Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Pasig

BS Electronics Engineering

Modulation and Coding Techniques

(Digital Communication)

Dennis L. Molina, PECE

Industry Lecturer
 Communication System
The purpose of a Communication System is to transport an information
bearing signal from a source to a user destination via a communication
channel.

ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:

1. Analog Information Sources.

2. Digital Information Sources.

(i). Analog Information Sources → Microphone actuated by a speech, TV

Camera scanning a scene, continuous amplitude signals.

(ii). Digital Information Sources → These are teletype or the numerical

output of computer which consists of a sequence of discrete symbols or
letters.
Digital Communication System
 Coding in communication system
• In the engineering sense, coding can be classified into four
areas:

• Encryption:- to encrypt information for security purpose.

• Data Compression:- to reduce space for the data stream.

• Data Translation:- to change the form of representation of

the information so that it can be transmitted over a
communication channel.

• Error Control:- to encode a signal so that error occurred

can be detected and possibly corrected.
 Source Coding
• The process by which information symbols are mapped to
alphabetical symbols is called source coding.
• The mapping is generally performed in sequences or groups of
information and alphabetical symbols.
• it must be performed in such a manner that it guarantees the
exact recovery of the information symbol back from the
alphabetical symbols otherwise it will destroy the basic theme of
the source coding.
• The source coding is called lossless compression if the information
symbols are exactly recovered from the alphabetical symbols
otherwise it is called lossy compression.
• The Source coding also known as compression or bit-rate
reduction process.
 Source Encoder
Source Encoder ( or Source Coder):-

•It converts the input i.e. symbol sequence into a binary sequence of 0’s and 1’s by
assigning code words to the symbols in the input sequence.

• If a source set is having hundred symbols, then the number of bits

used to represent each symbol will be 7 because 2⁷=128 unique combinations are
available.

•The important parameters of a source encoder are block size, code word
lengths, average data rate and the efficiency of the coder
 Source Coding

Activity 1 Example , if ASCII code odd parity is used

1. Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Pasig

2. Bachelor of Science in Electronics Engineering
3. Dennis L. Molina
 Data/Line Coding

Conversion Mehod
-Digital-to-digital conversion
(encoding digital data into digital signal)
-Analog-to-digital conversion
(digitizing analog signal)
-Digital-to-analog conversion
(modulating a digital signal)
-Analog-to-analog conversion
(modulating analog signal)
 Line Coding
the process of converting binary data to a digital
signal.
•Transmitter - inserting clocks into data
according to a selected coding scheme
•Receiver - separating clocks and data from the
incoming embedded stream.
•Systems that use coding are synchronous
systems .
•
 Characteristics of Line Coding

• Signal Level and Data Level

data levels – number of values / levels used to
represent data (typically only two: 0 and 1)
signal levels – number of values / levels allowed
in a particular signal
 Characteristics of Line Coding

• Pulse Rate and Bit Rate

Pulse Rate – number of pulses per sec, min.
amount of time required to transmit a symbol
Bit Rate – number of bits per sec.,

Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x Log2L

L = no. of data levels of the signal
 Characteristics of Line Coding

• Pulse Rate and Bit Rate

Pulse Rate – number of pulses per sec, min.
amount of time required to transmit a symbol
Bit Rate – number of bits per sec.,

Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x Log2L

L = no. of data levels of the signal
 Characteristics of Line Coding

1. A signal has five data levels with a pulse

duration of 1 ms. Find the pulse rate and bit
rate.
Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x Log2L
 Characteristics of Line Coding

• DC Component
-if all the positive voltages are cancelled by a
negative voltages then DC component is zero
- In line coding, the signal with non zero DC
component is treated as distorted one and it
can create errors in received signal
Characteristics of Line Coding
 Characteristics of Line Coding

• Synchronization
-the receiver bit interval corresponds exactly to
the sender bit interval
- The clock frequency of the transmitter and
receiver should be the same
Characteristics of Line Coding
 Digital to Digital Encoding
•The binary signals created by your computer (DTE) are translated
into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be sent through the
transmission medium.
•Binary signals have two basic parameters: amplitude and duration.

•As the number of bits sent per unit of time increases, the bit
duration decreases.
•The three most common methods of encoding used are: unipolar ,
polar , and bipolar .
 Unipolar

• The simplest and most primitive

type of encoding is Unipolar
encoding.
• Typically, one voltage level stands
for binary 0 and another voltage
level for binary 1.
• Polarity refers to whether you have
a positive or a negative pulse.

• Unipolar encoding uses only one

polarity, only one of the two binary
states is encoded, usually the 1.
 Unipolar
UNIPOLAR ENCODING
• The simplest and most primitive type of encoding is Unipolar encoding.
• Typically, one voltage level stands for binary 0 and another voltage level for
binary 1.
• Polarity refers to whether you have a positive or a negative pulse.
• Unipolar encoding uses only one polarity, only one of the two binary states is
encoded, usually the 1.

Unipolar encoding uses only one

voltage level.
 PolarPolar
encoding

• Polar encoding uses two levels (positive and

negative) of amplitude.
• Polar encoding eliminates some of the DC
residual problem, because the average voltage
level on the line is reduced.
• The power to transmit this signal is one half
that of unipolar signal.
• Several types: NRZ, RZ, and biphase.
 Polar
POLAR ENCODING

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels

(positive and negative).
 Polar NRZ
NRZ
•Non-return to Zero (NRZ) -- the level of signal is always
either positive or negative as it does not return to zero.
•Two main types of NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I
NRZ-L
•NRZ-L: signal never returns to zero voltage, and the
value during a bit time is a level voltage.
•Good for short and well- shielded transmission paths.
• NRZ-L encoding, the type of the signal depends on the
type of bit it represents. – A positive voltage usually
means the bit is 0 – negative voltage means bit is 1 or
vice versa. Thus the level of voltage depends on the
level of the bit.
 Polar NRZ
NRZ-I
NRZ-I
– It is a method, in which the inversion of the voltage
level represents a 1 bit.
– A 0 bit is represented by no change.
- Out of two methods the NRZ-I is superior to NRZ-L
due to the synchronization provided by the signal
change each time a 1 bit is encountered. The
existence of 1s in the data stream allows the
receiver to resynchronize.
Polar NRZ
 Polar RZ
RZ encoding
•Tries to solve the problem of losing synchronization due to long strings of
consecutive 1s or 0s.
•Signal change during each bit promotes synchronization.
•Positive voltage=1
•Negative voltage=0
•Signal returns to zero halfway through the bit interval.
 Polar Biphase
Biphase
• Signal changes at the middle of the bit interval,
does not return to zero, goes to opposite pole.
• Good solution to synchronization problem
• Two types of biphase encoding used in networks:
Manchester and Differential Manchester
 Manchester Encoding

•This code is self-clocking.

•Provides a transition for every bit in the middle of the bit
cell. This transition is used only to provide clocking.
•Residual DC component is eliminated by having both
polarities for every bit.
•This scheme is used in Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 compliant
LANs

1  low-to-high transition

0  high-to-low transition
 Manchester Encoding
Manchester Encoding

In Manchester encoding, the transition

at the middle of the bit is used for
both synchronization and bit
representation.
 Differential Manchester Encoding
Differential Manchester Coding

• Code is self-clocking
• Transition for every bit in the middle of the bit cell
• TrUsed in Token Ring or IEEE 802.5-compliant LANs.

1  absence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval

0  presence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval
 Differential Manchester encoding
Differential Manchester Encoding

In differential Manchester encoding, the

transition at the middle of the bit is used
only for synchronization.
The bit representation is defined by the
inversion or noninversion at the beginning
of the bit.
 Line Coding

• Ex. Bit stream

1 1 0 0 1 0 1
 Line Coding

• Activity 2 and 3 Example ASCII Even Parity

“Modulation and Coding Techniques”
• 1. Unipolar NRZ
• 2. Polar NRZ
• 3. Bipolar NRZ
• NRZ-L, NRZ-I
• 4. Unipolar RZ
• 5. Polar RZ
• 6. Bipolar RZ
• 7. Manchester Encoding
• 8. Differential Manchester Encoding
• 9. Pseudoternary
 Multilevel

• A Multi level coding scheme is known as

mBnL
m is the length of the binary pattern.
B means binary data,
n is the length of the signal pattern
L is the number of levels in the signaling.
• 2B/1Q
• 8B/6T
• 4D PAM5
 2B1Q

• The two binary, one quaternary (2B1Q), uses

data patterns of size 2 and encodes the 2-bit
patterns as one signal element belonging to a
four-level signal. m = 2, n = 1, and L = 4
(quaternary).
• The 2B1Q scheme is used in DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line) technology to provide a high
speed connection to the Internet by using
subscriber telephone lines.
2B1Q
 8B6T

• Eight Binary, Six Ternary (8B6T).

• The idea is to encode a pattern of 8 bits as a
pattern of six signal elements, where the signal
has three levels (ternary).
• Data element = 8 ; data patterns = 28 = 256 and
• Signal element = 6 ; signal patterns = 36 = 729.
• There are 729 – 256 = 473 redundant signal
elements that provide synchronization and error
detection.
• This code is used with 100BASE-T4 cable
8B6T
8B6T
8B6T
8B6T
 4D PAM 5

• four-dimensional five-level pulse amplitude

modulation (4D-PAM5).
• The 4D means that data is sent over four wires at
the same time.
• It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1 and
2. However, one level, level 0, is used only for
forward error detection.
• In other words, an 8-bit word is translated to a
signal element of four different levels.
• Gigabit LANs use this technology to send 1Gbps
over copper wires
4D PAM 5
 Multitransition

• The multiline transmission, three-level (MLT-3) scheme

uses three levels (+V, 0, and –V) and three transition
rules to move between the levels.
– If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
– 1ST 1 should be +V
– 2nd 1 should be neutral (0)
- 3rd 1 should be -V
• The signal rate for MLT-3 is one-fourth the bit rate. This
makes MLT-3 a suitable choice when we need to send
100 Mbps on a copper wire.
MLT-3
 SCRAMBLING

• a technique that does not increase the number of

bits and does provide synchronization.
• Problem with technique like Bipolar
AMI(Alternate Mark Inversion) is that continuous
sequence of zero’s create synchronization
problems one solution to this is Scrambling.
• There are two common scrambling techniques:
• B8ZS(Bipolar with 8-zero substitution)
• HDB3(High-density bipolar 3-zero)
 HDB3

• Replace consecutive 4 zeros

• Last Known Voltage level
• Case 1 +V, odd – 0 0 0 +V
• Case 2 –V, odd – 0 0 0 –V
• Case 3 +V, even – -V 0 0 –V
• Case 4 –V, even – +V 0 0 +V
 HDB3

• The 4 consecutive zero level voltages are replaced with a

sequence of 000V or B00V
• The reason for two different substitutions is to maintain the
even no of non zero pulses after each substitution.
• The two rules can be stated below:
1. If the no of non zero pulses after the last substitution is
odd, the substitution pattern will be 000V, which makes the
total no of non zero pulses even.
2. If the no of non zero pulses after the last substitution is
even, the substitution pattern will be B00V, which makes the
total no of non zero pulses even

V means the same polarity as the polarity of previous non zero pulse
B means the polarity opposite to the polarity of previous non zero pulse
HDB3
 B8ZS

• Replace consecutive 8 zeros

• Last known voltage level
• Case 1 +V, 0 0 0 +V –V 0 –V +V
• Case 2 –V, 0 0 0 –V +V 0 +V – V
B8ZS
Activity 4 Ex. Data Stream
10000100000000110100001011100001

1. 2B/1Q
2. 8B/6T
3. 4D PAM5
4. MLT-3
5. HDB3
6. B8ZS
 Block Coding

• Block coding is referred to as an

mB/nB
• a block of m bits into a block of n bits, where n
is larger than m.
• Block coding can give us this redundancy and
improve the performance of line coding.
 4B/5B

• The four binary/five binary (4B/5B) coding

scheme was designed to be used in combination
with NRZ-I.
• Since long sequence of 0s can make the receiver
clock lose synchronization. 4B/5B maps groups of
four bits onto groups of 5 bits, with a minimum
density of 1 bits in the output.
• The block-coded stream does not have more than
three consecutive 0s.
 4B/5B

• The 4B5B output is NRZI-encoded.

• 4B5B was popularized by Fiber distributed
data interface (FDDI) in the mid-1980s, and
was later adopted by 100BASE-TX standard
defined by IEEE 802.3u in 1995
 4B/5B

• 4B/5B Table

• 3 steps
• Division, Substitution, Combination
 4B/5B

• Ex. Data Stream

10000100000000110100001011100001

• 1000/0100/0000/0011/0100/0010/1110/0001
• 10010/01010/11110/10101/01010/10100/111
00/01001
• 10010010101111010101010101110001001
 8B/10B

• Eight Binary / Ten Binary (8B/10B) - a group of 8 bits of

data is now substituted by a 10-bit code.
• It provides greater error detection capability than
4B/5B.
• The 8B/10B block coding is a combination of 5B/6B &
3B/4B encoding, five most significant bits of a 10-bit
block are fed into the 5B/6B encoder; the three least
significant bits are fed into a 3B/4B encoder.
• To prevent a long run of consecutive 0s or 1s, the code
uses a disparity controller which keeps track of excess
0s over 1s (or 1s over 0s).
 8B/10B

• Running disparity is calculated based on the

sub-blocks of the 10-bit code. The 10-bit code
is divided into two sub-blocks, a 6-bit sub-
block (abcdei) and a 4-bit sub-block (fghj)
• The current running disparity at the end of a sub-block is positive if the
sub-block contains more ones than zeros
• The current running disparity at the end of a sub-block is negative if the
sub-block contains more zeros than ones
8B/10B
8B/10B
8B/10B
8B/10B
8B/10B
 8B/10B

• Ex. Data Stream, assume RD is positive

10000100000000110100001011100001

• 10000100/00000011/01000010/11100001
• 001010 1101/ 110001 0100/ 010010 0101/
1000101110
• 001010110111000101000100100101
1000101110
 8B/10B

• Activity 5
• Given Data Stream, assume RD is negative,
Find 1) 4B/5B – NRZ-I 2) 8B/10B – NRZ-I
• 0100010010010100000101001110101001010
1011010101000001111110011000010001011
1110000001001011000001000001011111101
0001111000101110100000011111111101100
0001000000011000000110100001001111101
0110010000000001010100011111111