of dopamine-producing
neurons in the CNS causes Parkinson’s dog associated the food with the sound of
disease. bell. This experiment was repeated many a
times by him.
(2)
Symptoms develop gradually over the years.
(4) Later he only rang the bell and did not give
(3) Symptoms are tremors, stiffness, difficulty
in walking, balance and coordination. any food to the dog. But still the dog
salivated.
(4) Seen in old age and is incurable. 
(5) This shows that the dog was conditioned to
(11) Alzheimer’s disease.
the sound of bell. The dog learnt that there
Ans.
is a relation between food and sound of
(1) Alzheimer’s disease is the most common
bell. This is called conditional response. 
form of dementia.
(14) Mechanism of vision.
(2) Its incidence increases with the age.
Ans.
(3)
Symptoms include the loss of cognitive
(1) The light rays of visible wavelength pass
functioning, thinking, remembering,
through the cornea and the lens and are
reasoning and behavioural abilities. It
interferes with the person’s daily life and focused on the retina of the eye.
activities. (2) The sight is possible due to conjugated
(4) It occurs due to loss of cholinergic and proteins present in the rods and the cones.
other neurons in the CNS and accumulation (3) These are photo pigments which are
of amyloid proteins. composed of opsin (a protein) and retinal
(5) There is no cure for Alzheimer’s, but (Vitamin A derivative).
treatment slows down the progression of (4) The light induces dissociation of retinal
the disease and may improve the quality of from the opsin, which causes a change in
life.  the structure of the opsin.

(5) This causes the change in the permeability Endocrine role of islets of Langerhans.
 (17)
of the retinal cells. OR
(6) It generates action potential which is carried Islets of Langerhans.
via bipolar cells and ganglion cells and [Can you tell ? TB page no. 216]
further conducted by the optic nerves to the Ans. Endocrine cells of pancreas form groups of
visual cortex (vision centre) of the brain. cells called Islets of Langerhans. There are
(7) The neural impulses are analyzed and the four kinds of cells in islets of Langerhans
Chapter 9
image formed on the retina is thus which secrete hormones.
recognized.  (1) Alpha (  ) cells : They are 20% and secrete
(15) Mechanism of hearing. glucagon. Glucagon is a hyperglycemic
Ans. hormone. It stimulates liver for glucogenolysis
and increases the blood glucose level.
(1) The external ear receives the sound waves
and sends to the tympanic membrane. The (2) Beta (  ) cells : They are 70% and secrete
tympanum vibrates transmitting the insulin. Insulin is a hypoglycemic hormone.

It stimulates liver and muscles for
vibrations to the chain of three ossicles and
glycogenesis. This lowers blood glucose
then to the oval window.
level.
(2) The vibrations are further passed on to the
(3) Delta (  ) cells : They are 5% and secrete
fluid of cochlea.
somatostatin. Somatostatin inhibits the
(3) The waves in the perilymph and endolymph
secretion of glucagon and insulin. It also
induces movements in the basilar
decreases the gastric secretions, motility
membrane.
and absorption in digestive tract. In general
(4) The hair cells of organ of Corti bend and it is a growth inhibiting factor.
are pressed against the tectorial membrane.
(4) PP cells or F cells : They form 5%. They
(5) Due to this pressure, the nerve impulses secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP) which
are generated and are sent to the afferent inhibits the release of pancreatic juice. 
nerve fibres. (18) Thymus. OR Functions of Thymosin.

(6) The impulses are carried by the auditory Ans.
nerves to the auditory centre of the brain,
(1) Thymus is located on the dorsal side of the
where the impulses are analyzed and the heart and the aorta.
sound is perceived. 
(2) It consists of many lobules.
(16) Types of endocrine systems.
(3) The thymus plays major role in the
Ans. There are 3 types of endocrine systems. development of the immune system.
(1) Discrete endocrine system
: The glands (4) Thymus secretes thymosin which plays an
exclusively endocrine in function are called important role in the differentiation of
discrete endocrine glands. T-lymphocytes. These cells built cell
(2) Mixed endocrine system
:
The glands mediated immunity.
endocrine as well as exocrine in function (5) The thymosin also promotes the production
are called mixed endocrine glands. of antibodies providing humoral immunity.
(3) Diffused endocrine system
: Some (6) The degeneration of thymus gland occur in
endocrine cells scattered in a particular old individuals leading to decreased
region
/
gland form diffused endocrine production of thymosin thereby weakening
system.  of immune response. 

(19) The role of heart and kidney in hormone (2) Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid
secretion. that acts on the renal tubules.
[Can you tell ? TB page no. 217] (3) Aldosterone stimulates the re-absorption of
Ans. Na+ and water and excretion of K+ and
(I) Kidney : phosphate ions.
(1) Kidney produces renin, erythropoietin and (4) The aldosterone helps in the maintenance
calcitriol (calcitriol is the active form of of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic
vitamin cholecalciferol (D3).
Chapter 9
pressure and blood pressure. 
(2) Renin along with angiotensin helps in (22)

Secretions of adrenal medulla and their
maintaining the blood pressure in the renal
role.
artery by vasoconstriction.
Ans.
(3) Erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis.
(1) The adrenal medulla secretes two
(4) Calcitriol helps in absorbing calcium from
catecholamine hormones, viz. adrenaline
the stomach.
(epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(II) Heart :
(nor-epinephrine).
(1)
Heart walls secrete Atrial natriuretic
(2) Adrenaline and noradrenaline increase
hormone / ANF.
alertness, dilation of pupils, piloerection,
(2) ANF increases sodium excretion [natriuresis]
sweating, etc.
along with water.
(3)
Both the hormones increase the rate of
(3) It acts along with kidneys and reduces blood
heartbeat, strength of heart contraction and
pressure by lowering blood volume. 
rate of respiration.
(20) Hormones secreted by adrenal gland.
(4) These hormones also stimulate the
Ans.
breakdown of glycogen, lipids and proteins
(1) The adrenal cortex secretes corticoids.
thereby increasing blood glucose level.
Corticoids is a group of several hormones
(5) All the above reactions are useful for survival
that control several vital body functions.
during emergency situations and in stress
(2)
Corticoids are of two types, viz.
condition. Therefore, they are called
mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
emergency hormones or 3 F hormones of
(3)
Small amounts of androgenic steroids are
fright, fight or flight. 
also secreted by the adrenal cortex which
(23) Cortisols and their role.
have the role in the growth of axial and
pubic hairs and facial hairs during puberty. Ans.
(4) The mineralocorticoids regulate the 1. Cortisol : Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid
electrolyte balance while the glucocorticoids hormone.
are involved in carbohydrate metabolism. 2. Role of cortisol :
(5) Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline or (1)
Cortisol stimulates many metabolic
epinephrine and noradrenaline or reactions such as gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
norepinephrine.  and proteinolysis.
(21) Role of mineralocorticoids. (2) It inhibits cellular uptake and utilization of
Ans. amino acids.
(1) The mineralocorticoids regulate ionic and (3)
Cortisol also plays an important role in
osmotic balance, by regulating the amounts maintaining the cardiovascular system and
of electrolyte and water. kidney functions.

(4) It is also involved in anti-inflammatory 2.
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) or
reactions and suppresses the immune Thyrotropin :
response. (1) TSH is regulated by TRF (Thyrotropin
(5) Cortisol stimulates the RBC production.  releasing factor) from hypothalamus.
(24) Disorders of adrenal cortical hormones. (2) For inhibition there is a negative feedback
Ans. between thyroxine level in the blood and
(1) Disorders of adrenal cortical secretions are secretion of TSH.
of two types, viz. hyposecretion and
Chapter 9
(3) TSH stimulates thyroid glands to increase
hypersecretion. uptake of iodine for synthesis of thyroxine.
(2)
Hyposecretion of corticosteroids causes It brings breakdown of colloid to release
Addison’s disease. thyroxine.
(3) The symptoms of Addison’s disease are 3.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
general weakness, weight loss, low body Corticotropin :
temperature, feeble heart action, low BP, (1) ACTH stimulates growth of adrenal cortex
+
acidosis, excessive loss of Na and Cl in 
and stimulates it to secrete glucocorticoids
urine, impaired kidney functioning and and mineralocorticoids.
kidney failure, etc.
(2) The regulation of ACTH secretion is under
(4)
Hypersecretion of corticoids causes the control of hypothalamic CRF
Cushing’s disease.
(Corticotropin releasing factor) and the
(5) The symptoms of Cushing’s disease are negative feedback mechanism between
alkalosis, enhancement of total quantity of plasma level of cortisol and ACTH.
electrolytes in extracellular fluid, polydipsia,
4.
Prolactin (PRL) or Luteotropic hormone
increased BP, muscle paralysis, etc. 
(LTH) :
(25) Hormones of adenohypophysis.
(1) Secretion of prolactin is under dual control
Ans. by hypothalamus by two factors such as
1. Somatotropic Hormone (STH) or Growth PRF (Prolactin releasing factor) and PIF
Hormone (GH) : (Prolactin inhibiting factor) of hypothalamus.
(1) The secretion of GH is under dual control (2) Prolactin performs many functions therefore
of hypothalamus through GHRF (Growth it has many terms as follows :
hormone releasing factor) and GHIF (Growth
(i) Development of mammary glands
hormone inhibiting factor). (Mammotropin).
(2) The GH brings about general growth of the (ii)
Milk secretion by mammary glands
body. (Lactogenic hormone).
(3) The principal actions of GH are promotion (iii) Maintenance of corpus luteum so that
of linear growth in the skeleton, increase in it keeps on secreting progesterone
the size of the muscles and connective during pregnancy (Luteotropin).
tissue.
(3) It may be inhibiting the chances of pregnancy
(4)
GH enhances the protein synthesis. The during lactation period.
lipolysis in adipose tissue to release more
5.
Gonadotropic Hormones (GTH) or
fatty acids is also stimulated by GH.
Gonadotropins :
(5) The growth of bones by absorption of
(1) There are two types of gonadotropins, viz.
calcium takes place due to GH.
FSH and LH or ICSH.
(2) The secretions of gonadotropin are regulated

by gonadotropin releasing factor (GHRF) of
Q. 10. Short answers questions :
hypothalamus.
(2 or 3 marks each)
(3) They are regulated by negative feedback by
(1)
Give one point of distinction between
sex hormones such as testosterone and
nervous coordination and hormonal
estrogen.
coordination.
(a) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) :
Ans.
(i)
FSH in female stimulates development of
(1) The activity of nervous coordination is
Chapter 9
Graafian follicles. It helps in the formation

quick, immediate and fast as it sends the
of ovum by stimulating oogenesis.
electrical signals.
(ii) It also stimulates ovarian follicular cells for
(2)
Hormonal coordination is slow and long
secretion of female sex hormones, estrogen.
lasting as it takes place through the action
(iii) Under influence of estrogen, development of of hormones. 
secondary sexual characters occurs in
(2) Write about types of nerves.
female.
Ans. Nerve is a group of neurons enclosed in a
(iv) In males, FSH stimulates germinal
connective tissue sheath epineurium. It is
epithelium of seminiferous tubules for
classified as
spermatogenesis and helps in the production
(1) Sensory nerve : A nerve having all sensory
and maturation of sperms.
neurons is called sensory nerve. It carries
(v) Deficiency of FSH leads to infertility in both
information from sense organs to CNS. It is
the sexes.
also called afferent nerve.
(b) Luteinizing hormone (LH) in females and (2) Motor nerve : A nerve having all motor
Interstitial cell stimulating hormone neurons is called motor nerve. It carries
(ICSH) in males : information from CNS to effector organs. It
(i) LH brings about ovulation, i.e. rupture and is also called efferent nerve.
release of ovum from the mature Graafian (3) Mixed nerve : A nerve having with both
follicle. The empty Graafian follicle is sensory and motor neurons is called a
transformed into corpus luteum. mixed nerve. Sensory neurons in it carry
(ii)
Corpus luteum is a secondary endocrine nerve impulses from sense organs to CNS
source which secretes gestational hormone while motor neurons carry nerve impulses
progesterone. Progesterone is a pregnancy from CNS to effector organs. 
stabilizing hormone. (3) What is the composition of neural tissue ?

(iii) In males, ICSH stimulates interstitial cells Ans. Neural tissue is derived from embryonic
of Leydig which in turn secretes male sex ectoderm. It consists of two types of cells.
hormone, the testosterone. (1) Neurons or nerve fibres
: These are
(iv) Testosterone develops secondary sexual structural and functional units of nervous
characters in males. tissue. They conduct nerve impulses and
(v) High level of progesterone in female signals coordinate various body activities.
negative feedback to pituitary to stop (2) Neuroglial cells : These are supportive
secretion of LH. cells which protect neurons throughout
(vi) In males, high level of testosterone in blood CNS and PNS. They perform other functions
gives negative feedback signal to Inhibit the like secretion of myelin sheath, phagocytosis,
secretion of FSH.  production of CSF, etc. e.g Schwann cells,
astrocytes, satellite cells, etc. 

(4) Explain the structure of cyton. (2) In this telodendrites of pre-synaptic neuron
Ans. are in close proximity with dendrites of
(1) Cyton is the main body of a neuron or nerve post-synaptic neuron.
fibre. (3) This gap is also called synaptic cleft.
(2) The cyton has a distinct central nucleus (4) During transmission of nerve impulse, the
with a nucleolus and neuroplasm. synapse get filled with neurotransmitters
(3)
Cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus around like acetyl choline. 
Chapter 9
which there are neurofibrils, Nissl’s granules  Explain the process of conduction of
(8)
and other cell organelles. nerve impulses up to development of
(4) Nissl’s granules are rich in ribosomes and action potential.
proteins. Ans.
(5) Neurofibrils play an important role in (1) The origin and maintenance of resting
transmission of nerve impulse. potential depends on the original state of no
(6) The cytons are generally found inside the stimulation.
brain, spinal cord (CNS) and in the ganglia. (2) Any stimulus or disturbance to the
(7) Cytons within CNS form ‘nuclei’ while those membrane will make the membrane
+
present outside CNS in nerves form ‘ganglia’. permeable to Na ions. This causes rapid

influx of Na+ ions.
(5) Enlist the various connective tissue layers (3) The voltage gated Na+/K+ channels are
in a nerve along with their location. unique. They can change the potential
difference of the membrane as per the
Ans. Connective tissue layers in a nerve are :
stimulus received and also the gates operate
Endoneurium : Covers each nerve fibre.
(1)
separately and are self closing.
Perineurium : Covers each nerve bundle
(2)
(4) During resting potential, both gates are
having a number of neurons.
closed and resting potential is maintained.
Epineurium : Covers many nerve bundles
(3)
However during depolarization, the Na+
(5)
to form a peripheral nerve.
channels open but not the K+ channels.

 (6) List the properties of the nerve fibres. This causes Na+ to rush into the axon and
Ans. bring about a depolarisation. This condition
(1) Excitability / irritability is called action potential.
(2) Conductivity (6)
Extra cellular fluid (ECF) becomes
(3) Stimulus electronegative with respect to the inner
membrane which becomes electropositive.
(4) Summation

(5) All or none
(9)
What are the three divisions of nervous
(6) Refractory period
system ? What are their chief functions ?
(7) Synaptic delay Ans.
(8) Synaptic fatigue (1) The three divisions of nervous system are
(9) Velocity.  central nervous system, peripheral nervous
(7) What is a synapse ? system and autonomous nervous system.
Ans. (2) The central nervous system (CNS) consists
(1)
Synapse is a microscopic functional gap of brain and spinal cord. The brain and
between two successive neurons. spinal cord are the coordinators for all
nervous functions.

(3) The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is varolii and medulla oblongata
constituted by several nerves given by the (myelencephalon). 
central nervous system to all the body parts. (12)

Describe functional areas of cerebral
All these nerves carry impulses to the CNS
cortex.
and bring back the responses from them.
Ans. Functional areas of cerebrum :
They are divided into cranial nerves and
spinal nerves. (1) There are three functional areas in cerebrum
(4) The autonomous nervous system controls viz., sensory, association and motor area.
Chapter 9
all the internal organs and is not under (2) In sensory area, sensory receptors bring the
voluntary control.  sensory inputs. These inputs are analysed
(10) Does this CSF remain enclosed inside the in sensory area.
ventricles ? What can be the outcome of (3) The sensory speech area is located in
such a situation ? parietal lobe. It is called Wernicke’s area.
Ans. (4) Association area forms the major portion of
(1)
CSF is present within the CNS as well as the cerebrum. It processes, analyses and
around it. stores the information given by the inputs.
(2) This fluid communicates with each other on Power of reasoning, will, understanding,
the roof of medulla oblongata through memory, etc. are the faculties present in the
3 apertures, viz. Foramina of Luschka and
cerebral cortex.
foramen of Magendie.
(5)
Motor area is present in the frontal lobe
(3) This communication ensures constant
lying anterior to the premotor area. In the
pressure of CSF within as well as outside
lower part of the motor area just above the
the CNS.
lateral sulcus lies the Broca’s area or motor
(4) In the absence of this communication, there
speech area. The Broca’s area controls the
would be a pressure difference within as
movements necessary for speech. 
well as outside the CNS which will result in
disturbances in the activities of CNS. (13)
Explain in detail the regions associated
Moreover, intercranial pressure would rise. with the diencephalon.
 Ans. Diencephalon is a part present between
(11) Enlist the different parts of the brain. forebrain and midbrain. It has three
Ans. regions : epithalamus, thalami and
hypothalamus.
(1) There are three divisions of the brain, viz.
forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain Epithalamus : Epithalamus is the roof of
(1)
mesencephalon) and hindbrain diencephalon. It is highly vascular and non-
(rhombencephalon). nervous. It forms anterior choroid plexus
(2)
Forebrain is divided into cerebrum that secretes cerebrospinal fluid. Pineal
(telencephalon) and diencephalon body is attached to epithalamus with the
(thalamencephalon). Underdeveloped help of pineal stalk. Pineal body secretes
olfactory lobes (rhinencephalon) can also be serotonin and melatonin.
seen in the anterior region. Thalami : The lateral parts of diencephalon
(2)
(3) Midbrain consists of corpora quadrigemina which are interconnected with the
and crura cerebri. habencular commissure are called thalami.
(4) Hindbrain has cerebellum (metencephalon) From thalami all sensory impulses (except
and brain stem. It is divided into pons olfactory impulses) pass on to the cerebrum.

Hypothalamus : Hypothalamus is the floor
(3)
(17)
Is nervous tissue without lymphatic
of the brain. Pituitary gland is attached to vessels ?
this floor by an infundibular stalk. Ans.
Hypothalamus has many hypothalamic (1) CSF is the lymph of CNS.
nuclei which are scattered in the white
(2)
CSF is continuously generated by the
matter. 
ependymal cells lining the ventricles and
(14)
What is EEG ? What information can be central canal and simultaneously drained
obtained from the EEG ?
Chapter 9
out of the brain into the blood stream.
Ans. (3) There are no lymphatic vessels in the
(1) EEG stands for electroencephalography. nervous system.
(2) It refers to the recordings of the brain’s (4)
But the CSF is drained into peripheral
spontaneous electrical activities in certain blood circulation with the help of lymph
period of time. These are recorded using vessels associated with meninges mainly the
multiple electrodes. dura mater. 
(3) EEG is non-invasive method and measures (18) Explain the structure of spinal cord.
voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic Ans. Structure of spinal cord :
current within the neurons.
(1)
Spinal cord is a 42 to 45 cm long, 2 cm
(4) The basic concepts involved in this are thick and hollow tube, extending from
similar to ECG. medulla oblongata to lumbar region.
(5) It is used to diagnose conditions like (2) It lies in the neural canal of vertebral
epilepsy, sleep disorders, encephalopathies, column.
coma, etc. 
(3) At the other end, it tapers down and is
(15) Find out how different functional areas of called conus medullaris. The posterior most
the brain can be mapped ? end is called filum terminale which appears
Ans. Functional areas and status of the brain can as a thread-like structure.
be mapped by several imaging techniques (4)
Beyond the second lumbar vertebra, it
available such as – forms a horse tail-like structure called
(1) MRI : Magnetic Resonance Imaging cauda equina. Cauda equina is a bunch of
(2) CT : Computed Tomography dorsal and ventral roots of last pair of
(3) PET : Positron Emission Tomography  spinal nerves.
(16) Which are silent areas of the brain ? (5) There are two swellings on the spinal cord.
Ans. The upper is cervical swelling and lower is
lumbar swelling. Accordingly there are two
(1) Silent areas of the brain refer to association
plexuses, the cervical plexus supplying
areas of the brain.
nerves to hands and the lumbar plexus
(2) One such area is in the prefrontal cortex of
supplying nerves to legs.
brain.
(6) 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal
(3) These are the areas of the brain in which
cord. 
pathogenic conditions may occur without
 (19) Rakesh got hurt on his head when he fell
producing symptoms.
down from his motorbike. Which inner
(4) Injury to these areas is not accompanied by
membranes must have protected his
symptoms related to sensory and motor
brain ? What other roles do they have to
functions. 
play ?

Ans. When Rakesh fell down from his motorbike, anaesthesia work ? What is the effect of
the inner membranes that protected his pain killer on the nervous system ?
brain were meninges, viz. dura mater, [Think about it. TB page no. 190]
arachnoid membrane and pia mater. Ans.
Morevover, CSF must have also acted as a (1) Teeth are innervated by branches of
shock absorber. trigeminal nerve [Vth cranial nerve]
Dura mater : It is the outer tough membrane
(2)
Extraction of tooth stimulates this nerve
protective in function. which then carries the impulse [action
Chapter 9
Arachnoid membrane : It is the middle

potential] to the pain centre of the brain
web-like membrane which communicates where the pain is perceived.
with fluids of upper sub dural space and (3) To avoid this, dentists give anaesthesia, to
lower sub arachnoid space. numb the nerve.
Pia mater : It is the innermost highly

(4) Action potential is not generated due to
anaesthesia.
vascularised nutritive membrane in close
contact with brain and spinal cord. 
(5) Hence the pain is not perceived.
(20) What is the significance of reflex action ? (6) Similarly, some common pain killers act on
the nerve endings and pain centres of the
Ans. Significance of reflex action :
brain, preventing generation of action
(1) Reflex action helps the animals to adjust potential. 
quickly to the changing environment.
Krishna was going to school and on the
(23)

(2) Reflex action is for quick actions necessary way he saw a major bus accident. His
for survival. The life may have been in heartbeat increased and hands and feet
danger in the absence of reflex action. become cold. Name the part of the
(3) Most of the reflexes are spinal reflexes, i.e. nervous system that had a role to play in
reflexes controlled by spinal cord. Thus the this reaction.
brain is not involved in these actions. This Ans.
prevents overloading of the brain and brain (1) The symptoms observed in Krishna were
fatigue. due to sympathetic nervous system.
(4) Some reflexes are inborn and hence training Emergency conditions trigger sympathetic
or learning is not required for these. 
nervous system to stimulate adrenal
medulla.
 (21) How does tongue detect the sensation of
(2) The cells of adrenal medulla secrete
taste ?
catecholamines like adrenaline and nor-
Ans.
adrenaline.
(1) The surface of tongue is with gustatoreceptors.
(3) These hormones have direct effect on the
(2) These receptors are sensitive to the pacemaker of the heart which causes
chemicals [sweet, salt, sour, bitter and increase in the heart rate and other
umami (savory)] present in the food. associated symptoms.
(3) The receptor cells get stimulated, generate (4) This is a typical fright reaction caused by
the impulse which is given to the sensory intervention of sympathetic nervous system.
neuron.  
(22) During extraction of a tooth, the dentist  While holding a tea cup Mr. Kothari’s
(24)
gives an injection of Anaesthesia to the hands rattle. Which disorder he may be
patient before extraction. Is the action suffering from and what is the reason for
potential generated ? How does the local this ?

Ans. (28)
What are the common properties of
(1)
This condition is due to Parkinson’s disease. hormones ? OR State properties of
(2) It is due to degeneration of dopamine- hormones.
producing neurons in the CNS. [Can you tell ? TB page no. 211]
(3) 80% of the patients develop this condition Ans.
along with stiffness, difficulty in walking, (1)
Hormones are specifically produced in
balance and coordination.  response to a certain stimulus.
Chapter 9
(25) Give a list of psychological disorders. (2) Depending on nature and intensity of the
Ans. stimulus, the rate of secretion of a hormone
varies from low to very high.
(1) Autism spectrum disorder.
(3) Hormones are produced in one organ and
(2) Bipolar disorder.
show their effect on distant ‘target’ organ.
(3) Depression.
The source and the target region may be
(4) Anxiety disorder.
distantly located.
(5) ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity (4)
Hormones are directly poured in blood
Disorder). circulation and always carried through
(6) Stress related disorders.  blood.
(26) What are endocrine glands ? (5)
Hormones are always bound to specific
Ans. carrier proteins while being transported
(1) Endocrine glands are ductless glands which through the blood.
are capable of secreting hormones. (6)
Hormones have a high degree of target
(2) The hormones are poured directly into the specificity.
bloodstream as the endocrine glands do not (7) Every hormone acts basically by modifying
have duct. some aspect of cellular metabolism.
(3)
Hormones regulate the function of target (8) The excessive secretions or deficiencies of
tissue or organ. hormones may lead to serious disorders.
(4) They either have excitatory effect or have an Such disorders are called hyper – and hypo-
inhibitory effect. 
disorders, respectively. 
(27)
What are the main endocrine glands in  What is adenohypophysis
(29) ? Name the
human body ? hormones secreted by it.
Ans. The main endocrine glands in human body Ans.

are as follows : (1) Adenohypophysis is the large anterior lobe
(1) Pituitary or hypophysis of pituitary gland.
(2) Hypothalamus (2) It is derived from embryonic ectoderm in
(3) Thyroid the form of Rathke’s pouch which is a small
(4) Parathyroid outgrowth from the roof of embryonic
(5) Adrenal or suprarenal stomodaeum.
(6) Islets of Langerhans in pancreas (3) It is made up of epitheloid secretory cells.
(7)
Endocrine parts of gonads, i.e. testis (4) It secretes following hormones :
and ovary. i. GH : [Growth Hormone /
Pineal gland and thymus are also endocrine STH : Somatotropic Hormone]
glands of less importance. 
ii. TSH/TTH – [Thyroid Stimulating Hormone /
Thyrotropic Hormone]

iii. ACTH – [adrenocorticotropic hormone] (33)
Write an account of hormones secreted
iv. PRL – [prolactin] by the thyroid gland.
v. Gonadotropins – Ans.
(a) FSH [follicle stimulating hormone] (1) Thyroid secretes triiodothyronine or T3,
(b) LH/ICSH – [leutinizing hormone / tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine or T4 and
interstitial cells stimulating hormone]  thyrocalcitonin.
Where is the pituitary gland located
(30)
 ? (2) The thyroid gland synthesize, store and
Chapter 9
Enlist the hormones secreted by anterior discharge these hormones.

pituitary. (3) T3 and T4 are iodinated derivatives of amino
Ans. acid tyrosine which are secreted by thyroid
(1) The pituitary gland is attached to follicular cells and stored in follicles. They
hypothalamus on the ventral surface of have similar function. The secretion of T3
brain. and T4 are regulated by Thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin of pituitary
(2) It is lodged in a bony depression called sella
gland in negative feedback manner. T3 is
turcica of sphenoid bone.
more active and T4 is more potent hormone.
(3) For names of hormones, refer to Q. 10 (29).
(4) Thyrocalcitonin is secreted by the

parafollicular cells.
(31)
What are the disorders caused due to
(5) Thyrocalcitonin regulates blood calcium
hyposecretion and hypersecretion of GH
level. It stimulates bones to take up Ca++
or STH ?
from the blood and deposit it in the form of
Ans.
calcium phosphates in the bones, thereby
(1)
Hypersecretion is excessive secretion. In
decreasing blood Ca++ level. Increased
children, the hypersecretion of GH causes
calcium level of blood stimulates ‘C’ cells to
gigantism. In adults, it causes Acromegaly.
secrete thyrocalcitonin and vice versa. 
(2) Hyposecretion, i.e. lesser secretion of GH in

(34) Describe in brief an account of disorders

children cause dwarfism. The person is
of the thyroid. OR
also referred to as midget. There are two

What are the functional disorders of
types of dwarfs, viz. Frohlic dwarf who are
thyroid gland ? Describe in brief.
mentally abnormal and Lorain dwarf who
Ans. Disorders of thyroid gland are of three
are mentally normal.
types, viz. hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism
(3)
Hyposecretion of GH in adults cause
and simple goitre.
Simmond’s disease. 
Hypothyroidism : Hypothyroidism
(1) is
(32)
What are the disorders caused due to
deficient secretion of thyroxine. This
hyposecretion and hypersecretion of
hyposecretion causes two types of disorders,
ACTH ?
viz. cretinism in children and myoxedema
Ans.
in adults.
(1) Hyposecretion of ACTH leads to Addison’s
Cretinism : Hyposecretion of thyroxine in
(i)
disease, i.e. adrenal failure. This results in
childhood causes cretinism. The symptoms
affected carbohydrate metabolism leading
of cretinism are retardation of physical and
to weakness and fatigue.
mental growth.
(2) The hypersecretion leads to excessive
(ii) Myxoedema : Deficiency of thyroxine in
growth of adrenal cortex. This causes
adults causes this disorder. It is also
Cushing’s disease. 

referred to as Gull’s disease. Symptoms are (4) Irregularities in menstrual cycle in case of
thickening and puffiness of the skin and female patients.
subcutaneous tissue particularly of face and (5) Hair become brittle and fall.
extremities. Patients with low BMR. It also (6)
Calcium metabolism also disturbs due to
causes mental dullness, loss of memory, lack of thyrocalcitonin. 
slow action.  (36) Which are the two types of goitre ? What
Hyperthyroidism : Excessive secretion of
(2) are their causes ?
thyroxine causes exophthalmic goitre or
Chapter 9
Ans.
Grave’s disease. There is slight enlargement
(1) Goitre is the enlargement of thyroid gland.
of thyroid gland. It increases BMR, heart
It is easily visible at the base of neck when
rate, pulse rate and BP. Reduction in body
a person is suffering from it.
weight due to rapid oxidation, nervousness,
(2) Goitre is of two types.
irritability. Peculiar symptom is
exophthalmos, i.e. bulging of eyeballs with (i) Simple goitre : It is also called endemic
staring look and less blinking. This is goitre. This is due to iodine deficiency in
caused by deposition of fats behind the eye the food. This causes iodine deficit in blood.
balls in eye sockets. There is muscular In an attempt to take more iodine from
weakness and loss of weight. blood, the blood supply to the gland
increases. This results in swelling on the
Simple goitre (Iodine deficiency goitre) :
(3)
thyroid.
Simple goitre occurs due to deficiency of
iodine in diet or drinking water. Simple (ii) Exophthalmic goitre : It is also called toxic
goitre causes enlargement of thyroid gland. goitre. This is due to hyperactive thyroid
Thyroid gland in an attempt to get more gland. This can happen if there is
iodine from the blood, swells due to overstimulation of thyroid due to excess of
increased blood supply. Prevention of goitre ACTH. This disorder is also called Grave’s
can be done by administering iodized table disease or hyperthyroidism. 
salt. It is also called endemic goitre as it is  An adult patient suffers from low heart
(37)
common in hilly areas.  rate, low metabolic rate and low body
 What will be the effect of thyroid gland
(35) temperature. He also lacks alertness,
atrophy on the human body ? intelligence and initiative. What can be
this disease ? What can be its cause and
Ans.
cure ?
(1) Atrophy means degeneration. Atrophy of
Ans.
thyroid gland will result in deficient
secretion of thyroid hormones leading to (1) The above symptoms indicate that the
hypothyroidism. Deficiency of thyroid person is suffering from Myxoedema.
hormones [T3 and T4] and thyrocalcitonin (2)
Myxoedema is condition caused due to
will cause following effects on the body. hypothyroidism.
(2) Decrease in BMR i.e. basal metabolic rate, (3) Hypothyroidism causes deficiency of thyroid
decrease in the blood pressure, heart beat, hormones like T3 and T4 (thyroxine). This
body temperature, etc. results in low BMR.
(3) Occurrence of myxoedema in which there is (4) This condition can be cured by giving
abnormal deposition of fats under the skin injections of thyroxine or tablets containing
giving puffy appearance in adults. hormone preparation. 

 Explain how the adrenal medulla and
(38) are caused due to hyposecretion and
sympathetic nervous system function as hypersecretion of adrenal corcoid hormones.
a closely integrated system. (2)
Hyposecretion of corticosteroids causes
Ans. Addison’s disease.
(1) Adrenal medulla originates from embryonic (3) The symptoms of Addison’s disease are low
neuro-ectoderm. blood sugar, low body temperature, feeble
(2) It consists of rounded group of large heart action, low BP, acidosis, low Na+ and
K+ concentration in plasma, excessive loss
Chapter 9
granular cells called chromaffin cells. They

are modified post-ganglionic cells of of Na+ and water in urine, impaired kidney
sympathetic nervous system which have functioning and kidney failure, etc. it leads
lost normal processes and acquired to weight loss, general weakness, nausea,
glandular function. vomiting and diarrhoea.
(3) These cells are connected with pre-ganglionic (4)
Hypersecretion of corticoids causes
fibres of sympathetic nervous system. Cushing’s disease.
(4)
Hence adrenal medulla is an extension of (5) The symptoms of Cushing’s disease are
sympathetic nervous system. high blood sugar level, glucosuria, alkalosis,
(5) Thus adrenal medulla and sympathetic enhancement of total quantity of electrolytes
nervous system functions as a closely in extracellular fluid, polydipsia, increased
integrated system. 
BP, muscle paralysis, obesity, wasting of
limb muscles, etc. 
(39)
Describe adrenal glands with respect to
morphology, histology and secretions.  (41) Name the ovarian hormone and give their
functions.
Ans.
Ans. Ovaries produce following hormones.
(1) A pair of adrenal or suprarenal glands are
located just on the upper border of kidneys. Hormone Functions
(2) The adrenal gland shows two distinct Oestrogen It is responsible for secondary
regions, viz. thicker outer cortex and thinner sexual characters in female.
inner medulla. Progesterone Essential for thickening of
(3) The adrenal cortex consists of three distinct uterine endometrium, thus
regions. The outer zona glomerulosa, the preparing the uterus for
middle zona fasciculata and inner zona implantation of fertilized ovum.
reticularis. It is responsible for development
(4) Adrenal cortex produces corticoids. of mammary glands during
Corticoids is a collective term for many pregnancy.
hormones, such as glucocorticoids, It inhibits uterine contractions
mineralocorticoids and steroid sex during pregnancy.
hormones. Relaxin It relaxes the cervix of the
(5) Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline or pregnant female and ligaments
epinephrine and noradrenaline or of pelvic girdle during parturition.
norepinephrine. 
Inhibin It inhibits the FSH and GnRH
 (40) Describe, in brief, an account of disorders production.
of adrenal gland.

Ans.
(1) Disorders of adrenal cortical secretions

(42) Why are reproductive organs called dual ovarian follicles. It has many roles in
in function ? stimulation of female reproductive functions
Ans. and growth of ovaries, fallopian tubes,
(1) A pair of testes in males and a pair of uterus and vagina.
ovaries in female both secrete hormones (3) It also controls female secondary sexual
which are essential for sexual characters characteristics like high pitch of voice,
and function. development of mammary glands,
broadening of pelvis, growth of pubic hairs
Chapter 9
(2)
Besides this, they also produce male and
female gametes respectively. Therefore they and deposition of subcutaneous fats to
are said to be dual in function. 
produce feminine stature.
(43) What are male hormones ? What is their (4) The estrogen also regulates female sexual
source and functions ? OR behaviour.

Write a short note on the functions of (5) The empty Graafian follicle after ovulation
androgens. is converted into a structure called corpus
luteum which secretes a hormone known as
Ans.
progesterone. Progesterone is a gestational
(1) Androgens are male hormones. The most
hormone which is essential for maintaining
significant androgen is the testosterone.
the pregnancy. It also acts on the mammary
(2) Interstitial cells of Leydig present in the
glands and stimulates them for lactation,
testis of mature man produce androgen.
milk synthesis and ejection. 
Androgens are steroid in chemical nature.
(45) Why is pancreas called a dual gland ?
(3) Androgens regulate and stimulate the
Ans.
development, maturation and functions of
(1) Pancreas is called a dual gland because it is
the male reproductive organs like
exocrine as well as endocrine in nature.
seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate glands (2) The exocrine pancreas secretes digestive
and urethra. enzymes through acini.
(4) Androgens are male sex hormones. They (3) The endocrine pancreas secretes hormones
produce secondary sexual characteristics. through its endocrine cells called Islets of
Low pitch of voice is produced due to Langerhans. 
changes in the vocal cords which take place (46)

What are the hormones of pancreas
?
due to testosterone, etc. They stimulate Describe the functions of pancreatic
muscular growth and growth of facial and hormones. OR
axillary hairs.
Pancreas plays an important role in
(5) The mental make up of a man like controlling diabetes mellitus. Explain.
aggressiveness is due to testosterone. Ans.
(6) They stimulate seminiferous tubules for the (1) Islets of Langerhans consists of three types
process of spermatogenesis.  of cells known as  -cells,  -cells and  -cells.
(44)
What are female sex hormones
? What (2)  -cells secrete glucagon while  -cells secrete
role do they play ? insulin.  -cells secrete somatostatin.
Ans. (3) The glucagon is a hyperglycemic hormone.
(1) The ovaries secrete two steroid hormones It is a peptide hormone which acts mainly
viz., estrogen and progesterone. on the liver cells. Here it stimulates
(2) The estrogen is secreted by the developing hepatocytes for glycogenolysis (i.e.

breakdown of glycogen) leading to increased plays a major role in maintenance of blood
level of blood glucose (i.e. hyperglycemia). glucose level.
(4) It also stimulates gluconeogenesis (i.e. (7) Insulin stimulates hepatocytes and
formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate adipocytes for cellular glucose uptake and
sources). This in turn brings rise in blood utilization.
glucose level or hyperglycemia. Therefore glucose from the blood decreases
(5)
Glucagon reduces the cellular glucose causing hypoglycemia. This hormone helps
uptake and utilisation. in the conversion of glucose to glycogen (i.e.
Chapter 9
(6) Insulin is also a peptide hormone, which glycogenesis) that occurs in target cells. 
 (47) Name the secretion of alpha, beta and delta cells of islets of Langerhans. Explain their role.
Ans.
Pancreatic islet cells Secretion Functions
Alpha cells Glucagon Stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver
Beta cells Insulin Stimulates glycogenesis in the liver and muscles
Delta cells Somatostatin Inhibits the secretion of glucagon and insulin.
It also decreases the gastric secretions, motility and
absorption in digestive tract.
(48) How is blood glucose level maintained ? person blood glucose levels are high. The
Ans. glucose is excreted in urine.
(1) The blood glucose level is maintained by the (3) The harmful compounds like ketone bodies
joint but antagonistic action of insulin and are formed leading to ketosis.
glucagon. (4) Diabetes can be treated by taking insulin
(2) Insulin is hypoglycemic hormone while injections or tablets (insulin therapy) or
glucagon is hyper / glycemic hormone. with hypoglycemic drugs. 
(3)
When there is excess sugar in the blood, (50)
Where are parathyroid glands located
?
more insulin is secreted by the pancreatic What are their functions
? OR Write a
islets. This causes the conversion of blood short note on the functions of Parathyroid
glucose into glycogen. This process is known hormone (PTH).
as glycogenesis. This causes decline in the Ans.
level of glucose in the blood. (1) Parathyroid glands are located on the back
(4) When there is less blood glucose level then side of the thyroid gland.
the glucagon is secreted. It causes stored (2) There are two pairs of parathyroid glands.
glycogen to be converted into glucose. This One pair of parathyroid is in each lobe of
process is called glycogenolysis.  thyroid.
(49) What happens when there is insufficiency (3)
Parathyroid glands secrete a peptide
or deficiency of insulin in the body ? hormone known as parathromone or
Ans. parathyroid hormone (PTH).
(1) Due to insufficiency of insulin level there is (4) The level of Ca++ in the blood regulates the
prolonged hyperglycemia. This leads to secretion of PTH.
diabetes mellitus. (5) PTH is hypercalcemic hormone, it increases
(2) In this diabetic condition cells are unable to blood calcium level. Thus the calcium
utilize glucose. Therefore, in a diabetic balance is maintained by TCT and PTH. 

 (51) State the site of production and function of Secretin, Gastrin and Cholecystokinin.
Ans.
Hormone Site of production Functions
1. Secretin Duodenal mucosa Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile from
pancreas and liver respectively.
2. Gastrin Gastric mucosa Stimulates gastric glands to secrete gastric juice.
3. Cholecystokinin Duodenal mucosa Stimulates pancreas and gall bladder to release
pancreatic enzymes and bile respectively.
Chapter 9

(52) What are the gastrointestinal hormones ? (2) Erythropoiesis stimulates bone marrow for
Explain the function of each. the production of RBCs. It thus stimulates
Ans. the process of erythropoiesis.
(1) There are scattered endocrine cells in (3) Hormone calcitriol from kidney helps in the
different parts of alimentary canal. formation of bones. 
(2) These cells secrete four peptide hormones (55) Give importance of hypothalamus.
which are gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin
Ans.
(CCK) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP).
(1) Hypothalamus is the controlling centre for
(3)
Gastrin stimulates gastric glands for the
hypophysis.
secretion of hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen. (2)
Hypothalamus secretes releasing factors
(4) The secretin acts on exocrine pancreas and and inhibiting factors and hence regulate
stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate the secretions of hypophysis. E.g.
ions to form pancreatic juice. Adrenocorticotropin hormone releasing
(5) CCK acts on pancreas and gall bladder and factor or CRF; Thyrotropin releasing factor
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic or TSHRF; GHRF and GHRIF, i.e. Growth
enzymes and bile juice respectively. hormone releasing and release inhibiting
(6) GIP inhibit gastric secretion and motility.  factor, etc.
(53) Name the hormone secreted by the heart. (3) Hypothalamus forms the hypothalamo-
What is its function ? hypophyseal axis through which
Ans. transportation of neurohormones take place.
(1) The atrial wall of the heart secrete a peptide (4)
Hormones like vasopressin and oxytocin
hormone known as atrial natriuretic factor are secreted by neurosecretory cells of
(ANF). hypothalamus.
(2)
When the blood pressure increases, ANF (5)
Hypothalamus can register the internal
hormone is secreted. changes in the body as it is a part of
(3) It causes dilation of the blood vessels. diencephalon and thus it accordingly brings
(4)
Blood then can easily flow with lesser about coordination in the body through
resistance and hence BP decreases.  endocrine system. 
(54) What are the hormones of kidney ? What (56) Write a brief account of releasing factors
function do they carry out ? secreted by hypothalamus.
Ans. Ans.
(1) The juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney
(1) In the hypothalamus, there are several
produce a peptide hormone known as
groups of neurosecretory cells which form
erythropoietin.
different nuclei.

(2) These hypothalamic nuclei are supraoptic, stimulating hormone release inhibiting
paraventricular, dorso-median and factor) act on release and regulation of
ventromedian nuclei. These neurosecretory MSH.
cells produce releasing and inhibiting (57) Hormones are called chemical messengers
factors. and regulators. Explain.
(3) The hypothalamic neurohormones regulating Ans.
the release of pituitary hormones are called (1) Hormones bring about coordination in the
releasing factors. The following are some of body with the help of nervous system.
Chapter 9
the important releasing factors :

(2)
Endocrine system and nervous system
(i)
CRF or corticotropin releasing factor or together form neuro-endocrine system.
ACTH releasing factor releases secretion of
(3) This system works in tune with the external
Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH).
and internal environmental changes.
(ii) TRF or TSHRF (Thyroid stimulating
(4) The hormones are either excitatory or
hormone releasing factor) stimulates release
inhibitory. They bring about the actions
of TSH.
accordingly to keep the body in homeostasis
(iii)
FSH RF (Follicle stimulating hormone or equilibrium.
releasing factor) stimulates release of FSH.
(5) Almost all endocrine glands are controlled
(iv)
GHRF (Growth hormone releasing factor) by negative feedback inhibition. Some
GHRIF (Growth hormone release inhibiting glands are auto-regulatory. Therefore, the
factor) act on release and regulation of concentration of hormones cannot be in
growth hormone. excess or in deficiency.
(v)
PRF (Prolactin releasing factor) and PRIF (6) Almost all the functions such as metabolism,
(Prolactin release inhibiting factor) act on growth, reproduction, etc. are under the
release and regulation of prolactin. control of hormones. Therefore hormones
(vi)
MSHRF (Melanocyte stimulating hormone are called regulators and messengers. 
releasing factor) and MSH RIF (Melanocyte
Q. 11. Chart based / Table based questions : (2, 3 or 4 marks)
 (1) Complete the table.

Location Cell type Function
PNS Produce myelin sheath.
PNS Satellite cells
Oligodendrocytes Form myelin sheath around central axon.
CNS Pathogens are destroyed by phagocytosis. (Phagocytose)
CNS Form the epithelial lining of brain cavities and central canal.
Ans.
Location Cell type Function
PNS Schwann cells Produce myelin sheath.
PNS Satellite cells Supply nutrients to surrounding neurons, protect and cushion nearby neurons.
CNS Oligodendrocytes Form myelin sheath around central axon.
CNS Microglia Pathogens are destroyed by phagocytosis. (Phagocytose)
CNS Ependyma cells Form the epithelial lining of brain cavities and central canal.


(2) Draw a flow chart of – steps in generation and conduction of a nerve impulse.
Ans. Application of stimulus on a resting nerve
Permeability of membrance changes and it becomes more permeable to Na 
Na  ions diffuse into the neuron from the ECF
Number of positive ions inside axon increases
Chapter 9
Membrance potential changes from  70 mV to above  30 mV and this
change in the membrane potential is called action potential
Since the polarity has been reversed from negative on outside and positive
inside it is also called depolarization (compared to ECF)
Repolarisation : At the peak of action potential (  30 mV), the Na  channels
close. K  gates open. The membrance becomes more permeable to K 
K  ions diffuse out of the axon
The inside of the membrance (becomes less and less positive) becomes negative one again
Axoplasm inside becomes negatively charged and ECF becomes positively charged respectively

(3)
Enlist the names of following cranial (5) Complete the table.
nerves : I, II, VII, XII No. of
Number Type Region
Ans. pairs
Number NAME NATURE Cervical
I Olfactory Sensory T1 – T12 12 pairs
II Optic Sensory L1 – L5 5 pairs Lower back
VII Facial Mixed Sacral Pelvic
XII hypoglossal Motor Coccygeal Tail region

Ans.
(4)
Enlist the names of following cranial
No. of
nerves : III, IV, VI, XI Number Type Region
pairs
Ans.
C1 – C8 Cervical 8 pairs Neck
Number NAME NATURE
T1 – T12 Thoracic 12 pairs Thorax /
III Occulomotor Motor Upper back
IV Trochlear / Pathetic Motor L1 – L5 Lumbar 5 pairs Lower back
VI Abducens Motor S – S5 Sacral 5 pairs Pelvic
XI Spinal accessory Motor Co1 Coccygeal 1 pair Tail region



(6) Write types of neuroglial cells of CNS and PNS in tabular form.
Ans.
CNS – glial cells PNS – glial cells Functions
Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells Secrete myelin sheath

[cells with few branches]
Astrocytes Satellite cells Protect, cushion and supply

[star-shaped and most abundant nutrients to nearby neurons. Help
Chapter 9
glial cells in CNS] in maintaining blood-brain barrier.
Microglia Macrophages Phagocytosis

[small cells with few branches
Ependymal cells lining the ventricles Ependymal cells lining Secrete cerebrospinal fluid
of brain [mostly columnar] central canal of spinal cord

(7) Enlist the various receptors found at various location in the body.
[Use your brain power ! TB page no. 206]
Ans.
Receptors Types locations
Mechanoreceptors Thermoreceptors Skin
Tango [touch and pressure] receptors Skin
Tactile [light touch] receptors Skin
Chemoreceptors Gustato receptors tongue
Olfacto receptors Olfactory mucosa
Photoreceptors Rod and cone cells Retina of eye
Phonoreceptors Organ of Corti Cochlea of internal ear
Stato receptors Cristae and maculae Semicircular canals, utricle, saccule of

internal ear


(8) Sketch the concept maps for mechanism of vision and mechanism of hearing.
Ans.
(1) Mechanism of vision
The light rays from the objects pass through the cornea and the lens
These rays focused on the retina of the eye
Chapter 9
The rods and the cones of retina contain photopigments
Photopigments are composed of opsin and retinal
The light induces dissociation of retinal from the opsin
It results in changes in the structure of the opsin
This causes the change in the permeability of the retinal cells
It generates action potential
It is carried via bipolar cells and ganglion cells
Then conducted by the optic nerves to the visual cortex of the brain
The neural impulses are analyzed and the image formed on the retina is recognized

(2) Mechanism of hearing
Pinna receives sound waves
Directs them to ear meatus
Tympanum vibrates
Sound waves are transmitted through ear ossicles to oval window
Vibratons cause endolymph to develop ripples in it
These ripples stimulate the hair cells of basilar membrane to press against tectorial membrane
This generates action potential in the afferent neuron
It takes the nerve impulse to brain via auditory nerve
Sound is interpreted in the auditory centre of brain



(9) Complete the table given below by putting 3. Hypoglossal Motor Movement of
a tick () in the boxes where applicable. tongue
No. Action Reflex Voluntary 4. Trigeminal Mixed Sensation of touch,
1. Touching a hot object taste and jaw
2. Releasing saliva on movements
smelling food 5. Auditory Sensory Hearing and
3. Applying a car’s equilibrium
brakes in an emergency 6. Glosso- Mixed Taste, pharyngeal
Chapter 9
4. linking of eyes when

B pharyngeal contractions and
a small insect touches saliva secretion
the eye 
Ans.
Q. 12. Diagram based questions :
No. Action Reflex Voluntary
(2, 3 or 4 marks)
1. Touching a hot
 (1) Sketch and label – nerve net of Hydra.
object
2. Releasing saliva Ans.

on smelling food
3. Applying a car’s can be a
brakes in an conditioned 
emergency feclex too.
4. linking of eyes
B
when a small

insect touches
the eye

Fig. Nerve net in Hydra

(10) Complete the following table :
Type of 
No. Name Function
nerve (2)
Sketch and label
– nervous system of
1. Optic nerve Planaria
2. Facial Ans.
3. Hypoglossal
4. Trigeminal
5. Auditory
6. Glosso-
pharyngeal
Ans.
Type of
No. Name Function
nerve
1. Optic nerve Sensory Sense of vision
and light
2. Facial Mixed Facial expression,
Fig. Ladder type nervous system in Flatworms
movement of neck,
e.g. Planaria
tongue, etc. and

saliva secretion

Draw
 (3) the neat labelled diagram of Ans. Yes. As far as impulse is transmitted by
Multipolar Neuron. pre-synaptic neuron, it will be received by
Ans. post-synaptic neuron.
e.
Can you name the channel responsible
for their transmission ?
Ans. Ca++ channel 
(5)
Sketch and label
– depolarization and
Chapter 9
repolarization along nerve.
Ans.

 (4) Answer the questions after observing the

diagram given below.
Fig. Depolarization and repolarization along a nerve

(6)
Sketch and label ultrastructure of
synapse.
Ans.
a. What do the synaptic vesicles contain ?

Ans. Synaptic vesicles contain a
neurotransmitter – acetyl choline.
b.
What process is used to release the
neurotransmitter ?
Ans. Exocytosis.
c.
What should be the reason for the next
impulse to be conducted ?
Ans. Removal of neurotransmitter by the action
of acetyl cholinesterase.
Fig. Ultrastructure of synapse
d.
Will the impulse be carried by post

synaptic membrane even if one pre-
synaptic neuron is there ?

(7) Sketch and label – lateral view of brain.  (10) Draw the neat labelled diagram of sagittal
Ans. section or L.S. of human brain.
Ans.
Chapter 9
Fig. L. S. of human brain 
Fig. Lateral view of brain 

(11) Sketch and label – ventricles of brain.
(8)
Sketch and label
– functional areas of Ans.
brain
Ans.
Fig. Ventricles of brain 
(12) Sketch and label T.S. of spinal cord.

Fig. Functional areas of brain 
Ans.
(9) Sketch and label – ventral view of human
brain
Ans.
Fig. T. S. of spinal cord 
(13)
Sketch and label – formation of spinal
nerve.
Ans.
Fig. Ventral view of human brain 
Fig. Formation of spinal nerve 

 (14) Draw the neat labelled diagram of Human
ear.
Ans.

Chapter 9
Fig. Schematic representation of
Fig. Structure of human ear 
action of hormones 
 Draw
(15) the neat labelled diagram of (17) Sketch and label – V.S. of pituitary.
Sectional view of human eye.
Ans.
Ans.
Fig. V. S. of pituitary gland 

Fig. Structure of human eye 
(18) Sketch and label – morphology of thyroid
(16) Sketch and label – mechanism of hormone
Ans.
action.
Ans.
Fig. Morphology of thyroid gland 
Fig. Schematic representation of action of hormones

(19) Sketch and label – histology of thyroid (22) Sketch and label – adrenal gland.
Ans. Ans.
Chapter 9
Fig. Histology of thyroid gland 
Fig. Adrenal glands

(20) Sketch and label – parathyroid glands 
Ans. Q. 13. Long answer questions :

(4 marks each)
(1)
Explain transmission of nerve impulse
across a synapse. OR

Explain how is impulse transmitted
through a synapse ?
Ans.
(1) The nerve impulse travels along the axon of
the pre-synaptic neuron to the axon
terminal.
Fig. Parathyroid glands  (2) Pre-synaptic neurons or axons have several
(21) Sketch and label thymus. synaptic knobs at their ends or terminals.
Ans. (3) These knobs have membranous sacs, called

synaptic vesicles having neurotransmitter
molecules.
(4) When an impulse reaches a synaptic knob,
voltage sensitive Ca++ channels open and
calcium ions (Ca++) diffuse inward from the
extracellular fluid.
(5) The increased calcium concentration inside
the cells, initiates a series of events that
Fig. T. S. of thymus gland  help to fuse the synaptic vesicles with the
cell membrane of pre-synaptic neuron,
where they release their neurotransmitters
by exocytosis.
(6) The neurotransmitters bind to the receptors
of the post-synaptic cell,
(7) This action is either excitatory (stimulating)
or inhibitory (slowing down/stopping).

(8) Once the impulse has been transferred (6) On the outer surface current flows from site
across the synapse, the enzyme like acetyl B to site A to complete the circuit of current
cholinesterase destroys the flow. Hence, the polarity at the site is
neurotransmitter and the synapse is ready reversed, and an action potential is
to receive a new impulse.  generated at site B. Thus, the impulse
(2)
Explain transmission of nerve impulse (action potential) generated at site A arrives
along the axon. OR at site B.
(7) The sequence is repeated along the length

Describe the conduction of a nerve
Chapter 9
of the axon and consequently the impulse is
impulse in the neuron.
conducted.
(8) The rise in the stimulus-induced permeability
Ans.
to Na+ is extremely short-lived. It is quickly
(1) Before conduction of nerve impulse, the cell
followed by a rise in permeability to K+.
membrane is in the polarized state.
Within a fraction of a second, K+ diffuses
(9)
(2) When a stimulus is applied at a site on the outside the membrane and restores the
polarised membrane, the membrane at that resting potential of the membrane at the
site becomes freely permeable to Na+. site of excitation and the fibre becomes once
(3) This leads to a rapid influx of Na+ followed more responsive to further stimulation. 
by the reversal of the polarity at that site, (3) Explain the structure of cerebrum.
i.e., the outer surface of the membrane Ans. Structure of cerebrum :
becomes negatively charged and the inner
(1) Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It
side becomes positively charged.
forms 80 – 85% volume of the brain.
(4) The polarity of the membrane at that site (2) A median longitudinal fissure divides the
[site A] is thus reversed and hence cerebrum into two cerebral hemispheres.
depolarised. The electrical potential These hemispheres are interconnected by a
difference across the plasma membrane at thick band of transverse nerve fibres called
the site of stimulation is called the action corpus callosum.
potential, which is in fact termed as a (3) The outer part of cerebrum is called cerebral
nerve impulse. cortex while the inner part is called cerebral
(5) At sites immediately ahead [site B], the axon medulla.
membrane has a positive charge on the (4) The roof of cerebrum is called pallium.
outer surface and a negative charge on its Pallium is highly folded forming sulci and
inner surface. As a result, a current flows gyri. Sulci are depressions while gyri are
on the inner surface from site A to site B. ridges. The gyri increase the surface area of
cerebral cortex.
(5) The ventro-lateral walls of cerebrum are
thickened and are called corpora striata.
(6) The cerebral cortex has three deep sulci,
the central, lateral and parieto-occipital.
(7) These sulci divide the cerebral hemisphere
into four lobes. These are frontal, parietal,
occipital and temporal lobes. A fifth median
lobe called insula or insular cortex is
folded deep within the lateral sulcus.

2)Control 145
(8) The central sulcus separates frontal and and inner grey matter. Pons is made up of
parietal lobes, the lateral sulcus separates nerve fibres which form bridges between
parietal and temporal lobes and the parieto- cerebrum and medulla oblongata.
occipital sulcus separates parietal and (6)
Medulla oblongata is the last part of the
occipital lobe. 
hindbrain which continues further as a
(4)
Describe the structure and function of spinal cord. It has outer white and inner
midbrain. grey matter.
(7) Its roof shows has posterior choroid plexus.
Chapter 9
Ans. 1. Structure of midbrain :

(8)
Eight pairs of cranial nerves arise from
(1)
Midbrain is the middle part of the brain medulla oblongata. 
situated between the forebrain and the
(6) Describe T.S. of spinal cord.
hindbrain. It is present between the pons
Ans.
varolii and diencephalon.
(1) Externally there are three meninges covering
(2) It has two distinct regions :
Corpora
quadrigemina and crura cerebri. spinal cord : Duramater, arachnoid
membrane and pia mater.
(3) Corpora quadrigemina consists of two pairs
of lobes, viz., superior colliculi and inferior (2) Dorsoventrally there are two fissures, the
colliculi. These are located in the thick wall shallow dorsal or posterior fissure and the
of midbrain. deeper ventral or anterior fissure.
(4) Crura cerebri are thick bands of longitudinal (3) From dorsal fissure a dorsal septum extends
nerve fibres, present on the floor of inside.
midbrain. (4) Neurocoel or central canal is situated in the
2. Functions of midbrain : centre of spinal cord.
(1) Inferior colliculi control and coordinate (5) The central canal is filled with cerebro-
auditory reflexes. spinal fluid and is lined by cuboidal
(2)
Superior colliculi control head and eye epithelial cells called layer of ependyma.
movements. (6) There is inner grey and outer white matter
(3)
Crura cerebri connect the cerebrum to in the spinal cord. This grey matter is in the
cerebellum and spinal cord.  shape of ‘H’ with two dorsolateral horns
(5) Give an account of structure of hindbrain. and two ventro-lateral horns.
Ans. Structure of hindbrain : (7) Dorsal horns form dorsal roots and ventral
(1) Hindbrain includes cerebellum, pons varolii horns form ventral roots.
and medulla oblongata. (8) White matter is divided into three columns,
(2) Cerebellum is 11% of the total brain and is viz., the dorsal funiculi, ventral funiculi and
the second largest part of the brain. lateral funiculi on either side.
(3) It has three lobes, median vermis and lateral (9) Ascending and descending tracts of nerve
two cerebral hemispheres. It has outer grey fibres arise from dorsal and ventral roots of
and inner white matter. the spinal cord. Ascending tracts are sensory
(4)
Cerebral cortex shows sulci and gyri. The while descending tracts are motor in nature.
inner white matter of cerebellar medulla 
shows arbor vitae or branching tree-like  (7) Explain the Reflex Pathway with the help
processes. of a neat labelled diagram. OR
(5)
Pons is the part that connects the two
With the help of a neat and labelled
cerebral hemispheres. It has outer white diagram, describe reflex arc.

Ans. (5) Effector organ :
Effector organ is a
specialized part of the body which is excited
by receiving the motor impulse. It gives
proper response to the stimulus, e.g.
muscles or glands. The path of reflex action
is followed by the unidirectional impulse. It
originates in the receptor organ and ends in
effector organ through CNS. 
Chapter 9
(8) What are the different types of reflexes ?
Ans.
Fig. Reflex arc 1. Based on the location of their action : The
Reflex action : Reflex action is defined as a
1. reflexes are divided into somatic reflexes
quick, automatic involuntary and often and visceral reflexes.
unconscious action brought about when the (1) When effector is located in body structures
receptors are stimulated by external or such as skeletal muscles, it is called a
internal stimuli. somatic reflex.
Reflex arc : Reflex actions are controlled by
2. (2) When the effector is located in the visceral
CNS. Reflex arc is the structural or functional organs such as glands or smooth muscles
unit of reflex action. Simple reflex arc is then it is called a visceral reflex.
formed of the following five components. 2. Based on the basis of number of neurons :
Receptor organ : The sensory part that
(1) Reflexes are of two types, viz. monosynaptic
receives the stimulus is called receptor reflexes and polysynaptic reflexes.
organ. It can be any sense organ that (1) Simple or monosynaptic reflexes are those
receives the stimulus and converts it into in which one sensory and one motor neuron
the impulse. e.g. skin, eye, ear, tongue, nasal are involved in the reflex action.
epithelium, etc. (2) Polysynaptic or complex reflexes are those
Sensory

(2) neuron or afferent neuron
: when more than two neurons are involved
Sensory part carrying impulse from receptor in the reflex action.
organ to CNS is called sensory neuron. Its 3.
Based on inheritance and experience of
cyton is located in dorsal root ganglion. Its learning : The reflexes are subdivided into
dendron is long and connected to receptor unconditional or inborn and conditional or
while the axon enters in the grey matter of acquired.
spinal cord to form a synapse. (1) Unconditional or inborn reflexes are inborn
(3) Association, adjustor or intermediate or hereditary. They are permanent, never
neuron : It is present in the grey matter of disappear and need no previous experience,
spinal cord. Receiving impulse from sensory e.g. blinking of eyes, suckling, swallowing,
neuron, interpreting it and generating motor knee jerk, sneezing, coughing, etc.
impulse are done by association neuron. (2)
Conditional or acquired reflexes are
(4) Motor neuron (effector)
: The cyton of acquired during life by experience or
motor neuron is present in the ventral horn learning. They are based on individual
of grey matter and axon travels through learning or experience. These are not
ventral root. It conducts motor impulse heritable, temporary and may disappear or
from spinal cord to effector organ. reappear, e.g. driving, cycling, etc. 

(9) Explain the mechanism of reflex action. (10) Define receptors. Enlist different types of
Ans.
Mechanism of reflex action : There are receptors.
series of sequential events in which reflex Ans.
action is completed. 1. Receptors : Receptors are specialized cells,
(1) Stimulus is picked up by any receptors, e.g. tissues or organs present in the body which
pricking of a needle in the hand, causes receive different stimuli.
skin to be a receptor. 2. Types of receptors :
Chapter 9
(2) Sensory impulse is formed in grey matter of (1) Receptors are of two types, viz. exteroceptors
spinal cord. It receives sensory impulse, and interoceptors.
interprets it and generates motor impulse. (2) Exteroceptors receive stimuli directly from
(3) The cyton of motor neuron present in the the external environment. They are somatic
ventral horn of grey matter and axon in nature.
conducts motor impulse from spinal cord (3) Interoceptors are located inside the body
to effector organ. This is further carried by and are visceral in nature. They respond to
dendrites innervating the skin. internal changes in the body.
(4) Impulse is carried to the association neuron (4) The various types of exteroceptors and
by axon of sensory neuron, when impulse interoceptors, their location and functions
reaches the end of the axon there is a have been summarized in the table given
synapse. below :
(5) Transmission takes place by releasing Types of
No. Location Function
acetylcholine from the synaptic buttons at Exteroceptors
the end of the axon. 1. Mechanoreceptors Touch Tangoreceptors

corpuscles Pressure
(6) It fills the synaptic gap and helps in chemical
in skin Tactile receptors-
transmission of the impulse from axon of Touch
one neuron to dendron of the other neuron. 2. Thermoreceptors Skin Frigido receptors
Once the impulse reaches the dendrites of (cold)
association neuron; axonic button releases Heat receptors
(warmth)
an enzyme, acetylcholine esterase which
neutralizes the acetylcholine and again a 3. Chemoreceptors Tongue, Gustatoreceptors –
nasal Taste
synaptic gap is formed. This mechanism
mucosa Olfactoreceptors-
helps to receive new impulse or avoid the Smell
mixing of different impulses. 4. Statoacoustic Internal Cochlea – Hearing
(7) The association neuron receives sensory receptors ear Semicircular
canals–Balance and
impulse, interprets it, analyses it and
equilibrium
generates motor impulse. Motor impulse
5. Photoreceptors Retina of Rods and cones
again travels through synapse between
the eye interpret images
association neuron and motor neuron. Rods – black and
(8) Impulse travels through motor neuron and white image.
Sensitive to dim
reaches the effector organ like skeletal
light.
muscles or the gland. The effector organ Cones – Coloured
gives a proper response like contraction of image. Sensitive to
the muscles or secretion by the gland.  bright light.


(11)
Describe the different parts of human and cones are absent therefore this region
eye. OR is known as blind spot. Macula lutea, a
Describe briefly the structure of eye. yellowish pigmented spot is present lateral
Ans. to the blind spot.
(1) Human eyes are a pair of organs located in (13)
Fovea is a central pit present beside it.
sockets of the skull called orbits. Fovea is a thinned out portion of the retina
(2) Eyeball is spherical and has three layers. where only the cones are densely packed
and therefore have greatest visual acuity
Chapter 9
(3) Sclera is the outer layer of dense connective
(resolution).
tissue with anterior transparent cornea.
(14) A space between the cornea and the lens is
(4) Choroid is the middle layer. It is bluish in
called aqueous chamber. It contains a thin
colour containing many blood vessels. The
watery fluid known as aqueous humor.
anterior region is thick and forms the ciliary
body. Posterior 2/3rd region is thinner.
(5) Iris is the forward segment of the ciliary
body which is pigmented and opaque. This
part is the visible coloured portion of the
eye.
(6) Lens is present anteriorly inside the iris
and is held in position by the ligaments of
ciliary body.
(7) The aperture surrounded by the iris in front
Fig.
of the lens is known as pupil. The movement

of the pupil is regulated by the muscle fibres
of iris. (12) Describe the internal structure of human
ear. OR
(8) The innermost layer of the eye is the retina
having three sub-layers formed by ganglion Ear is one of the important sense organs
cells, bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells, known for its role in hearing and
which are sensitive to light. balancing. Describe those structures
present in the internal ear which helps in
(9) There are two types of photoreceptor cells,
these functions.
viz. rods and cones containing light sensitive
proteins. They are termed as photo Ans.
pigments, rhodopsin which is a derivative (1) The ears are the auditory sensory organs,
of vitamin A (in rods) and iodopsin (in also involved in maintaining equilibrium of
cones). the body.
(10) The cones are responsible for daylight or (2) The ear is composed of three divisions
photopic vision and colour vision. The rods namely the outer ear, middle ear and
function in dim light giving scotopic vision. internal ear.
(11) The cones are of three types, each containing (3) The external ear consists of the pinna and
its own characteristic photopigments that external auditory meatus (canal). The pinna
respond to red, green and blue lights. is for the collection of sound waves coming
(12) The optic nerve leaves the eye at a point from the environment. The external auditory
slightly away from the median posterior canal is the circular tube leading inside up
pole of the eyeball. In this region, the rods to the eardrum or tympanic membrane.

(4) The tympanic membrane or eardrum is (13) Above the cochlea, the internal ear also
formed of connective tissues having outer contains vestibular apparatus. It consists of
skin cover and inner mucus membrane. three semicircular canals and the otolith
(5) The middle ear consists of chain of three organ formed of the sacculus and utriculus.
ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes. The semicircular canals lie in different
The malleus is attached to the tympanic plane at right angles to each other and are
membrane and the stapes is connected to suspended in the perilymph.
the oval window of the internal ear. They
Chapter 9
help in the transmission of sound waves

from external auditory canal to internal ear.
(6) Connecting middle ear with the pharynx is
eustachian tube which helps in equalizing
the air pressure on either side of the
tympanic membrane.
(7) The internal ear is fluid filled structure
called labyrinth. It has two parts, bony and
the membranous labyrinth.
(8) The outer bony labyrinth is formed by the Fig. Cross section of Cochlea
series of channels in which the membranous
(14) The bases of canals are swollen and are
labyrinth containing endolymph fluid is called ampullae, which contain a projecting
present. ridge known as crista ampullaris which
(9) The membranes consist of coiled cochlea, contain hair cells.
the reissner’s membrane and basilar (15) The sacculus and utriculus also have
membranes. These membranes divide the projecting ridge called macula. The crista
surrounding perilymph filled bony labyrinth and macula are the specific receptors of
into an upper scala vestibule and a lower vestibular apparatus. They are responsible
scala tympani. for maintenance of body posture and the
balance. 
(10) The space within cochlea which is known as
scala media is filled with endolymph. The * (13)
Explain action of steroid hormones and
proteinous hormones. OR
scala vestibule ends at the oval window at
the base of cochlea.
Explain the mode of action of steroid
hormones.
(11) The scala tympani terminates at the round
window which opens to the middle ear. The
Ans. The hormones always act on their target
organ of corti is located on the basilar
organs or tissues to induce their effects.
membrane. It contains the hair cells which
The target tissues have specific binding
act as auditory receptors.
sites or receptor sites which contain
(12) The hair cells are columnar cells present in hormone receptors.
rows. The basal ends of the hair cells are in
I. Steroid hormones :
close contact with the afferent nerve fibres
1. The steroid hormones are lipid soluble and
while their apical end contains numerous
can easily cross the lipoproteinous plasma
cilia. A thin elastic membrane projects membrane.
above the rows of the hair cells called
2. The hormone receptors for steroid hormones
tectorial membrane. are present in cytoplasm or in nucleus.

3.
Hormone-receptor complex formed in 4.
E.g. If thyroxine from thyroid gland is
cytoplasm enters the nucleus and regulate secreted in excess, the secretion of TSH
the gene expression or chromosome from pituitary is stopped by stopping the
function. production of TRF from hypothalamus.
4. In some cases the receptors are present 5. Though most of the endocrine glands are
inside the nucleus where hormone receptor under the influence of pituitary gland, it is
complex is formed. in turn controlled by hypothalamus.
5. These complexes interact with the genome 6.
Chapter 9
to evoke biochemical changes that result in and inhibiting factors and hence regulate
physiological and developmental functions. the secretions of pituitary (hypophysis).
II. Protein hormones : 7. There is negative feedback mechanism in
1. The hormone receptors for protein controlling the secretions of the endocrine
hormones are present on the cell membrane glands.
(i.e. membrane bound receptors).
8.
Hypothalamus forms the hypothalamo-
2. When the hormone binds to its receptor, it hypophyseal axis through which
forms hormone-receptor complex. Each
transportation of neurohormones take
receptor is specific to a specific hormone.
place.
3. The hormones which interact with
Following are the releasing and inhibiting
membrane bound receptors normally do
factors produced by hypothalamus :
not enter the target cell but generate second
(1) Somatotropin / GHRF : It stimulates release
messengers. Such as cyclic AMP, Ca++ or IP
of growth hormone.
(Inositol triphosphate), etc.
4. This leads to certain biochemical changes (2) Somatostatin / GHRIF : It inhibits the
in the target tissue. release of growth hormone.
5. Thus, the tissue metabolism and (3) Adrenocorticotropin Releasing Hormone

consequently the physiological functions are / CRF : It stimulates the release of ACTH by
regulated by hormones.  the anterior pituitary gland.
*
(14)
Explain the role of hypothalamus and (4) Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone / TRF : It
pituitary as a coordinated unit in stimulates the release of TSH by anterior
maintaining homeostasis. pituitary gland.
Ans. (5) Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
1.
Homeostasis is maintenance of constant (GnRH) : It stimulates pituitary to secrete
internal environment of the body. gonadotropins.
2. When certain hormones from any endocrine (6) Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone
glands are secreted in excess quantity, the (Prolactostatin) : It inhibits prolactin
inhibiting factors from hypothalamus, released by anterior pituitary gland.
automatically exert negative feedback and Gastrin Releasing Peptide (GRP).
(7)
stop the production of stimulating hormones Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (GIP).
(8) 
from pituitary. (15) Write an account of position and structure

3. Similarly, if any hormone is in deficit, then of pituitary gland.
the concerned gland is given message Ans. Pituitary gland (Hypophysis) :
through releasing factor. This way the
I. Position : Pituitary or Hypophysis is located
hormone production remains in a balanced
on the ventral side of brain below the
state or homeostasis.
hypothalamus. Infundibulum or hypophyseal

stalk attaches pituitary to hypothalamus just (ii) Infundibulum : Infundibulum is the
behind the optic chiasma. It is well protected hypophyseal stalk that helps in attachment
in sella turcica which is a depression of the of pituitary gland to the hypothalamus. It
sphenoid bone of the skull. contains mainly the axonic fibres of
II.
Morphological structure of pituitary neurosecretory cells present in
gland : The pituitary gland shows two hypothalamus. It forms the major connection
distinct regions
: Anterior lobe or of hypothalamo-hypophysis axis.
adenohypophysis and posteriorlobe or (iii) Pars nervosa : The lowermost, larger region
Chapter 9
neuro-hypophysis. of neuro-hypophysis that contains axons is

called pars nervosa. It acts as a neurohaemal
(1) Adenohypophysis or Anterior lobe : It is
organ and contains specialized cells called
the largest lobe of the gland and forms
pituicytes. 
about 75% of pituitary gland. It develops as
(16)
In a person, Pars distalis part of the
an outgrowth called Rathke’s pouch from
Pituitary gland is not producing hormones
the roof of embryonic buccal cavity. It has
in sufficient quantity. Explain the effects
three divisions, viz. pars tuberalis, pars
it will produce with respect to the different
distalis and pars intermedia.
hormones. OR
(i)
Pars tuberalis : Tubular region present
Give names and functions of hormones
below the hypothalamus is known as pars
secreted by adenohypophysis.
tuberalis. It is like a collar around the
infundibulum. It is non-secretory in nature.
Ans. Pars distalis of the pituitary gland produces
(ii)
Pars distalis : The largest anterior region
following hormones :
which is secretory in nature is called pars
GH, ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH/ICSH, LTH and
distalis. It is made up of loose cords of
MSH. If these hormones are produced in
epitheloid secretory cells which are
deficient quantities, following disorders are
separated by reticular connective tissue
seen.
containing blood sinusoids. It is connected
1. GH :
to the hypothalamus by portal system
(a) Hyposecretion of GH in childhood leads to
formed by blood sinusoids.
dwarfism. Frohlich dwarf or Lorain dwarf
(iii) Pars intermedia : The narrow cleft between
may be produced based on mental capacity.
the pars distalis and pars nervosa of neuro-
Hyposecretion in adulthood causes
hypophysis is called the intermediate part
Simmonds’s disease.
or pars intermedia. It is reduced, less
(b) Hypersecretion of GH in childhood causes
developed and non-functional in human
gigantism and in adulthood it causes
being.
acromegaly.
(2) Neuro-hypophysis or Posterior lobe : The
2. TSH :
posterior lobe of the pituitary which is
(a)
Hyposecretion of TSH leads to thyroid
attached to hypothalamus by infundibular
atrophy.
stalk is called neuro-hypophysis. It is
(b)
Hypersecretion of TSH causes excessive
smaller and constitute 25% of pituitary. It
functioning of thyroid gland.
has the following three parts :
3. ACTH :
(i) Median eminence : The swollen median
(a)
Hyposecretion of ACTH causes Addisons’
part of the hypothalamus where
disease, in which adrenal gland shows
infundibulum gets attached is called median
failure of functions.
eminence.

(b)
Hypersecretion of ACTH causes Cushing’s (6) ADH is regulated by increase or decrease of
disease, in which the adrenal cortex osmotic pressure of blood in a feedback
undergoes excessive growth. manner.
4. FSH : Hyposecretion of FSH leads to (7) The osmotic pressure is detected by
infertility in both the sexes. Hypersecretion osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
of FSH in females cause disturbances in 2. Oxytocin (Birth hormone) :
menstrual cycle. (1) Oxytocin helps in parturition.
5. LH/ICSH : Hyposecretion of LH in females
Chapter 9
(2) It is a powerful stimulant of contraction of
will cause lack of ovulation. Hyposecretion uterine myometrium at the end of gestation
of ICSH in males cause reduction in due to which the labour is initiated.
masculinity. Sperm production may be
(3) It also stimulates myoepithelial cells of
affected. Hypersecretion of LH/ICSH can
mammary glands for milk ejection during
cause disturbances in reproductive cycles.
lactation.
6. LTH : Corpus luteum is not maintained due
(4) It also helps in fertilization by powerful
to lesser amount of LTH. Lactogenesis will
contractions of the uterine musculature to
also hamper if there is hyposecretion of
drive the sperms upward towards fallopian
LTH. 
tubes.

(17)
Describe the hormones of neuro-
(5) Oxytocin also excites musculature of
hypophysis.
gallbladder, ureters, urinary bladder,

Ans.
Hormones of neuro-hypophysis
: Neuro- intestine, etc. for proper functioning of these
hypophysis does not secrete any hormone organs.
itself but stores the hormones which are
3. Coherin : Coherin induces prolonged,
secreted by hypothalamic neurons. It stores
rhythmic integrated contractions of the
and releases the following hormones, viz.
jejunum. 
ADH, Oxytocin and coherin.
(18) Describe the morphology of thyroid gland.
1.
Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH) or
Or With the help of a suitable diagram
Vasopressin :
describe the structure of thyroid gland.
(1) ADH brings about anti-diuretic action and [Can you tell ? TB page no. 214]
also increases blood pressure.
Ans. Morphology of thyroid gland :
(2) It is a regulatory hormone which plays a
(1) Thyroid is the largest endocrine gland in
major role in osmoregulation. the body.
(3) It increases the permeability of distal (2) It weighs about 25 to 30 g and measures
convoluted tubule or collecting tubules of about 5 cm in length and 3 cm in width.
uriniferous tubules of kidney.
(3) It is located in the neck region anteriorly
(4) Higher ADH levels decrease the urine output just below the larynx and situated
and helps for water conservation. It helps in ventrolaterally to the trachea.
the absorption of water from the ultrafiltrate (4) The thyroid is derived from the endoderm
thus regulates the water balance of body of the embryo.
fluids. (5) The thyroid can vary in size as per age, sex
(5) ADH also controls constriction of arterioles and diet.
and increases blood pressure in kidney (6) It is reddish brown, bilobed and highly
which facilitates ultra filtration. Therefore it vascular gland.
is also called vasopressin.

(7) The two lobes are joined by connective (4) As the pituitary does not get the signal in
tissue called isthmus which is located at the form of TRF, TSH secretion is
2nd to 4th tracheal cartilage. stopped. 
(8) Therefore, the right and left lobe of thyroid (20)

Name the hormones secreted by the
are seen on both sides of the trachea. adrenal cortex and state their role.
(9) The gland is H-shaped having butterfly-like [Can you tell ? TB page no. 216]
appearance. Ans. Adrenal cortex secretes 3 types of corticoids –
(10) The structural and functional units of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and sex
Chapter 9
thyroid gland are the thyroid follicles. corticoids.

(11) From the outer surface there lies a connective I. Mineralocorticoids :
tissue capsule. A number of septa arise (1) The mineralocorticoids regulate ionic and
from the connective tissue which are called
osmotic balance, by regulating the amounts
trabeculae. They divide the gland into
of electrolyte and water.
lobules. Each lobule has follicles which
(2) Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid
store hormone. The number of follicles are
that acts on the renal tubules.
about three million. 
(3) Aldosterone stimulates the re-absorption of
(19)
Describe neurohormonal regulation of
Na  and water and excretion of K  and
pituitary and thyroid gland.
phosphate ions.
(4) The aldosterone helps in the maintenance
Ans. Pituitary gland is directly under the influence
of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic
of neurohormones of hypothalamus while
pressure and blood pressure.
thyroid is indirectly influenced.
II. Glucocorticoids :
I. Neurohormonal regulation of pituitary :
(1) Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid. Cortisol
(1)
stimulates many metabolic reactions such
and inhibiting factors and hence regulate
the secretions of pituitary (hypophysis) . as gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and
proteinolysis.

(2)
Hypothalamus forms the
hypothalamohypophysial axis through (2) It inhibits cellular uptake and utilization of
which transportation of neuro-hormones amino acids.
take place. (3)
Cortisol also plays an important role in
(3)
Pituitary secretes a variety of hormones maintaining the cardiovascular system and
which influence other endocrine glands of kidney functions.
the body. E.g. GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, (4) It is also involved in anti-inflammatory
Gonadotropins reactions and suppresses the immune
II. Neurohormonal regulation of thyroid : response.
(1)
Hypothalamus secretes TRF [Thyrotropin (5) Cortisol stimulates the RBC production.
releasing factor] which influences the III. Sex corticoids (Gonadocorticoids).

anterior pituitary to release TSH. (1)
Sex corticoids, Androgens and estradiols
(2) TSH in turn stimulates thyroid follicles to are produced by the adrenal cortex.
produce and release two thyroid hormones – (2) In males, they have a role in development
T3 and T4. (Thyroxin) and maintenance of external sex characters.
(3) Increase in T3 and T4 triggers negative (3)
Excess sex corticoids in female causes
feedback mechanism that stops the secretion adrenal virilism and hirsutism (excess hair
of TRF. on face)

(4)
Excess sex corticoids in males causes catecholamines like adrenaline and nor-
gynaecomastia i.e. enlarged breast.  adrenaline.
(5) Ovary : Secretes oestrogen, progesterone,
relaxin and inhibin.
(TB page no. 207) (6) Testis : Secretes androgens like
(1)
Identify the glands and state their testosterone.
functions. (TB page no. 217)
Chapter 9
(2) Categorise given activities into appropriate
type of reflex action.
Swimming
Dancing
Cycling
Salivation
Blinking of eyes
Sneezing
Ans.
Activities Types of Reflexes
Ans.
Swimming Conditional
Pituitary : Secretion of a variety of protein
(1)
hormones like GH, TSH, ACTH, PRL and Dancing Conditional
Gonadotropins which control other Cycling Conditional
endocrine glands
Salivation Unconditional, conditional *
(2) Thyroid : Secrete 3 hormones – T3, T4
Blinking of eyes Unconditional
(thyroxin) and Thyrocalcitonin
Sneezing Unconditional
Thymus : Secretes thymosin.
(3)
Adrenal : Adrenal cortex secretes corticoids
(4) * Salivation while eating is unconditional reflex,

like mineralocorticoid, glucocorticoid and while salivation at the sight and smell of food is
sex corticoids. Adrenal medulla secretes conditional.

(3) Prepare concept map of mechanism of hearing.
Ans. Mechanism of hearing
Pinna receives sound waves
Directs them to ear meatus

Chapter 9
Tympanum vibrates
Sound waves are transmitted through ear ossicles to oval window
Vibratons cause endolymph to develop ripples in it
These ripples stimulate the hair cells of basilar membrane to press against tectorial membrane
This generates action potential in the afferent neuron
It takes the nerve impulse to brain via auditory nerve
Sound is interpreted in the auditory centre of brain
(3) One of the accepted theories for this is

deficiency of thyroid hormones, T3 and T4
(TB page no. 213) (due to deficiency of TSH) i.e., they lack
l African pygmies are diminutive. Is it due thyroxin which causes cretin like condition
to lack of GH, thyroxin or absence of in them, resulting in diminutive size.
thyroxin receptors on their cell surface ?
Ans.
(1) African pygmies are diminutive, i.e. short l
Prepare animated powerpoint presentation
statured. to explain mechanisms of hormonal action.
(2) There are several theories which explain this.
1. Neurons in human body : https://human-memory.net

2. Cranial capacity used by an average human : https://www.wired.com
3. Ratio between neurons and neuroglia :
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov https://blogs.scientificamerican.com
4. Role of the foramina present on the roof of medulla oblongata : https://en.m.wikipedia.org
5. Ataxia : https://ataxia.org
6. Category of taste called Umami : https://en.m.wikipedia.org
7. Eye donation : https://www.aurolab.com / nhp.gov.in
8. Negative and positive feedback of hormone action : https://www.ck12.org
9. Simmond’s disease : https://www.britannica.com
10. Gorilla rib : https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

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Based on the New Textbook

First Edition : 2020

★ Navneet Bhavan, Bhavani Shankar Road, Dadar (West),

Published by : Navneet Education Limited, Dantali, Gujarat. 2001

8. Respiration and Circulation … 5

9. Control and Coordination … 75

10. Human Health and Diseases … 157

11. Enhancement of Food Production … 207

12. Biotechnology … 254

13. Organisms and Population … 289

14. Ecosystems and Energy Flow … 317

15. Biodiversity, Conservation and Environmental Issues … 349

Chapter No. 1 to 7 are included in Navneet Biology Digest : Part 1,

8.0 Respiration and are usually associated with a transport

8. Respiration and Circulation 5

warm and moist in this region.

6 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

8. Respiration and Circulation 7

Table : Pulmonary volumes and capacities :

8 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

8. Respiration and Circulation 9

10 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

8. Respiration and Circulation 11

12 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

are present in the intact blood vessels. But 1. 

8. Respiration and Circulation 13

5. Pericardium : Double layered membrane, (7) 

14 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

8. Respiration and Circulation 15

3. Heartbeat, pulse and cardiac output : (5) 

16 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

8. Respiration and Circulation 17

like extreme chest pain, hypertension, 2. 

5. Waves of ECG and their significance :

8.18 Lymphatic system Thoracic or left lymphatic duct and right

18 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

during breathing in addition to T.V. is (a) P (b) QRS complex (c) Q (d) T

(a) internal respiration (a) Bohr’s effect

20 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

(a) Leucopoiesis (b) Leukopenia (c) Ligamentum arteriosum

(c) Leucocytosis (d) Leukaemia (d) Ductus arteriosus

(a) Prothrombinase  Prothrombin  (a) Equal to cardiac output

8. Respiration and Circulation 21

(a) arteriosclerosis (b) atherosclerosis (16) (c) mesethmoid

22 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

Q. 2. Match the columns : (1 or 2 marks each) Ans.

(4) Internal gills (d) Amoeba (5)

(2) (d) Inflammation of bronchi

Animal Respiratory organ Ans.

(1) Fishes (a) Trachea (1) Asthma – (c) Spasm of Bronchial muscles

(2) Birds / Reptiles – (d) Lungs (6)

Respiratory organs Alternative name (2) Tricuspid valve (b) Opening of coronary

(1) Larynx (a) Lid of larynx (3) Eustachian valve sinus

(2) Trachea (b) Air sacs (4) Thebesian valve (c) Left atrioventricular

8. Respiration and Circulation 23

atrioventricular aperture [Antihistamine] in function

(3) Eustachian valve – (a) Opening of inferior (9)

24 NAVNEET BIOLOGY DIGEST : STANDARD XII (PART 2)

(1) Plasma proteins Serum albumin Ans.

different respiratory organs given below as (3) Disorders due to viruses Pneumonia,

(vi) Salamanders (i) Eosinophils (ii) T-lymphocytes

Column A Column B (iii) Neutrophils (iv) Basophils

(1) External gills (v) B-lymphocytes (vi) Monocytes

(2) Book lungs Column A Column B

8. Respiration and Circulation 7

8. Respiration and Circulation 9

8. Respiration and Circulation 11

are present in the intact blood vessels. But 1.

8. Respiration and Circulation 13

5. Pericardium : Double layered membrane, (7)

8. Respiration and Circulation 15

3. Heartbeat, pulse and cardiac output : (5)

8. Respiration and Circulation 17

like extreme chest pain, hypertension, 2.

(a) Prothrombinase  Prothrombin  (a) Equal to cardiac output

8. Respiration and Circulation 21

Respiratory organs Alternative name (2) Tricuspid valve (b) Opening of coronary

(2) Trachea (b) Air sacs (4) Thebesian valve (c) Left atrioventricular

8. Respiration and Circulation 23

(3) Eustachian valve – (a) Opening of inferior (9)

different respiratory organs given below as (3) Disorders due to viruses Pneumonia,

Ans. (2) Cells involved in giving

8. Respiration and Circulation 25

Ans. In the RBCs, CO2 combines with water in

called polycythemia.  (26)

Ans. The decrease in the number of white blood Ans.

8. Respiration and Circulation 27

(32) What is electrocardiograph ? (39) Why do the veins have valves ?

and hardened coronary arteries.  (41) What is Haldane effect ?

them with tissues. 

to 1200 ml).  (20) Hematocrit : The hematocrit is ratio of the

a maximum forceful inspiration (5200 to (21) Diapedesis : Leucocytes perform amoeboid

maximum inspiration. It is the sum total of (22) Leucocytosis : Increase in the number of

of RBCs is called erythropoiesis.  (33) Cardiac output : The amount of blood

8. Respiration and Circulation 29

tachycardia.  (2) Carbonic anhydrase.

(40) Angiography : X-ray or imaging of the (5) Neutrophils.

(12) Sinoatrial node [SA] or Pacemaker. (6)

Ans. Earthworm, Frog  (14) Name the types of lymphocytes depending

8. Respiration and Circulation 31

Q. 8. Distinguish between the following : (2 or 3 marks)

8. Respiration and Circulation 35

8. Respiration and Circulation 37

(2) This happens in the mitochondria using the

8. Respiration and Circulation 39

heartbeat.  (15) Closed circulation is more efficient than

8. Respiration and Circulation 41

(3) The RBC count : 5.1 to 5.8 million RBCs/ active thrombin.

(6) The old and worn out RBCs are destroyed

(3) Intrinsic and extrinsic processes involve Ans.

8. Respiration and Circulation 43

72 beats per minute. (3) Diastolic blood pressure is the minimum

8. Respiration and Circulation 45

(7) QRS-complex wave represents spreading of (1)