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COMPUTER BASICS
AND PC SOFTWARE
BASICS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer–their Origin and Applications
With the advent of Information and
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Communication Technology (ICT) use of
computer has increased in every phase of our life.
A computer is a programmable machine that
receives input, stores and manipulates data, and
provides output in a useful format. Basically
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computers were meant to ‘compute’, to perform
large calculations in seconds with accuracy. But
now the machine is doing wonders. Gone are the
days when computers were used only to calculate
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or compute, now you can hardly find any area
untouched by the use of computer. We can see that
computers are replacing the manual style of
working. Keeping in view the overwhelming use
of computer in almost every field such as banking,
railways, commerce, book keeping, ticketing,
billing, education, etc. It becomes a necessity to
get familiar with computer.
This chapter will introduce you to the origin
of computer, computer generations, computer
system, its components, integrated circuits,
operating system, current applications of computer
and limitations of computers.
ORIGIN OF COMPUTERS
Initially, computers were invented to compute,
and the basic role of computers was to calculate,
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1
or to perform lengthy calculations in seconds. In
order to count large numbers various systems of
numeration were generated, such as:
Babylonian System of Numeration,
Greek System of Numeration,
Roman System of Numeration, and
Indian System of Numeration (decimal
system of numeration 0-9).
But we should be proud to know that our
Indian System of Numeration has been accepted
universally.
1. Abacus: Since civilizations began, many
of the advances made by science and technology
have depended upon the ability to process large
amounts of data and perform complex
mathematical calculations. For thousands of
years, mathematicians, scientists and business-
men have searched for computing machines that
could perform calculations and analyze data
quickly and efficiently. One such device was the
abacus. The literal meaning of Abacus is the
calculating board. The Chinese hold the credit of
inventing ‘abacus’.
The abacus can be thought of a counting frame,
with vertical wires, with seven beads on each wire.
A horizontal divider separates the top two beads
from the bottom five, sometimes referred to as the
heaven and the earth beads. The user manipulates
the beads by using the principle of positional
weight of beads on a rack.
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2 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

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Image of Abacus

2. Napier’s Bones: Napier’s Bone is a device invented in 1617 A. D. by John Napier, a mathematician.
He invented the logarithms to reduce any multiplication problem.

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Image of Napier’s bones

3. Slide Rule: Slide rule, is a mechanical analog computer. It was developed by English mathematician
E. Gunter. The slide rule is used primarily for multiplication and division, and also for functions such as
roots, logarithms and trigonometry, but it is not normally used for addition or subtraction.

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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 3

Neeraj Image of Slide Rule

4. Pascal’s Calculator: The credit of building calculator goes to Blaise Pascal, a French
mathematician and scientist. The machine was also called Pascaline, it could add and subtract directly

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and multiply and divide by repetition.

From Computer Desktop Encyclopedia

Reproduced with permission.

www.neerajbooks.com @ 2001 The Computer Museum History Center

Pascal’s Calculator

5. Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine: German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
invented a digital calculator around 1672 which was called the step reckoner. It was the first calculator that
could perform all four arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

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4 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

StepReckoner

6. Difference Engine: Charles Babbage, an 7. The Analytical Engine: Due to some

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English mathematics professor told that all the
mathematical operations, even the most complexed
ones, can be broken down into simple operations.
This concept could be used to make it able to be
carried out by a machine in loop. This machine
reasons Babbage left working on Difference
Engine and he started working on Analytical
Engine which was even closer to the concept of
today’s computers. Because it was a proposed

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mechanical general-purpose computer. It had an
used the decimal number system and was powered arithmetical unit, control flow in the form of
by cranking a handle. It could be called the first
conditional branching and loops, and an integrated
step towards the creation of computers. That is
memory.
why he is called as the Father of the Computers.
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Analytical Engine

8. Mechanical and Electrical Calculator:

Calculators are very popular device for arithmetic
Difference Engine calculation. Calculators were developed in the 19th

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century. The mechanical calculator was developed
first and later on the rotating part of mechanical
calculator was replaced by electric motor. That kind
of calculators were called electrical calculator.
9. Modern Electronic Calculator: The
electronic calculators were succeeded by modern
electronic calculator. An electronic calculator is a
small, portable, usually inexpensive electronic
device used to perform the basic operations of
arithmetic. It has a keypad representing digits and
mathematical operations. Some calculators can
also store some numbers temporarily and
permanently.
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COMPUTER GENERATIONS
The modern computer took its shape with the
advent of time. It was around 16th century when
the evolution of computer started. The initial
computer faced many changes, obviously for the
betterment. It continuously improved itself in terms
of speed, accuracy, size, and cost to get the shape
of the modern day computer. This long period can
be conveniently divided into the following phases
called computer generations:
1. First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
2. Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
3. Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
4. Fourth Generation Computers (1971-
Present)
5. Fifth Generation Computers (Present and
Beyond)
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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 5
First Generation Computers: Vacuum
Tubes (1940-1956): The technology behind the
First generation computers was a fragile glass
device, which was called vacuum tubes. These
computers were very heavy and very large in size.
These were not very reliable and programming on
them was a very tedious task as they used high
level programming language and used no operating
system. First generation computers were used for
calculation, storage and control purpose. They
were too bulky and big that they needed a full room
and consume lot of electricity. Main first
generation computers are:
ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John V.
Mauchly was a general purpose computer. It was
very heavy, large and contained 18,000 vacuum
tubes.
EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer was designed by Von
Neumann. It could store data as well as instruction
and thus the speed was enhanced.
UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer
wer e devel ope d in 195 2 by E cker t an d
Mauchly.
Second Generation Computers: Transistors
(1956-1963): Second generation computers used
the technology of transistors instead of bulky
vacuum tubes. Another feature was the magnetic
core storage. Transistor is a device composed of
semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or
opens or closes a circuit. Transistors were invented
in Bell Labs. Use of transistors made it possible
to perform powerfully and with due speed. It
reduced the size and cost and thankfully the heat
too, which was generated by vacuum tubes. Central
Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming
language and input and output units were also came
into the force in the second generation.
Programming language was shifted from high level
to assembly language and made programming
comparatively an easy task for programmers.
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6 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Languages used for programming in this era were
FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958) and COBOL
(1959).
Examples: PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM
1620, IBM 7090, CDC 3600
Third Generation Computers: Integrated
Circuits (1964-1971): During the third
generation, technology envisaged a shift from
huge transistors to integrated circuits, also known
as ICs. Here a number of transistors were placed
on silicon chips, called semiconductors. The main
feature of this era’s computer was the speed and
reliability. ICs were made of silicon and also
called the silicon chips. A single IC, has many
transistors, registers and capacitors built on a
single thin slice of silicon. The cost size were
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reduced and memory space and working
efficiency was increased in this generation.
Programming was now done in Higher level
language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code). Mini computers find
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their shape in this era.
Examples: NCR 395, B6500, IBM 360,370
Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-
processors (1971-Present): In 1971 First micro-
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processors were used, large scale of integration
LSI circuits built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. The main advantage of this
technology is that a single microprocessor can
contain all the circuits required to perform
arithmetic, logic and control functions on a single
chip. The computers using microchips were called
microcomputers. This generation provided even
smaller size of computers with larger capacities.
That is not enough, after that Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits.
The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located
all the components of the computer – from the
central processing unit and memory to input/
output controls on a single chip and allowed the
size to reduced drastically. Technologies such as
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multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-
sharing, operating speed, and virtual storage made
it more user friendly and common device. The
concept of personal computer and computer
networks came into being in the fourth
generation.
Examples: Apple II, Alter 8800
Fifth Generation Computers (Till now):
The technology behind the fifth generation
computers is of artificial intelligence. It allows
the computers to behave like humans. It can be
seen in programmes like voice recognition, area
of medicines and entertainment. In the field of
games playing also it has shown remarkable
performance where computers are capable of
beating human competitors. The speed is highest,
size is the smallest and area of use has remarkably
increased in the fifth generation computers.
Though not hundred per cent artificial
intelligence has been achieved till date but
keeping in view the current developments, it can
be said that this dream will also become a reality
very soon.
In order to summarize the features of
various generations of computers it can be said
that a gigantic improvement has been seen as
far as the speed and accuracy of functioning is
concerned, but if we talk about the size, it is
being small over the years. The cost is also
diminis hing and reli ability is of course
increasing. The first generation computers used
the technology of vacuum tubes, which has
been replaced by transistors in the second
generation and integrated circuits in the third.
The fourth generation envisaged the use of
microprocessors and now is the era of artificial
intelligence.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Before understating the concept of computer
system, let us understand the meaning of the word
‘system’. A system is a collection of various units
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or parts functioning collectively to perform a
particular task or to achieve a common aim. Each
unit has its own share of work which is to be done
in union of other units. In a computer system too,
there are a series of devices that together operate
or function as a computer system.
How Computers Work?
Computer works by performing the
following major functions:
1. Input: As the name suggests it is related to
feeding the data into the computer. It takes the raw
data as input, which can be in form of numbers,
alphabets, characters, sounds, etc. For input there
are a number of devices used such as keyboard,
mouse, joystick, scanner, webcam, disks,
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3. Processing: Processing in the computer
terminology means performing arithmetic and logical
operations on the data being input. The operations
are performed according to the instructions received.
Data and instructions are received by the CPU from
the storage unit and and it is sent back to the storage
unit after being processed. Until then Random Access
Memory holds the information temporarily. The task
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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 7
networked computers, etc. The raw data is then
processed by performing the desired operations on
it and then the processed result is given out in the
desired way.
2. Storage: Computer as a machine has gain
advantage over other similar devices for one of its
distinct feature called storage. Storage means the
process of saving data into its memory for future
retrieval. Computer uses temporary as well as
permanent storage processes. Temporary storage
process stores the entered data before and after
being actually processed thus helps to enhance the
CPU speed. On the other hand, permanent data
storage processes help to retrieve and edit the data
as and when required in the future.
of performing arithmetic and logical operations lies
with ALU.
4. Output: The data after being processed by
the desired operations yields some result which is
called the output. Output devices such as monitor
or printer are mainly used for this purpose.
Computer provides an option to store this output
for future reference too.
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Operational Unit: As is already explained

computer is a system, various tasks to be performed
by it are divided among its various operational
units. These are:
1. Arithmetic and Logical Unit
2. Control Unit, and
3. Central Processing Unit.
1. Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): The
data entered for processing is stored in the primary
storage units and processed by the arithmetic and
CPU
logical unit for operations relation to arithmetic like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and System Unit: There are a number of parts
other operations of higher level, and the logical unit which make up a computer system. Such as:
performs the logical operations like true/false, loops, (a) Ports and Connectors: Computer has
comparison, etc. This unit actually carries out the many devices and peripherals attached to it. In
order to communicate with each of this, the system

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execution of the instructions. Once the data has been
processed it is returned to storage devices for further is required to be attached to each other. This
functions. function is performed by the ports and connectors.
2. Control Unit (CU): Control Unit, as the These attach the components to each other or to
the motherboard.
name suggests, controls the functioning of other

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units. The control unit is the circuit that controls
the flow of information through the processor, and PS/2 Keyboard PS/2 Mouse
Connector Connector
coordinates the activities of the other units within
it. It is also called the “brain within the brain
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(CPU)” because it controls what happens inside
USB Ports

Serial Communications
the processor, which in turn controls the rest of Port
the PC. The control unit maintains order within Parallel
Port
the computer system and directs the flow of traffic
VGA Port
(operations) and data.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU): CPU
plays the role of the brain of the computer. Without Gigabit
RJ-45
the CPU, there is no use of computer. AMD, IBM, Audio Out Jack Ethernet
Microphone Jack
Intel, Motorola, SGI and Sun are just a few of the Line in Jack
LAN Port

companies that make most of the CPU’s used for

various kinds of computers including home desktops,
office computers, mainframes and supercomputers.
Computer CPU’s (processors) are composed of thin
layers of thousands of transistors. Actually the ALU
and the CU of a computer system are jointly known
as CPU.
Ports and Connectors
(b) Power Supply: As the name suggests the
power supply is used to supply power to various
components of the computer. It resides inside the
CPU. This is a protection device. Its main function
is to convert AC input of 230 volts into DC output

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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 9

of 5 and 12 volts. Power supply is also called Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Its main function
is to supply the required amount of voltage to all other units. When we switch on or off the system, we
are actually switching on or off the power supply of the system.

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(c) Motherboard: The motherboard contains the most important circuit of a microcomputer. That
is why it is also called the main board. As a mother connects all the family members, the motherboard

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connects all the components of a system.

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Von Neumann Architecture: The computer architecture which is currently used is given by the
great Mathematician John Von Neumann. He designed a model which has Central Processing Unit
(CPU). Memory is being used to store both the data and the instruction. Today almost all the computers
use this architecture which contains the following:
1. Control Unit 2. Arithmetic Logic Unit
3. Memory 4. Input and Output Unit

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Von Neumann Architecture
Classification of Computers: Today one can
see various types of computers available in the
market. These are available in variety of sizes,
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weights and capacities. This variety is available
to satisfy variety of functions. If you are going to
purchase a personal computer you will look for
different type and if you want it to be used in a
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MNC it will have the different configuration.
Computers can be classified on the basis of
capacity, which means the data processing
capacity.
The performance of the computer relies on:
Its data storage capacity, speed capacity, number
of peripherals, software used by it. The computers
can be classified in many ways. The following
classification is based on size:
1. Microcomputers: Microcomputers, most
commonly known as personal computers, PCs are
an outproduct of the mass production of silicon
chips, which made it easier to produce small and
relatively less expensive machines for personal use.
These computers are usually divided into desktop
models and laptop models. They are limited in what
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they can do when compared to the larger models
discussed below because they can only be used by
one person at a time, they are slower and can store
less information than the larger computers, but they
are excellent when used in small businesses, homes
and school classrooms. These computers are easy
to use. They have become an indispensable part of
modern life.
2. Minicomputers: Minicomputers are
smaller than mainframe computers and they are
also much less expensive. They possess most of
the features found on mainframe computers, but
on a more limited scale. They can still have many
terminals, and have storage capacity but not as
much as the mainframes. Medium and small
businesses typically use these computers.
Minicomputer lies between the mainframe (multi-
user system) and micro computers (Single user
system). The speed and storage capacity is more
than microcomputers.
3. Medium-size Computers: Medium size
computers are better on bases of speed and
storage as compared to small computers.
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4. Large Computers: These are better than
the medium size computers when compared on
the basis of speed and variability. The large
computers provide a variety from single-
processing configurations to nationwide
computer based networks involving general large
computers. These computers are able to perform
actions in incredible nanoseconds.
5. Mainframe Computers: Mainframes (often
colloquially referred to as Big Iron) are powerful
computers used mainly by large organizations for
critical applications, typically bulk data processing
such as census, industry and consumer statistics,
enterprise resource planning, and financial
transaction processing. Mainframe computers are
very large, often filling an entire room. They can
store enormous of information, can perform many
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tasks at the same time, can communicate with many
users at the same time, and are very expensive. The
price of a mainframe computer frequently runs into
the millions of dollars. Mainframe computers
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usually have many terminals connected to them.
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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 11
These terminals look like small computers but they
are only devices used to send and receive
information from the actual computer using wires.
Terminals can be located in the same room with the
mainframe computer, but they can also be in
different rooms, buildings, or cities. Large
businesses, government agencies, and universities
usually use this type of computer.
6. Supercomputers: Supercomputers are the
supreme of the computers and are biggest of all
the types. These are used for highly calculation
intensive tasks such as weather forecasting. A
supercomputer is typically used for scientific and
engineering applications that must handle very
large databases or do a great amount of
computation (or both). India’s Center for
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC)
developed a supercomputer PARAM and its
processing speed is up to 1 trillions instructions
per second.
Examples: IBM Blue Gene/L, IBM
Roadrunner, etc.
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Classification by Technology: On the basis
of technology, computers can be divided in the
following categories:
Analog Computers: An analog computer is
a mechanical, electrical, or electronic computer
that performs arithmetical operations by using
some variable physical quantity, such as
mechanical movement or voltage, to represent
numbers. It can be used to solve various types of
problems. It solves them in an “analogous” way
means in a similar fashion. Most general purpose
analog computers use an active electrical circuit
as the analogous system because it has no moving
parts, a high speed of operation, good accuracy
and a high degree of versatility.
It is used in solving problems in relationship
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of changing variable quantities. The analog
system is set up according to initial conditions
and then allowed to change freely. Analog
computers are especially well suited to simulating
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dynamic systems; such simulations may be
conducted in real time or at greatly accelerated
rates, allowing experimentation by performing
many runs with different variables. They have
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been widely used in simulating the operation of
aircraft, nuclear power plants, and industrial
chemical processes.
Digital Computers: Digital computer is a
computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system. It is a
machine that specializes in counting. It is an
electronic computer in which the input is discrete
rather than continuous, consisting of
combinations of numbers, letters, and other
characters written in an appropriate programming
language and represented internally in binary
notation. Digital computers are famous for
accurate data processing, speed, easy data
storage, high capacity, etc.
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Hybrid Computers: Hybrid computers are
computers that are intermediate device which
exhibit features of analog computers and digital
computers. The digital component normally serves
as the controller and provides logical operations,
while the analog component normally serves as a
solver of differential equations. Because of their
ease of use and because of technological
breakthroughs in digital computers in the early 70s,
the analog-digital hybrids were replacing the
analog-only systems.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Integrated Circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit
containing a large number of transistors and
resistors on it. The microprocessor is a fine
example of an integrated circuit. ICs are also
known as chips or microchips. Integrated circuits
are used in virtually all electronic equipment
today and have revolutionized the world of
electronics, electrical, etc.
Integrated Circuit
Electronic Circuits: An electronic circuit is
a composition of various individual electronic
components, such as resistors, transistors,
capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by
conductive wires. The combination of components
and wires allows various simple and complex
operations. Such as computation, data travel,
amplification of signals, etc.
Function of its various components:
Transistor: The transistor acts like a switch
which can turn electricity on or off. For example,
it is used to store information in computers.
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Resistors: The resistors are used to control
the amount of current that is allowed to pass.
Capacitor: The function of a capacitor is to
collect the electricity to release it in one go.
Diode: Diode is used to allow an electric
current to pass in one direction and blocking
current in the opposite direction at the same
time.
The Transistor vs. the Vacuum Tube:
History of computers envisaged the shift from the
use of vacuum tubes to the use of transistor.
Though function of both was to switch electricity
on or off, or amplify a current. Still transistors
became more popular than vacuum tubes. There
are some reasons behind it which are described as
under:
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1. The vacuum tubes were very heavy and
used to occupy a large space.
2. The vacuum tubes used to generate a lot of
heat and was very expensive as compared
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to the transistors.
3. The vacuum tubes are very slow processing
in comparison to the transistors.
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4. The vacuum tubes used to consume a lot
of electric power whereas transistors
helped to overcome this disadvantage.
5. As far as reliability is concerned transistors
are far better than the vacuum tubes.
So after the invention of the transistors in 1947
engineers preferred it over vacuum tubes.
OPERATING SYSTEM
Apart from the computer hardware,
computer needs the software to function.
Software is a set of programmes written by
professi onal programmers to perform a
particular task or tasks. There are mainly two
types of software: System software and
Application software. System software is
software which is necessary for the system to
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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 13
boot and function properly. An operating system
is a type of system software.
An operating system is a set of programmes
which acts as an interface between the user and
the machine. It helps the computer to understand
the commands provided by the user. Thus, it
creates a communication bridge between the user
and the computer. It provides the platform to run
the software. Some parts of the OS are stored in
RAM while the rest is stored in secondary
memory like hard disk. It is the first programme
which runs when the system is turned on. The
process is called Booting up. In this the system
checks for all necessary hardware and software
components which are necessary for running the
system and displays an error message if some
problem is there.
Some of the most common Operating Systems
are:
Disk Operating System (DOS) by
Microsoft
Windows (various versions) by Microsoft
Windows NT by Microsoft
IBM OS 2.
CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF
COMPUTERS
As has been mentioned earlier computers are
being used now-a-days in almost every industry,
Some major applications of computers are
elaborated as under:
1. Education: There are a variety of uses of
computer in education. Teachers are using
multimedia and variety of software to make the
instructions easy and understandable. For
example, in order to teach about aquatic animals,
the teacher can use computers to present a
documentary on this topic in the lab or classroom
with sound effects, it will yield far better results
in comparison to traditional lecture method.
Computer aided software are also helping in
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14 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
teaching skills through simulation and help in
economic use of resources and reduction of
danger. Example: driving simulation and
dissection simulation software. Language
teachers cannot deny the use of language labs to
younger children in learning accurate
pronunciation.
With the advancement in the technology and
Internet, Online Education, e-learning, m-learning
are getting very popular. These provide the
learning at the pace of student and thus provide
convenience. Students are using computers to
access, retrieve, manipulate and transmit infor-
mation from far off places.
2. Student’s Database: In an educational
institute it becomes very necessary to keep record
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of each and every student in order to provide
individualized attention. Computers are being used
in this field to make the function a success.
Admissions, withdrawal, fee slip generation,
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examination form etc. are some fields where
computers are being used.
3. Educational Research: Computers play a
vital role in the area of educational research.
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Educational research is a tedious process.
Gathering information from far off places, latest
updates in styles of citation, previous researches,
suggestions and bibliographic citations are made
easier by computers.
4. Human Resource Management: Use of
computers make it easy and prompt to keep track
of all the employees and manage the human
resources of the industry.
5. Sports: Computer is used to maintain player
records, track scores, create virtual playing field,
support video cameras and simulation learning
software, etc.
6. Banking: Today with the increasing
population, banking customers have increased
tremendously. To cater to the increasing needs of
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such a huge clientage it becomes necessary to use
computers in banking. This makes the functioning
easier, fast and reliable.
7. Entertainment: Today, in entertainment
industry computers are playing a vital role. In
computerized sound generation, animation and
digitalization, computers are doing wonders.
8. Traffic Light Control: In managing the
functioning of traffic lights which help to manage
the traffic, computers play an important role.
9. Health Care Management and Hospital:
Medical world is also benefiting from the use of
computers. Here it is used to keep record of the
patient, generate reports, bills, and for management
and administration.
10. Weather Forecasting: Computers are
being used in forecasting the weather.
11. Ticketing: Be it railways or airways
computers are being used extensively in ticket
booking, ticket generating, etc.
12. Games: Computer generated games are
being popular and are really very interesting.
Educational games are also available which can
help in learning in the playful way.
13. Shopping Malls: Now is the era of big
shopping malls. Computers make it possible to
keep track of the stock, purchases and sales of the
shopping malls.
14. Internet: As we know internet is a network
of computers which provides a channel to share
and provide knowledge related to almost every
aspect.
15. Agriculture: Agricultural income
contributes a huge amount in the national income.
Use of computer and information technology in
this area is helping the farmers produce better
quality and quantity of crops and it is helping in
better distribution of services.
16. Communication: Computers provide
faster means of communication and data
transfer.
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17. Engineering: Computers are used to make
designing in 3D manner which is very useful in
designing engine, buildings, etc.
LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER
Computers have some limitations too. Like
any other device computers have some limitations
which are:
1. Programmed and Supervised by Human:
No doubt computers can perform variety of tasks
but it is true that it can perform the tasks it has
been programmed for. It follows the provided
instructions only.
2. No Intelligence: Computers can perform
very intelligently but that intelligence is of the
programmers’ and not of the machine. This cannot
replace the human brain.
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3. Self Care: Computer needs humanbeing to
take care of them.
4. Emotionless: Computers are no more than
emotionless machines.
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5. Thinking: Computer can not think on its
own. Though the concept of artificial intelligence
reflects that the computer can think but actually
that is the reaction of following a set of instructions
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provided by the programmer.
6. Retrieval of Memory: Human mind can
think and perceive and retrieve the data flexibly
whereas computers cannot.
Q. 1. What is a Computer? Why is it known
as data processor?
Ans. Computer is an electronic machine which
can be programmed to perform multiple tasks such
as calculation, interpretation, data processing,
forms generation, animation, printing, exchange
of data and information, presentation, data
collection, billing, education, research,
entertainment, so on and so forth. It accepts, stores,
processes and retrieves the data.
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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 15
Computers are also known as data processors
because of their data processing capacity. The
computers accept the data in the form of numbers
or symbols, processes it in the desired format and
outputs the data in the required way.
Q. 2. Into how many generations the
evolution of computer is divided?
Ans. It took centuries to the computer to gain
the current shape. This period, during which the
evolution of computer took place, can be divided
into five distinct phases known as Generations of
Computers. The main distinction was the
technology used behind the switching circuits. The
generations are:
First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
Second Generation Computers (1956-
1963)
Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
Fourth Generation Computers (1971-
Present)
Fifth Generation Computers (Present and
Beyond).
Q. 3. Distinguish between Microcomputer
and Mainframe computer.
Ans. A microcomputer is a small personal
computer. It is design for use in a single location
rather then across an entire corporation. Again, it
uses central processing for all of its work. It is
cost effective but as compared to mainframe it
lacks far behind in amount of data handling and
processing. Examples of microcomputer are IBM
PC, PC-AT.
A mainframe computer usually fills an entire
room, and is designed for use by a large
corporation. These are really very costly and
highly accurate. They have a larger storage
capacity too. Its examples are DEC, ICL and IBM
3000 series.
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16 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Q. 4. What are the five basic operations
performed by the computer?
Ans. Basic operations performed by computer
are as given below:
(a) Input: Accepting the raw data through
input devices such as keyboard, mouse, network
connections, etc.
(b) Storage: Storing raw or processed data for
future reference.
(c) Processing: Processing means applying
desired operations on the data received.
(d) Output: Output is the display of data,
which can be done through various output devices
such as monitor, printer, etc.
(e) Process Control: Control unit controls the
process being executed by other units.
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Q. 5. How can you classify computers
according to technology?
Ans. Classification of computer based on
technology:
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(a) Ana lo g Comput er s: An a nalo g
computer can perform arithmetical operations
by using some variable physical quantity, such
as mechanic al movement o r vol tage, to
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represent numbers. It can be used to solve
various types of problems. It is used in solving
problems in relationship of changing variable
quantiti es. T he analog syst em i s set up
according to initial conditions and then allowed
to change freely. These have been used in
various ways simulating the operation of
aircraft and the like.
(b) Digital Computers: Digital computer is
known as digital because of the quality of
performing calculations and logical operations
with quantities represented as digits, usually in the
binary number system. It can accept data in discrete
manner. The data is represented internally in binary
notation in a digital computer thus enhancing its
speed and storage capacity.
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(c) Hybrid Computers: Hybrid computer is
a digital computer that accepts analog signals,
converts them to digital and processes them in
digital form. This integration is obtained by digital
to analog and analog to digital converter. A hybrid
computer may use or produce analog data or digital
data. It accepts a continuously varying input, which
is then converted into a set of discrete values for
digital processing.
Q. 1. What is a motherboard ? What
functions does it perform ?
Ans. Motherboad is the main board of the
computer which holds the most important circuit
of the computer. It connects all the parts of the
computer.
Q. 2. What do you understand by Operating
System? Which operating system would you use
if you have to work in a multi user set up ?
Ans. Operating system is a set of programmes
which is necessary for a computer to interact with
human and other components of the computer. It
is a set of programmes which acts as an interface
between the user and the machine.
If one has to work on a multi user system, the
use of multi user operating system is necessary.
These are UNIX, Linux, Windows NT, etc.
Q. 3. Briefly enumerate various fields where
you can see the use of computers.
Ans. This age is the age of ICT. Use of
computers can be seen in almost everywhere. Some
of the fields are:
Education
Research
Beauty
Banking
Ticketing
Communication
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Weather forecasting
Health Care.
Q. 4. What are the limitations of
computers?
Ans. No doubt computer is a powerful
machine but it has some limitations too. Some of
these are as under:
It cannot think on its own.
It has no emotions.
It is not capable of programming on its own.
Q. 5. Explain the background of comput-
ers in detail.
Ans. In 1640s, the first mechanical calculator
was developed for commercial purposes. Blaise
Pascal invented the first commercial calculator
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invented. In 1670s, Gottfried Liebnitz made at-
tempts to invent a calculator that multiplied me-
chanically, but the first multiplying calculator ap-
peared in Germany just before the American Revo-
lution. This was a gigantic step taken in the world
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of computing that laid the foundation for invent-
ing computers. In the 1801, Joseph-Marie Jac-
quard, Frenchman, built a loom that weaved by
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reading the punched holes on sheets of hardwood.
This loom was created around 140 years before
the first computer was invented.
In the year 1820, Charles Babbage began his
quest to develop a machine that was used for pro-
gramming. The first programmer, Ada Lovelace
used the machine invented by Babbage to mechani-
cally translate a short written work. A decade later,
a professor of mathematics named George Boole,
came out with ‘An Investigation of the Laws of
Thought’, and is considered as the Father of Com-
puting Science.
The first printing calculator was introduced
in the year 1892 by William Burroughs. Unaware
of the work of Charles Babbage, Vannevar Bush
of MIT also built a device, which he named as
differential analyzer. Though, it can handle only
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COMPUTER–THEIR ORIGIN AND APPLICATIONS / 17
simple calculus problems, accuracy was still not
upto the mark. It was then that problems arose as
to who invented their device first.
During the year 1935, a German construction
engineer named Konrad Zuse develops a mechani-
cal calculator to handle math and calculations. He
then started developing a programmable electronic
device and finished it in 1938. In the year 1936,
John Vincent Atanasoff started working on devel-
oping a digital computer in a campus in Iowa.
In the year 1937, Alan Turing proposed the
idea of developing a Universal Machine, which
would be capable of computing any algorithm. In
this year itself, George Steblitz created his ma-
chine named Model K, which was an accumula-
tion of otherwise ineffective and leftover mate-
rial, in order to solve complex calculations. The
design was improved while he was working at Bell
Labs and on September 11, 1940, he used the
teletype machine to transmit a problem from New
Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in
New York. The problem was met with success and
this was the first example of a network.
The Enigma was broken by a machine called
Colossus Mark I in Poland and then in Britain and
US. After this, computers were built that could
break not just German but Japanese codes as well.
Then came the creation of integrated circuit tech-
nology and microprocessors, which decreased the
size and cost of computers. The personal computer
or PC was created in the 1980s and with the ad-
vent of the internet shortly after, computers slowly
became essential part of urban households.
Q. 6. What do you know about the devel-
opment of the information and technology?
Ans. Information Technology is a technology
that go through the main base of computer tech-
nology. The development of computer technology
that continues to bring the main implications of
this technology in data processing that leads to
information. The output of computer technology
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18 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
which is a component that is more useful than just
a pile of data, computer technology and technol-
ogy support operations process gets a new nick-
name, namely information technology.
Information technology prepared by the three
main dimensions of technology, namely:
1. Telecommunications technology, which
became the core information distribution
process.
2. Loads of information or content informa-
tion, which becomes the main driver of in-
formation technology implementation.
3. Computer technology, which is a key driver
of information technology development.
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The invention of computer technology since
the start is meant to help alleviate human work to
make it more effective and efficient. Computer de-
velopment was followed by the birth of the Internet
that is able to disseminate information quickly
without the constraints of space and time. The
development of communication technology also
made progress from the start the discovery of the
telegraph in 1835, the telephone in 1876, long-
distance telephone connections using satellites in
1952 to mobile phones are widely used in 1985.
The development of information content begins
with the success of Markoni make radio, the dis-
covery of motion pictures and television cameras.
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19

Functioning of A Computer 2
store data received, being processed and the results
We read about the evolutionary history of and also to store instructions.
computer as a machine in the previous chapter.
The changes in terms of technological advance-
ments in peripherals and internal components like
IC and architectural design have travelled a long

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way to provide competency to the computer.
We use electronic components, magnetic and
optical components in computers. In this chapter,
we will read about major components of a digital Block Diagram of a Digital Computer
computer. We will also try to elaborate their

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relative functions and interconnection with other
components. Number system including an
introduction to decimal and binary number systems
will be discussed upon. Inter number system
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conversion will also be explained. ASCII and
UNICODE and concept of machine instruction
will be discussed.
COMPONENTS OF A DIGITAL
COMPUTER & THEIR ROLE
Digital computers can be defined as electronic
data processing devices. For processing data, it has
to receive it, process it by applying arithmetic and
logical operations and produce the results in the
way it is told to do. Now to receive data, it takes
the help of input devices such as keyboard and
mouse and to displays the results it takes help of
output devices such as monitor or printer. The
function of data processing is perfomed by central
processing unit. Working memory is needed to
Components of a Digital Computer
The key elements of a digital computer are:
Central Processing Unit,
Input devices and Output devices, and
Memory.
The Central Processing Unit shortly known
as CPU is also known as the brain of the computer.
As in human system, brains controls all the
operation of all body parts, the functioning of all
the parts of computer is controlled by CPU.
As a Central Processing Unit, it controls the
execution of instruction for data processing. It may
be divided into parts based on the type of functions
performed by them. These are:
Control Unit known as CU,
Arithmetic & Logic Unit known as ALU,
and
Registers.
The control unit, as the name suggests,
controls the instruction execution process.

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20 / NEERAJ: COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
The ALU has to perform all the arithmetic and
logic operations as the need be. Registers can be
considered as a small amount of quickly accessible
CPU memory.
All these parts work in unison to get an
instruction executed.
Input devices help to read the data which is
required to be processed and instruction to specify
the process. Examples are: Keyboard and Mouse.
Output devices are used to show the output to
the user in various formats. Examples are: Monitor
and Printer.
Memory provides a working storage for the
data and intermediate results generated during
program execution. These are stored temporarily
in main memory. We broadly have the following
classification of memory:
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Primary Memory: It is also called the main
memory. It stores the programs or data temporarily.
It is called volatile memory because when we
switch off the computer all the data stored in it
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gets lost. Example: RAM.
Secondary Memory: It is non volatile
memory i.e., the data will get stored permanently.
Example: Hard disk. It is kept in the cabinet. CD
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ROM, Magnetic tapes etc.
There are many other important parts which
are kept in the computer cabinet. These include
motherboard, RAM, Hard Disk, Floppy Drive, CD-
ROM Drive, power supply, ribbons etc. The
mother board has printed circuitry which allows
all these components to communicate with each
other. CPU cabinet also has connection slots which
are used to connect peripherals.
Computer as a Data Processor: As explained
earlier computers are known as data processors
because of their capacity to process data. It receives
the data using input devices, process it with the
help of processing unit and sends the output to the
output devices. These all devices have to work in
unison to get the work done.
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We are using the word data, what does it mean?
Data is a collection of facts and figures which when
processed produces some information. Here,
processing may be implied as manipulation of data
by applying variety of numerical, logical, statistical
operations on it. It provides meaningful values
called information. There are a variety of programs
available for variety of data processing work.
Programs are set of instructions which have to be
followed to get a specific task done. The person
or groups who write these programs are called
programmers. We have a rich pool of application
software to be used to do variety of tasks such as
accounting, gaming, calculations, data collection,
documentation, etc. There are being used in almost
every organization, and even personal computers.
Data Processing
Language of Digital Computers: The
language of digital computers is based on two
valued logic i.e. On and OFF. It is called Boolean
logic and was named after the nineteenth-century
mathematician George Boole. Boolean logic is a
form of algebra having only two values ON or OFF
or say True or False. It fits with the computer
understandable binary language, which also has
only two digits 0 and 1. In this system, each bit
has a value of either 1 or 0.
The transistors can act as a switch showing
either ON and OFF values. These states can be
well represented by Boolean logic by using
symbols 0 and 1. This way all the data and
instruction are represented using 0 and 1 and every
data and instruction is provided a unique binary
code. Binary code system is capable of converting
numbers, alphabets and other characters into
binary digits to make it understandable by the
computer.
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FUNCTIONING OF A COMPUTER / 21

Now you know that computers can understand

only binary language. Imagine what would happen
if we have to communicate with computers in its
own language. It will produce the results and show
in binary? I think in that case, it would have been
a cup of tea of connoisseurs in technological field
only. It would definitely not have gained the status,
which it is enjoying today. But we must thank the
developers of operating system software to make
OS work like an interface between the computer
Layered View of a Computing System

and the user. NUMBER SYSTEM

We use decimal number system which has 10
Operating system software is a system
symbols i.e, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0. We
software. Apart from system software, there is
can say that it has a base 10 i.e. (r =10). Different
another type of software, i.e., application software.
numbers can be produced by using same set of
System software are designed to make the system
digits. Example: by using 3 digits 1, 2 and 3 once,
function properly while application software are

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designed to perform particular task.
System Software example: Operating system.
Application Software examples: Word
we can make various numbers like 123, 132, 231,
213, 312, 321. These carry different values. It
depicts that the value of a number depends upon
not only the symbol used but also on its place.
There are many other number systems. Such as:

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processors, accounting packages, gaming software.
Binary number system having base of 2 i.e.,
r = 2.
Octal number system having base of 8 i.e.
r = 8. Symbols used are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
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User
hexadecimal number system having base
of 16 i.e., r = 16. Symbols used are 0, 1,2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
We can convert the values of one number
Application
system into another. For example, a number 2A in
hexadecimal is equivalent to 101010 (2×161 + A ×
160) in decimal number system.
Binary Number System: Binary number
Operating System system has r = 2, which means it has base of two.
There are only two symbols 0 and 1 which are
used to depict any value. You might be thinking
how is it possible to provide a unique value to a
Hardware large data using 0 and 1 only. It is possible by
repeating the numbers in a pattern. It allows writing
any number using binary. A binary number 10 thus

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22 / NEERAJ: COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

represents the number 1 × 21 + 1 × 20. It can be We can refer to the table given below for
depicted using decimal number system as 2. conversion:
For example, we can convert decimal number Decimal Hexa- Octal Binary
64 to binary equivalent like this: decimal
Operation Quotient Remainder 0 0 000 00000000
64 / 2 32 0 1 1 001 00000001
32 / 2 16 0 2 2 002 00000010
16 / 2 8 0
3 3 003 00000011
8/2 4 0
4 4 004 00000100
4/2 2 0
5 5 005 00000101
2/2 1 0
1/2 0 1 6 6 006 00000110
We divide the number by 2 and find the 7 7 007 00000111
remainder and quotient. We do this till we get a 8 8 010 00001000
quotient 0. We read the set of remainders from 9 9 011 00001001
bottom to top and get the binary equivalent. Thus, 10 A 012 00001010
(64) 10 = (1000000)2. We can also convert the

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11 B 013 00001011
fraction part by multiplying it by two to obtain 12 C 014 00001100
resultant integer and fraction parts. The integer part
13 D 015 00001101
in the resultant is extracted and the process is
14 E 016 00001110
repeated with fraction till it becomes 0 or a desired

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precision is achieved. 15 F 017 00001111
We can also convert binary to decimal in Hexadecimal to Binary
following way: Q. Convert (C0B)16 to an equivalent Binary
(10101)2 = 24 + 22 + 20 = (21)10 number.
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(10100)2 = 24 + 22 = (20)10
CONVERSION
Ans. (C0B)16 = C
1100
0
0000
B
1011
Decimal to Binary: By replacing each digit by its 4 bit binary
Q. Convert (15)10 to an equivalent binary equivalent we get:
number. (C0B)16 = (110000001011)2.
Operation Quotient Remainder Binary to Hexa Decimal
15 / 2 7 1 Q. Convert (101000101011) 2 to its
7/2 3 1 equivalent Hexa Decimal Number.
3/2 1 1 Ans. We group the digits into group of 4
1/2 0 1 starting from the end. Then convert into decimal
Ans. (15)10 = (1111 )2 equivalent.
(101000101011)2 = 1010 0010 1011
Binary To Decimal
A 2 B
Q. Convert (1010)2 to an equivalent decimal
(101000101011)2 = (A2B)16.
number.
Binary Codes
Ans. (1 0 1 0)2 = 23 + 21 = 8 + 2 = 10
Binary digits, shortly known as bits are used
Hence, (1010)2 = (10)10
to represent distinct discrete quantities. But there

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may be instances when there is need of more than
one bit. For example, if we are not repeating the
digits 0 and 1 can form only 01 and 10 codes. These
are not enough for depicting more than two
different entities. If there is need to give unique
codes for three distinct items or more, we need at
least 2 bits. With two bits we can have codes 00,
01, 10 and 11. In general, an n-bit binary code can
be used to represent 2n distinct quantities.
We need to convert a number of alphabets,
numbers or a punctuation symbols into machine
understandable language and provide a unique
code to each of them. All the data and instructions
are represented in sets of 0s and 1s. We use many
binary codes in digital system such as BCD code
is used to represent decimal numbers, ASCII code
is used to interchange information between
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These codes can be used in other devices also
which use text. It started from telegraphic codes.
ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33
are non-printing control characters and 94 are
printable characters.
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FUNCTIONING OF A COMPUTER / 23
computer and keyboard. Unicode for use over
Internet etc.
ASCII & Unicode
There is a need of minimum six bits to
represent 10 decimal digits, 26 alphabets and other
symbols. (26 = 64). This six bit code is capable of
assigning codes to 64 entities. But there may be
instances when we need even seven or eight bits
when we need to depict characters in upper and
lower case. ASCII stands for American Standard
Code for Information Interchange. It is a seven bit
code. It is capable of representing numbers,
alphabets, punctuation symbols and other control
characters. Though it is a seven bit code, but can
act as an eight bit code, where eighth bit is added
for parity.
Unicode is a standard for the consistent
encoding, representation and handling of text. It
can cater to almost every language used on
computer. Its latest version has more than 107,000
characters covering 90 scripts. It also has a set of
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24 / NEERAJ: COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
code charts, an enumeration of character
properties, some basic rules etc. Unicode supports
various character encoding such as UTF-8, UCS-
2 and UTF-16. Because of these special features,
it is now being used in the internationalization and
localization of computer software. It is adopted
by almost all latest technology including Java
programming language and various operating
systems.
CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTION
As you can see in the above image, the CPU
is a semi-conductor integrated circuit chip. It has
many transistors fixed on it. Its main function is
processing that is why it is called processor or
microprocessor. In order to do processing, it
follows some instructions. Instructions are
operations which the processor can directly
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execute. Modern CPUs have built in logic which
allows them to perform around 550 machine
instructions. These are needed to guide the
processor to tell the type of task to be done and
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the way it is to be done.
Processor’s set of logic of instructions is
known as instruction set. This resides in the
hardware of the processor. It helps the identify the
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task and its micro operations.
There are two parts of every instruction:
Opcode It is the operation code which is
to be performed.
Operands It is the set of data on which the
task is to be done.
Let us understand it by an example. We have
assumed that a computer can perform these
operations and assigned codes to each operation
as given here:
Operation Opcode
Addition 000
Subtraction 001
Multiplication 010
Division 011
Now when we will provide the operand and
opcode it will get an instruction what is to be done
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and on which data. A simple instruction is a
combination of an opcode and its associated
operands. Opcode is denoted by its unique binary
code. The operands received are decimal digits and
but to be processed need to be converted into
binary. We assume that it will take only single digit
number (2 or 3 so on..). According to BCD code
instructions may be:
Instruction Effect
00010010101 9+5
01111010101 25 / 05
Here the first three bits represent the opcode
and the remaining eight bits represent the two
operands each a one digit decimal number using
BCD code.
In first example, the opcode is for addition and
1001, 0101 are corresponding to 9 and 5
respectively.
In second example, the opcode is for division
and 1101 and 0101 are corresponding to 13 and 5
respectively.
In reality computer has to do complex
operations. Processors have around 550 built in
operations and can get input not only from users
but from memory or registers too and thus, perform
medium work than we are doing.
All micro processor need to undergo a cycle
to perform instructions. This cycle has to be
repeated till the work is done. The cycle is: Fetch,
Decode, Execute and Write back.
In fetch cycle, it fetches the instruction from
memory, in decode cycle it is decoded into micro
operations, in execute these are performed and in
write back the results are written back to memory.
All these is done under the supervision of the
control unit.
ELEMENTS OF CPU AND THEIR ROLE
We have already mentioned that a CPU is a
complex IC chip and there are large number of
transistors mounted over it. It has the following
sub-units:
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Control Unit (CU),
Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU), and
A Set of Registers.
The microprocessor is connected to other parts through printed wires called system bus.
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www.neerajbooks.com Interfacing CPU and System Bus
Registers used to hold data or instructions
temporarily. There can be:
User-visible registers: This stores data items
and information for a short while.
Control & Status Registers: This helps the
control unit.
The Control Unit is a part of processor which
works to controls and coordinates the functioning
of processor and other devices. For each instruction
to be executed it commands the processor to go
through a sequence of control steps and in each
control step a set of signals are issued by the control
unit to get the corresponding micro operations to
be executed. It also controls signals to data
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FUNCTIONING OF A COMPUTER / 25
exchange with memory and I/O modules and
registers. It also generates timing signals to start
fetch cycle by generating micro operations. It can
do this in following ways:
Through a hardwired logic: It resides in
the processor permanently,
By reading a programmable Array (PLA)
table,
By reading a Programmable Read Only
Memory (PROM): PROM chip is used to
store the sequence of micro operations.
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit as the name
suggests performs the arithmetic and logical
operations on the data. It receives the data to be
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26 / NEERAJ: COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
processed with the help of CU, CPU registers and
memory and return it as processed data to the same.
While the ALU is a fundamental component
of all processors, the design and function of an
ALU may vary between different processor
models. For example, some ALUs only perform
integer calculations, while others are designed to
handle floating point operations as well. ALU has
a number of registers. For example, accumulator,
flags and status register.
Cache memory is a semi-conductor temporary
memory which is used to store recently used
information in a place where it can be accessed
really fast. Use of it can make the system process
fast. The objective of fast processing and effective
high level multi processing can also be achieved
by using multi processor core on the same IC chip.
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The current jet age era demands these newer
technological usage.
Q. 1. What is the significance of a computer
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being termed as a data processer?
Ans. A computer is known as data processor
as it receives the data through input devices,
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processes it and provides the output on output
devices.
Q. 2. What kind of language is used to
specify machine instructions of a digital
computer?
Ans. Binary language is used to specify
machine instructions in digital computers. It has
only two symbols 0 and 1.
Q. 3. Briefly state the reason why ASCII
cannot be less than 7 bit code?
Ans. ASCII code provide a unique code for
every key press on the keyboard be it decimal
digits, alphabets and symbols such as punctuation
marks and special characters. A need of atleast six
bit system is there to code all of these. If we need
to represent characters in both upper and lower
case then we need a seven bit code.
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Q. 4. What was the main motivation behind
the development of Unicode?
Ans. A need was felt to have a standard which
provide guides consistent encoding, representation
and handling of text expressed in most of the
world’s writing systems. This led to development
of Unicode which provides more than 107,000
characters covering 90 scripts.
Q. 5. Briefly explain the sub-cycles involved
in execution of a machine instruction.
Ans. Sub-cycles are: Fetch, Decode, Execute
and Write Back cub cycles.
Q. 6. What are the different ways of
designing the control unit of a processor?
Ans. There are three ways:
Hard-wired control, PLA and Micro-program
control.
Q. 7. List the two key technological trends
seen in modern processors for improving
performance.
Ans. The two technological trends seen in
modern processors to improve performance are:
Using on chip cache memory, and
Having multiple processing cores on the
same chip.
Q. 1. How do we use computers?
Ans. Computers and electronic technologies
have been incorporated into almost every field of
society. They now play an importannt role in how
we learn, how we take care of our money, and how
we are entertained. Today, there is probably no
better indication of how advanced a society. In
Indian society, computers are now a fundamental
component of our jobs, our schools, our stores,
our means of transportation, and our health care.
Our complex systems of banking and investment
could not operate without the computers.
Our schools use computers to teach the
students. Almost all of our businesses now use the
computer to maintain information about customers
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and products. Computers are now commonly used
in medicine for diagnosis and treatment. In fact,
every day it gets harder to find any type of business,
educational institution, or government office that
does not use computers in some way.
Q. 2. What are the basic functions of
computer?
Ans. Basically, there are four functions of
computer like: input, output, storage and
processing.
Input: Computer can keep track of any
different types of information. With software like
Microsoft word, notepad. It makes inputing any
data such as words, articles relatively easy.
Processing: Computer can solve all types of
numerical problems. Solving numerical problems
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can be considered as an example of computer
processing. With the ability of data manipulation
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FUNCTIONING OF A COMPUTER / 27
of company, task can be completed efficiently with
effectively. Also, computer are accurate and error
free, they can process huge amount of information
at the same time and they inexpensive.
Storage: Imagine you have collections of five
thousand pictures. You are going to Agra to meet
your relative and were told to bring that five
thousands pictures over. So with the advent of
computer, you can just save that five thousand
pictures and bring your laptop over. That's that
simple!. Example of computer storage include,
hard disk, CD ROM, DVD ROM and others.
Output: Output is one of the most commonly
used functions in the computer. It may refers to
the graph that is being plotted in microsoft excel,
the song that you are playing from media player,
etc.
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28
Memory System
As we know that the computer is a processing
machine. To do this function, it basically has three
sections; Input Devices, Processing Unit and
Output Devices. The Processing unit consists of
CU, ALU and memory. Memory is a very
important component of the system.
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In this chapter we will study about needs of
memory system and its types, storage devices and
memory hierarchy.
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MEMORY AND STORAGE DEVICES
Computer accepts data through various input
devices. The control unit controls its entire
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operation including its input and output devices.
After the data is received it is processed by ALU
by applying various numeric and logical operations
on it according to the commands.
Memory unit, like CU and ALU, is also an
important part of a computer. Unlike our memory,
computer’s memory is a physical device. It helps
to store data and information in form of bits and
bytes, for processing and future retrieval. The data
and programs that are in use are stored temporarily
or permanently in the memory as per the need and
type of memory used. CPU uses memory for fast
retrieval of data and information. It is used all the
time when the computer is functioning.
The main functions of the memory are storage
and retrieval, called memory write and memory
read operations accordingly. All the data received
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3
through input devices, the programmes to be run
and intermediate results are stored in the memory.
Memory can be ranked according to following
features:
(a) Access time: This is the time taken by
the CPU to locate a particular data in the
memory. According to the need the data is
retrieved. Always fast access time is given
preference over slow access time as it enhances
the speed of processing.
(b) Storage capacity: The storage capacity
refers to the amount of data which can be stored
in the memory. A storage device which can hold
large amount is preferable.
(c) Cost per bit of storage: Cost here means
the cost of a storage unit for a given storage
capacity. We prefer lower cost per bit of storage.
We can categorize the memory as follows:
(a) Processor’s internal CPU memory: We
have read about registers present in the processor
in previous chapters. These serve as temporary
memory locations for data processing.
(b) Primary/Main memory/Semiconductor
memory: These have small storage capacity, cost
of storage per bit is higher and have faster access
time. Here access time means the time taken by
the CPU to access a particular location in the
memory. Example RAM, ROM
(c) Secondary/Auxiliary memory/Magnetic
memory/Optical memory: This kind of memory
has a larger storage capacity used for long time
storage of data, and programmes which need
higher capacity of storage such as multimedia files.
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The cost of storage per bit is low and the access
time is medium. It is also called non-volatile
memory because it can hold the data even after
the computer is switched off. Most commonly
used secondary storage is the hard disk. When
data from the secondary storage devices is to be
processed, it has to be shifted first to the main
memory as CPU cannot access these devices
directly. Secondary storage devices such as CDs
can be used as optical storage. They serve better
at a lower cost.
As we see that we need a larger sized storage
device to store a big amount of content. But it
increases the access time. To overcome this
disadvantage, cache memory can be used in
between the CPU and the main memory. Cache
memory increases the speed of processing as it
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makes data available for the CPU to read at a
higher speed rate. Though it is small memory
but enhances the speed of processing. It actually
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main
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memory.
Hierarchy of memory when cache is used can
be shown as below:
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All the storage devices can be categorized
on the following basis:
(a) Semiconductor Memory: Examples:
RAM, ROM, etc. These are the primary storage
devices. CPU needs them for data process. These
are static in nature. These are very fast and
compact. But the storage capacity is low as
compared to other storage devices.
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MEMORY SYSTEM / 29
(b) Magnetic Memory: Example: Hard
disk, magnetic tapes etc. The capacity of data
storage is very high but access time is slow as
compared to the semiconductor. These are non-
static in nature.
(c) Optical Memory: Example: CD ROM
(Compact Disk Read Only Memory), DVD
(Digital Versatile Disk Read-Only Memory), etc.
Here again the storage capacity is high, it is
economical too but the access time is slow when
compared to semiconductor. These are non-static
in nature.
Data stored on any memory unit can be
accessed by the CPU in the following ways:
(a) Sequential or Serial Access: In this
method memory is accessed in sequential form.
The method of data recording is sequential and
the same method is adopted to retrieve it too. For
example, if one has to fetch the data which has
been stored on 10th address, then it will be
accessed only after traversing the previous nine
addresses. It takes a lot of time. For writing as well
as for data reading the sequence has to be followed.
Example, magnetic tape.
(b) Random or Direct Access: In this, the data
location can be accessed at random. The data is
provided a unique address. This address is assigned
to every set of data and information which can be
individually accessed randomly without searching
all the previous addresses. It makes data retrieval
much faster. Examples are Magnetic disk and CD
ROM.
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30 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
How the data is stored in a storage device?:
It is explained earlier that computer understands
the language or 0s and 1s, i.e., binary
representation. This is the reason that for storing
the data it is converted into binary and the storage
is done in two state also called binary
representations. Smallest of all is a single bit, and
group of eight is called a byte.
1 Kilobyte = 1000 bytes or 103 bytes
1 Megabyte = 1000000 or 106 bytes
1 Gigabyte = 1000000000 or 109 bytes
1 Terabyte = 1000000000000 1012 bytes
1 Petabyte = 1000000000000000 or 1015
bytes
1 Exabyte = 1000000000000000000 or
1018 bytes
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The semiconductor circuits and transistors can
be in conducting or in non-conducting state.
Magnetic disk or tapes represent these two states
by having magnetized spots whose magnetic fields
have one of two different directions.
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In electronic circuits, the positive logic shows
number 1 as the conducting (ON) state, while the
number 0 is represented by non-conducting (OFF)
state. But in the magnetic media, the magnetic field
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of a magnetized spot in one direction represents a
1 and in other direction 0.
Semiconductor Main Memory: Some
interesting points about the main memory are:
Almost every computer contains semiconductor
and magnetic memory.
Semiconductor plays the role of main memory.
It is also known as RAM. Its main function is to
store data and instructions needed by the CPU at a
particular time. It is temporary in nature, also called
the volatile memory. Its contents get off once the
computer is shut down.
Another part of main memory is Read Only
Memory (ROM). ROM as the name suggests are
memories available to be read only. No writing
work can be done on it. This contains information
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and commands needed by the system to function.
Computer needs both RAM and ROM.
Semiconductor memory contains a group of ICs.
Data is stored in binary.
TYPES OF MAIN MEMORY
Main memory can be classified into RAM and
ROM.
(a) RAM can be further classified as
DRAM and SRAM: RAM is a semiconductor-
based computer memory that stores program
code and data. As the primary working memory
of a computer, RAM stores program code and
data that can be accessed, read, and written to
by the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and other
hardware devices. RAM is characterized as
read/write memory to distinguish it from ROM
(Read Only Memory), which is the primary
storage memory. RAM is volatile, meaning that
any d at a st or ed i n RAM is l os t an d
unrecoverable if power is lost. Many programs
set aside some amount of RAM as a temporary
workspace for data until it can be printed,
transmitted, or stored on a hard drive, floppy
disk, or other permanent or semi-permanent
medium.
Static RAM: SRAM can store data for a
longer time than the DRAM. It can hold the data
and information till the power supply is on. These
consume more power and are costly. SRAM has a
higher speed as compared to DRAM. It is used in
cache memory for being faster.
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Dynamic RAM: DRAM Dynamic RAM loses
its stored content in shorter time than the SRAM.
It can hold for only a few milliseconds. These are
cheaper as compared to SRAM.
The following are commonly used RAM
chips:
EDO (Extended Data Output RAM)
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
SGRAM (Synchronous Graphics RAM),
and
Dual-Ported DRAM.
(b) ROM can be classified in PROM and
EPROM: Semiconductor-based computer memory
that stores program code that the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) can read, but not write to, i.e., change
or modify in any way. This is why it is called read
only memory. Programs are stored in ROM on
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semiconductor chips, during the manufacturing
process. Such programs are said to be hard-coded
to distinguish them from software. The term read
only memory distinguishes it from Random Access
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Memory (RAM), which also is stored on
semiconductors, but it is read/write memory. Unlike
RAM, ROM is not volatile, i.e., the programs are
not lost when the electric power is lost or turned
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off. Therefore, programs required during system
start-up commonly are stored in ROM.
Note: Many ROM chips can be repro-
grammed after erasing the previous content
either electrically or with an external source of
Ultraviolet (UV) light.
and
Classification of ROM on programming
mode
Masked-programmed : This kind of ROM
comes with written
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MEMORY SYSTEM / 31
content from manu-
facturers of the IC.
User-programmed : These give the
user the liberty to
programme. Examples
are PROM, EPROM,
etc.
Magnetic Memory
Because of the limitations of primary storage
devices like limited data storage capacity, high cost
and volatile nature, some inexpensive data storage
devices are needed to be used as additional
memory, that has larger data storage capacity, low
cost and is, non-volatile in nature. All these features
are found in magnetic memory. The basic types of
magnetic memory used are:
(i) Magnetic Disks: Hard Disks and Floppy
Disks.
(ii) Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tapes are
cheaper and provide a good choice of
secondary storage.
Storage Mechanism: Magnetic disk drives
contain both side coated metal disks. These
disks are rotated at a high speed to read or write
data . T he tr ac ks a re cir cu lar an d
electromagnetic read or write heads are
positioned by access arms between the slightly
separated disks. Data is saved on these tracks
in binary form. The storage capacity is really
high which can store every type of data be it
text, sound, picture, etc.
Hard Disk Drive Interior
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32 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Magnetic disks can be used as fixed unit or
removable unit. Normally removable are used for
keeping backup of the data to be on the safer side.
Data Organization: The surface of a
magnetic disk is divided into concentric tracks.
These tracks are used to record data on. Each track
is further divided into sectors. Each sector
normally holds same capacity.
Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Hard disk is a non-
volatile, random access storage device. It is capable
of storing variety of data or programmes. These
are available permanently to the computer and thus
hard disks are also called on line storage devices.
Another name for hard disks is Winchester Disk.
It is also called platter. Multi platter configuration
is used to increase the data storage capacity.
Storage Organization in HDD: There are
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rotating platters on a motor-driven spindle. The
read and write heads that float on a film or air
above the platter read and write data on the disk.
A disk is rotated by a motor. It is mounted on the
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disk drive. The set of tracks which are there on the
same diameter is called a cylinder.
The disk can be divided into many drives,
specifically called the disk drives. These are
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controlled by the disk controller. The function of the
disk controller is to receive commands from the
computer and positions the read/write head of the
specified disk for reading or writing. The drive
number, cylinder number, surface number, and sector
number must be specified for writing or retrieval.
Access time on a magnetic disk: The process
of reading data from the magnetic disks but writing
on it is done sequentially. The desired disk address
has to be specified by specifying track number,
surface number and the sector number to fetch the
data. The process of writing starts from the
beginning of a sector and reading is done from the
back. Random access makes the speed fast. The
role of the disk controller is to accept command
read or write, then the read or write heads are
positioned onto the specified address.
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Seek times: The time needed to position these
heads on proper track is known as seek time. This
name is taken by the process of seeking the data
or information. The seek time Ts depends on its
position at the time of receiving the command of
read or write. If it is on a track which is to be read
or written onto then the time will be minimum and
if the far off track is to be reached then it will take
more time. This happens in movable head systems
where the heads can move but in a fixed head
system the time is always negligible because there
is a head for each track.
Latency time or Search time: Only
positioning of the read write heads on the desired
track is not enough, in order to follow command
of read or write it has to fetch the desired data.
The heads even after coming to the desired track,
has to wait to come the specified data address under
its head as the disk is rotating continuously. This
rotational waiting time called the latency time or
search time. It depends on the initial positioning
of the head and the rotational speed of the disk. If
the speed is slow then the time will be higher. The
above discussion tells that the total access time is
a sum of seek time and latency time.
Pen drive: Pen drive is a removable storage
device which can be easily carried and is very
reasonable in terms of price. Its data storage
capacity is really high. It comes in various storage
capacities ranging from mb to 256 gb. It resembles
a pen, hence it is called a pen drive. It has a USB
( Universal Serial Bus) interface which connects
to the computer in seconds and allows data transfer.
Magnetic tapes: Magnetic tapes are
secondary storage devices. These are portable,
removable and easy to carry. These can be used to
save a large amount of data on a single disk and
the cost is also reasonable. These do not have a
very high speed but the benefits are many hence
this disadvantage can be overlooked. Basically
these are used to keep backups and to share the
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data or software. The storage capacity may vary.
This can be calculated as:
Data recording density × length: Here
density means the amount of data which can be
stored on a given length of the tape.
Optical Memories: Optical memories are
used for large storage of data. These devices
provide the option of variety of data storage. These
can save up to 20 GB of information. The data or
information is read or written using a laser beam.
Due to its low cost and high data storage capacity
these memories are being freely used. Apart from
low cost these memories have long life. But the
problem is that of low access time.
Examples of optical disks are:
1. CD-ROM: CD ROM or Compact-Disk
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Read Only Memory are optical storage device
which can be easily read by computer but not
written. CD-ROMs are stamped by the vendor, and
once stamped, they cannot be erased and filled with
new data. To read a CD, CD-ROM player is
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needed. All CD-ROMs conform to a standard size
and format, so any type of CD-ROM can be loaded
into any CD-ROM player. In addition, CD-ROM
players are capable of playing audio CDs, which
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share the same technology.
CD-ROMs are particularly well-suited to
information that requires large storage capacity. This
includes large software applications that support
colour, graphics, sound and especially video.
Compact Disk
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MEMORY SYSTEM / 33
Advantages of CD ROM:
(a) Storage capacity is high.
(b) Data storage cost per bit is reasonable.
(c) Easy to carry.
(d) Can store variety of data.
Disadvantages of CD ROM:
(a) CD ROMs are read only.
(b) Access time is more than hard disk.
2. WORM: WORM or Write Once Read
Many or CD-R or CD-Recordable are a kind of
optical device which provides the user the liberty
to write once on the CD R. The user can write on
the disk using the CD R disk drive unit. But this
data or information cannot be overwritten or
changed. CD R does not allow re-writing though
reading can be done many times.
Advantages of WORM:
(a) Storage capacity is high.
(b) Can be recorded once.
(c) Reliable.
(d) Runs longer.
(e) Access time is good.
Disadvantages or limitations of WORM:
(a) Can be written only once.
3. Erasable Optical Disk: Erasable Optical
Disks are also called CD RW or CD rewritable. It
gives the user the liberty of erasing data already
written by burning the microscopic point on the
disk surface. The disk can be reused.
Advantages of CD RW:
(a) Storage capacity is very high.
(b) Reliability is high.
(c) Runs longer.
(d) Easy to rewrite.
Limitations of CD RW:
(a) Access time is high.
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34 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
4. DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RAM:
DVD or Digital Versatile Disk is another form of
optical storage. These are higher in capacity than
the CDs. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced
using molding machines that physically stamp data
onto the DVD. Such disks are known as DVD-
ROM, because data can only be read and not
written nor erased. DVD Rs are the blank
recordable DVDs which can be recorded once
using optical disk recording technologies by using
DVD recorders and then function as a DVD-ROM.
DVD-ROM. Rewritable DVDs DVD-RAM can
be recorded and erased multiple times.
Memory Hierarchy and Their Needs
In the above discussion we read about fast and
slow memories. Both have their advantages and
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limitations too. Fast memories do rarely offer huge
storage and are expensive too and the slow are
cheaper and large but yes they are slow. In order
to get benefited by both the fast and the slow
memories the organization is done in a hierarchical
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way. CPU registers are at the top and a fast cache
memory is there between the CPU and main
memory. The hard disk is used by the technique
of virtual memory to expand the capacity of
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main memory. In computer language this kind
of hierarchy is known as the memory hierarchy.
This is applied to get larger memory space at
low cost.
Not only that the fast memory has low storage
capacity but it needs power supply till the
information needs to be stored and are costly.
Memories with less cost have high access time.
Thus, the cost versus access time paves the way
for memory hierarchy. It is used to get high access
rate at low cost of memory. A computer system
uses a memory system which comprises of these
groups of memories:
1. Internal or CPU memories: These are
internal to the processor. These consist of small
set of high speed registers and are used as
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temporary locations where actual processing takes
place.
2. Primary memory: This is a fast memory
but not as fast as the processor’s internal memory.
The storage capacity is small and high cost per bit
storage is there. This memory is accessed directly
by the processor. It stores programs and data which
are currently needed by the CPU.
3. Secondary memory: This memory
provides scope of larger data storage. Access
time is higher than the main memory. This is
permanent in nature. The following diagram
shows memory hierarchy. The following memories
are here used:
CPU (register)
Cache memory
Main memory
Secondary storage, and
Mass storage
On top of the memory hierarchy memory has
faster access time, less capacity and higher cost
per bit stored. At the bottom there is larger storage
capacity, slower access time and lower cost per
bit stored.
The cache memory is used in between the CPU
and the main memory to enhance the speed of main
memory. After main memory secondary memory
comes, which can be divided in magnetic disk and
magnetic tapes. These are used for long term
storage. Magnetic tapes are usually used for
backup purpose.
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Q. 1. Differentiate between the following:
(a) Primary (main) Memory versus
Secondary Memory.
(b) Different types of memory (in terms of
access speed, storage capacity and cost
per bit storage).
(c) A graph showing capacity versus access
time for different types of memory.
(d) Random versus Sequential access.
Ans. (a) Primary memory is faster than
secondary memory but slower than the processor
memory. Its storage capacity is low and cost per
bit storage is high. It is used to store the data and
information which is needed by the computer at
that point of time. It comes in the form of chips
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and made up of semiconductors.
Secondary memory has the larger storage
capacity than the primary memory. Data access
is slower in secondary memory than the primary
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memory. It is used to store the software and other
useful packages and data for future retrieval.
These come in the form of hard disk, CD, DVD,
etc.
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(b) Primary memory has a fast access speed,
storage capacity is smaller than the secondary
memory and cost per bit of storage is high.
Secondary memory is slower in access time,
storage capacity is higher and cost per bit of storage
is lower than primary memory.
(c) Capacity versus access time of various
types of memory.
(d) As the name suggests Sequential Access
Memory device reads data sequentially. On a
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MEMORY SYSTEM / 35
storage medium data is stored sequentially and
to read the data same order has to be followed in
this type of access. If the data bytes are stored in
the middle of the storage area then to fetch that
data the processor has to go sequentially after
going on traversing one after the other in
sequential order. Thus it takes a lot of time to
search data using sequential access devices such
as magnetic tapes.
In random access device the data or
information can be fetched randomly. Same access
time is needed whether you need the first item or
the last one. Different storage locations have their
own unique address which can be directly fetched.
Examples: magnetic disk.
Q. 2. Suppose in your library the following
types of memory are present:
RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, and
EEPROM.
Differentiate between these memories on
the basis of their volatility.
Ans. Volatility is the feature that the memory
is lost with turning the power supply off. If a
memory can hold the data or information present
in it even after turning the power supply off, it
will be called non-volatile memory. RAM is a
volatile memory. Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a
non-volatile memory. PROM, EPROM and
EEPROM are non- volatile memories.
Q. 3. A 2.5 inch diameter disk pack has 6
plates (12 recording surfaces), 256 sectors per
track, 5268 tracks per surface, and 512 bytes
per sector. Find the capacity and recording
density of the disk pack.
Ans. Disk Capacity
=12×5268×256×512 = 7.716 GB.
Recoding Density = (512×256) (3.14×2.5)
= 16688 bytes/inch.
Q. 4. Explain the following terms with
respect to magnetic memory:
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36 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

(a) Seek Time and Latency Time memories. Fast memories have short storage
Ans. Seek time is the time taken by the heads capacity, high cost and fast access time, but slow
to reach the desired track and latency time is the memories have low cost, data storage capacity is
time which is required to reach the proper address high but speed is slow. To make a balance between
after the head has reached the desired track. Access the two the system of memory hierarchy is used.
time is the sum of seek time and latency time. This provides the high access speed and high
(b) Track, sectors and cylinder storage capacity at good price.
Ans. In a magnetic disk the data is stored on
its surface which is divided in tracks. These tracks
are further divided into sectors. A set of
corresponding tracks in all surfaces of a disk pack
is known as a cylinder.
Q. 5. Differentiate between the following:
(a) CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW
(b) DVD-ROM versus DVD-RW
Ans. (a) CD-ROM are data storage devices
with random access. These are read only, cannot

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be used for writing. These have high storing
capacity. The cost is very low.
CD-R or compact-disk recordable is optical
disk technology. These are used to be written and
Q. 1. What do you know about computer
storage?
Ans. Computer is used widely for storage of

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read. It can be written only once but can be read
many times.
Erasable Optical disk or CD-RW (CD-
rewritable) can be used to read, write or re-write.
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The data is erased using laser technology.
(b) DVD ROM is a form of optical storage. These
are higher in capacity than the CDs. Pre-recorded
DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines
that physically stamp data onto the DVD. Such disks
are known as DVD-ROM, because data can only be
read and not written nor erased. DVD RW are the
blank recordable DVDs which can be recorded using
optical disk recording technologies by using DVD
recorders and erased to be recorded again.
Q. 6. What is the overall purpose of the
memory hierarchy? Name the general classes
of storage media that might make up a memory
hierarchy.
Ans. Memory hierarchy is needed to balance
the advantages and limitations of the fast and slow
data. Like humans, computers have memories too.
And their memories are called storage which are
used to store data information. There are two kinds
of storage in a computer, primary storage and sec-
ondary storage.
Primary storage is where the computer holds
data that it is currently using. This place also
known as computer memory. For example, you tell
your computer to store two numbers after process-
ing it for addition. The computer will get these
two numbers from specified location in its
memory. After the A/LU adds the two numbers,
the result will be stored to another location in the
memory.
Secondary is used to store permanent data. For
example, you are working on a Word document
and are working on it tomorrow. You cannot store
the Word document in the primary storage because
primary storage is also known as temporary stor-
age. The word document will be lost if you turn

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off the computer and so, the Word document had
to be saving in the secondary storage which sepa-
rates from the CPU.
Q. 2. What do you know about Random Ac-
cess Memory?
Ans. Random Access Memory (RAM) is a
form of computer data storage. Today, it takes the
form of integrated circuits that allow stored data
to be accessed in any order. Strictly speaking, mod-
ern types of DRAM are therefore, not random ac-
cess, as data is read in bursts, although the name
DRAM/RAM has stuck. However, many types of
SRAM, ROM, OTP, and NOR flash are still ran-
dom access even in a strict sense. RAM is often
associated with volatile types of memory, where
its stored information is lost if the power is re-
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moved.
The two main forms of modern RAM are static
RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). In
static RAM, a bit of data is stored using the state
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MEMORY SYSTEM / 37
of a flip-flop. This form of RAM is more expen-
sive to produce, but is generally faster and requires
less power than DRAM and, in modern comput-
ers, is often used as cache memory for the CPU.
DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and
capacitor pair, which together comprise a memory
cell.
Both static and dynamic RAM are considered
volatile, as their state is lost or reset when power
is removed from the system. By contrast, Read-
Only Memory (ROM) stores data by permanently
enabling or disabling selected transistors, such that
the memory cannot be altered. Writeable variants
of ROM share properties of both ROM and RAM,
enabling data to persist without power and to be
updated without requiring special equipment.
These persistent forms of semiconductor ROM
include USB flash drives, memory cards for cam-
eras and portable devices, etc.
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38

Input and Output Devices 4

Computer is a data processing device. In order
to communicate with the computer one needs to
feed the data and instructions in the computer and
to receive the output there has to be some device.
Using input and output devices of the computer
is used to type in the alphanumeric data or
commands to the computer. These devices act as a
medium between the user and the machine to carry
communication.
Examples of Input Devices:
Some most commonly used Input Devices are:

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also called the peripherals devices. Input devices (a) Mouse
such as keyboard and mouse help to feed the data (b) Keyboard
into the computer and hence, provide input and (c) Digital Camera
output devices like monitor and printer help us to (d) Microphone
the requested information in the desired format,
(e) Graphics tablet

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output.
In this chapter, we will come to know about
basic concepts, functions and types of input and
output devices and emerging technologies in
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computer hardware.
INPUT OUTPUT (I/O) DEVICES
Computer is a machine, which facilitates most
of our routine work. To perform this function, it
has to communicate with us, as to what to do, how
to do and on which data it has to be done and also,
it has to show the results of the process. As human
beings need some medium to receive and produce
information, same is with the computers. The
machine also needs some medium to receive the
data and produce the information. These mediums
are called input or output devices.
Input Devices: Input devices are those
peripherals, which help us to feed data or
commands in the computer. Example: Keyboard
(f) Joystick
(g) CD or DVD
(h) Bar code reader
(i) Pen drive.
Input methods can be manual input using
keyboard or mouse, analog input using sensors and
input using storage devices such as CDs. Speed of
manual inputs is slower than storage devices.
Output Devices: Output devices are those
peripherals, which allow the computer to
communicate the results to the user. It can be in
the form of display on the monitor or it be a hard
copy using printer.
Commonly used output Devices are:
Visual Display Unit also called monitor
Printer
Plotter
Speaker

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WHAT IS PORT?
The word port is derived from Latin word
‘porta’ which means the entrance. In computer
terminology, a port is an outlet through which a
plug or cable gets connected. A port is a physical
interface between the computer and other input
and output devices, which allows to get connected
to it and interact. Variety of cables can be plugged
to these ports to get physically connected to the
computer.
There are different types of ports.
(a) Parallel Port: These ports send multiple bits
at the same time over several sets of wires. A variety
of devices can be connected through these ports. A
parallel port is usually used to connect devices such
as printers to transmit data at short distance with fast
speed. It transmits entire byte at a time. A parallel
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port is also called a printer port or centronics port. A
parallel port allows the transmission and reception
of the data at the same time.
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(b) Serial Port: A serial port is a physical
interface through which information transfers in
or out one bit at a time. Thus, the speed is slow as
compared to parellel ports. But serial ports are ideal
for long distance data transmission. Examples :
Dial-up modems and serial mice use serial ports.
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 39
(c) Universal Serial Bus (USB): The USB
or Universal Serial Bus is an industry standard,
which was developed in the mid-1990s. These are
the cables, connectors and protocols used for
connection, communication and power supply
between computers and electronic devices. USB
was designed to standardize the connection of
computer peripherals, such as keyboards, pointing
devices, digital cameras, printers, portable media
players, disk drives and network adapters to
personal computers, both to communicate and to
supply electric power. It has become commonplace
on other devices, such as smart phones, PDAs and
video game consoles. Now, it is replacing parallel
and serial ports very effectively.
(d) Small Computer System Interface
(SCSI) Port: SCSI-Small Computer System
Interface Port is the actual connector that a SCSI
cable plugs into to communicate with the SCSI
interface. SCSI port is a fast data transmitting
device. It is used to connect HDD, CD ROM drives
and scanners with the computer.
INPUT DEVICES
We have mentioned input devices earlier. Now
let us elaborate a few basic input devices as under:
(a) Keyboard: A keyboard, as the name
suggests, is a board containing a set of keys, which
are pressed to provide input to the computer. A
keyboard is generally attached to all the personal
computers and is a common input device. It
contains alphanumeric keys special keys and
punctuation keys counting upto 101 to 104 keys.
A multimedia keyboard has 120 to 140 keys. It
follows the layout of a traditional typewriter. A
keyboard is connected to the computer by wires.
Now wireless keyboards are also available. The
keys in a keyboard can be generally categorized
as follows :
Alphanumeric Keys: These include alphabets
and numbers.
Punctuation Keys: These include comma,
period, semicolon etc.
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40 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Special Keys: These include function keys,
control keys, arrow keys and Caps lock key, num
lock keys, etc.
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(b) Mouse: Mouse is another very common
input device, which is used to provide commands
to the computer by selecting, clicking on, rolling
over or dragging the objects as seen on the screen.
As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display
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screen moves in the same direction. It contains at
least one button and sometimes as many as three,
which have different functions depending on what
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program is running. Some newer mouse also
include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long
documents as shown in the picture below:
You may think why it is called so, actually the
device has a bit resemblance with mouse that is
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why it is named after that. A mouse consists of a
metal or plastic housing or casing, a ball that sticks
out of the bottom of the casing and is rolled on a
flat surface, one or more buttons on the top of the
casing, and a cable that connects the mouse to the
computer. As the ball is moved over the surface in
any direction, a sensor sends impulses to the
computer that causes a mouse-responsive program
to reposition a visible indicator (called a cursor)
on the display screen. There are two or three
buttons on the top. These buttons perform defined
functions of selection and other shortcuts like cut,
copy paste depending upon the programme.
Types of Mouse: A brief discussion of types
of mouse is as follows:
Mechanical Mouse: These are the traditional
mouse. Mechanical Mouse uses ball for the
movement of cursor on the computer screen. It
contains a metal or rubber ball on its under side.
When the ball is rolled in any direction, sensors
inside the mouse detect this motion and move the
on-screen mouse pointer in the same direction. The
following picture, is an example of open
mechanical mouse.
Optical Mouse: Optical Mouse uses advanced
laser rays for the movement of cursor on the
computer screen. Movement is detected by sensing
changes in the reflected light rather than the motion
of a rolling sphere. The optical mouse is replacing
mechanical mouse.
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 41

thus, it saves space. These are used in mobile

phones and mouse.

Cord-Less Mouse: A cordless mouse frees

you from cord problems. It connects to your
computer with a radio (rather than an infrared)
signal, powered by battery.
(c) Digitalizing (Graphics) Tablet: A digitali-
zing tablet is an input device that enables one to

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enter drawings and sketches or signatures into a
computer. A digitizing tablet consists of an
electronic tablet and a cursor or pen. A cursor is
similar to a mouse, except that it has a window
with cross hairs for pinpoint placement, and it can
(e) Joystick: A joystick is an input device used
for playing games. It has a lever that moves in all
directions and controls the movement of a pointer
or some other display symbol. With a joystick, the
pointer continues moving in the direction the

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have many buttons. A pen (also called a stylus)
looks like a simple ballpoint pen but uses an
electronic head instead of ink. The tablet contains
electronics that enable it to detect movement of
joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer, you must
return the joystick to its upright position. Generally
joysticks contain two buttons which are also called
triggers. This device is also used for controlling

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the cursor or pen and translate the movements into
digital signals that it sends to the computer.
robots, cranes, heavy machines, etc.

For digitizing tablets, each point on the tablet

represents a point on the display screen in a fixed
manner. This differs from mice, in which all
movement is relative to the current cursor position.
The static nature of digitizing tablets makes them
particularly effective for tracing drawings. Most
modern digitizing tablets also support a mouse
emulation mode, in which the pen or cursor acts
like a mouse. These are used for Computer Aided
Designing purpose.
(d) Trackball: A trackball is another pointing
device. Essentially, a trackball is a mouse lying
on its back. To move the pointer, you rotate the
ball with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of
your hand. There are usually one to three buttons
next to the ball, which you use just like mouse
buttons. There is no need to move the full device

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42 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

PICK DEVICES
Pick devices, as the name suggests, are used
to pick or select an object on the screen. This object
can be text or graphics. Commonly used pick
devices are light pens and touch screens.
Light Pens: A light pen is a computer input
device. It is a small, photosensitive device
connected to a computer and moved by hand over
an output display in order to manipulate
information in the computer. It comes in the form
of a light-sensitive and used in conjunction with a
computer’s monitor. It facilitates to point, draw or
select. It looks like an electronic pen and it is light
sensitive. It is connected by a wire to the computer SOURCE DATA ENTRY DEVICES

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terminal to detect the CRT beam when pointed
towards the screen and generate a narrow electrical
pulse that can be fed to the computer as an input
signal. Mainly it is used for higher level CAD
applications.
Source data entry devices are devices which
help to take input from the source directly without
any transcription. The data is directly taken from
the source so there are least chances of entry level
errors. Examples of source data entry devices are:

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Digital Camera: A digital camera, also known
as digicam is an electronic device. It is used to
take video or still photographs digitally. It uses an
electronic image sensor to take images. Digicams
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they are captured. Memory storage capacity is very
high in digital cameras. These cameras provide
variety of choice to the user to choose resolution,
size, background and zoom level as well as photo
styles. Not only this, these can be directly
connected to computer using USB to transfer the
data. They use memory cards to save images or
Touch Screen: The screen has travelled a long
videos.
way from a simple display screen to a touch screen.
Its electronic visual display responses when detects
a touch at a certain place on the screen. This touch
is usually a slight pressure of a human finger or it
could be a stylus or nail. Not only in computers,
touch screen technology is being used in ATM
machines, mobile phones and security devices.

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Scanners: An image scanner or scanner is an
input device which is used to scan images, printed
text, pictures, signature and even objects. It then
converts it into digital image.
Commonly used scanner is desktop scanner,
which has a glass lid on which the image or object
is placed which is to be scanned.
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): OMR
is the process of scanning of sheets to detect the
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presence or absence of a mark in a predetermined
position. Variety of tests and surveys are now being
conducted on OMR sheets, which provide
predetermined space for the testee to mark his or
her choice from the given set of options. These
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sheets are being scanned using the OMR technique
in order to save time and energy.
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Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR): Magnetic Ink Character Recognition,
shortly known as MICR, is a character recognition
technology. It is helpful for computers to read
information from printed documents. For example
reading cheque number from a cheque. Humans
can easily read MICR codes. MICR characters are
printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink
this is the reason the process is called magnetic
ink character recognition system. The magnetic ink
makes the characters legible by the system even
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 43
though signature or stamps overwrite it, as it
happens in cheques. This technology is very useful
in banks and thus, provides them the capability to
do work with a higher speed and accuracy.
Bar Code Reader: A bar code reader is also
called a bar code scanner. It is again an electronic
device. It is used to scan printed barcodes. Here,
we should explain the meaning of barcodes too.
Barcodes are codes represented in form of vertical
lines known as bars which represent alphanumeric
data. This lines can be thick or thin. A Barcode
reader uses a laser beam to read the bar codes.
Each of the bar code is 13 digits long which
can be divided into four subsections as explained
below:
First two digits : represent the country,
next five digits : represents the manufac-
turer’s code
next five digits : represents the product
code
the last digit : is a check digit.
Magnetic Strip Reader: A magnetic reader
can read the information encoded in the magnetic
stripe. It is generally found in a bank’s card.
Information about the card holder as well as the
bank is found on this magnetic stripe.
OUTPUT DEVICES
We have already discussed about the function
of output devices. We also named a few of them.
Now let us discuss in detail about the commonly
used and most important output device used in
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44 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
computer, which is monitor. Without a screen it is
impossible to think about computer. It helps to
displays all the programmes and applications, the
keyboard input, the commands, the mouse pointer
and other interactions with all devices, which
makes the system interactive.
Graphic display on a screen is made up of a
series of dots which are called ‘pixels’. A pixel is
the smallest unit of the picture that can be
controlled. Here, the number of dots per inch is
called the resolution of the screen.
Cathode Ray Tube Monitors (CRT): Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in
which images are produced when an electron beam
strikes a phosphorescent surface. Most desktop
computer displays make use of CRTs. A cathode
ray tube consists of several basic components. The
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electron gun generates a narrow beam of electrons.
The anodes accelerate the electrons. The image is
projected on the screen by directing the electron
beam onto the computer screen.
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The illustration shows only one electron gun.
This is typical of a monochrome, or single-colour,
CRT. However, virtually all CRTs today render
colour images. These devices have three electron
guns, one for the primary colour red, one for the
primary colour green, and one for the primary
colour blue. The CRT thus produces three
overlapping images: one in red (R), one in green
(G), and one in blue (B). This is the so-called RGB
colour model.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD): This is a
type of display used in digital watches and many
portable computers. LCD displays utilize two
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sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal
solution between them. An electric current passed
through the liquid causes the crystals to align so
that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal,
therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to
pass through or blocking the light.
Monochrome LCD images usually appear as
blue or dark gray images on top of a grayish-white
background. Colour LCD displays use two basic
techniques for producing colour: Passive matrix
is the less expensive of the two technologies. The
other technology, called thin film transistor (TFT)
or active-matrix, produces colour images that are
as sharp as traditional CRT displays, but the
technology is expensive. Recent passive-matrix
displays using new CSTN and DSTN technologies
produce sharp colours rivaling active-matrix
displays. LCD produces sharper display and come
in light weight.
Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal
Display (TFT LCD): Thin film transistor
technology is used in monitors to enhance the
picture quality especially in the LCD monitors.
This technology is being used in computers as well
as in TVs etc.
Light Emitting Diodes monitors (LED): You
might have heard about high definition TV screens
or monitor screens. The technology behind is the
Light Emitting Diodes (LED). It is a semi-
conductor light source.
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Here diodes are used to light up the screen,
which come in vibrant colours. Screens for
laptops and monitors can be made thinner by
using LED technology. LED monitors consume
less space, less power and produce better picture
quality.
Projection Displays: You might have
experienced a projection display at least once in
your journey of education. Projectors are used to
project something on a larger screen than the
computer to make it possible to make it visible to
a large group of audience. The projectors can be
connected to computers to get the reflection on a
larger screen say white board.
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Classification of monitors on the basis of
colour
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Monochrome: Monochrome monitors are
black and white computers. Basically these can
display two colours, i.e., black and white or black
and green or black and amber. Here one colour
depicts the background and the other is used for
the foreground.
Gray Scale: Gray scale, also a monochrome
type of monitor, displays the output by using
different shades of gray, made by a combination
of black and white.
Colour Monitor: Coloured monitors can
display a variety of colours. The display can range
from 16 to over 1 million different colours. These
accept three different signals, i.e., red, green and
blue.
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 45
Classification of monitors on the basis of
size: The smallest size for VGA monitors is 14
inches. Other typical monitor sizes are 17 inches,
20 inches, 23 inches etc.
Classification of monitors on the basis of
Resolution: As explained earlier, the resolution
of a monitor is the number of pixels per inch
appearing on its surface. High resolution results
in sharper picture quality.
Generally, modern monitors can display
1024 by 768 pixels. But better quality models
are available which are capable of displaying
1280 by 1024, or even 1600 by 1200 pixels. 3280
by 2048 resolution monitors are also available.
CRTs are famous for providing variability in
resolution.
Classification of monitors on the basis of
signal: According to this classification, computers
can be categorized as under:
Analog Monitor: A monitor that is
capable of accepting continuously varying or
analog signals from the video adapter. This
allows the monitor to display an infinite range
of different colours. The majority of all CRT
monitors are analog monitors where all flat-
panel displays are digital. These are the
traditional monitors.
Digital Monitor: Computer monitors that
uses a digital signal instead of an analog signal
are called digital monitors. Unlike an analog
monitor, a digital monitor has a set colour range
and is incapable of displaying an infinite range
of colours. A digital signal is an electronic
signal that is sent as binary digits of either ON
or OFF. Digital monitors can be further
categorized as:
Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA)
Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
Video Graphics Array (VGA), and
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Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA) (b) Dot-Matrix Printer: It is a printer with a
Printers: After the monitor, printers are used print head and prints through impact using a
widely as an output device. These help to produce ribbon. It prints in dots and can print various fonts
hard copies of the output. The output is provided and styles. This acquired a large demand in market
on papers using this device. Printers can be for a longer period for being cheaper. Dot matrix
classified according to the print quality and printers use dots to form characters and illustra-
printing speed. tions. Example is given under:
A. Printing Technology: On the basis of
printing technology printers can be classified as
under:
(a) Impact Printers: It uses the technology
of standard typewriter. The paper is striked by a
hammer through ink ribbon and gets the
impression.
(b) Non-impact Printers: It uses electrical

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or chemical signals to get impression on paper.
B. Speed: On the basis of speed printers are
of following types:
1. Character Printer: It prints only one

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character at a time. They remind the traditional
typewriter. Examples are given below:
(a) Daisy-Wheel Printer: This type of printer
has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of
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each character is embossed.
previous printers. Some of these are as under:
A hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon,
and the character appears on the paper. The wheel
contains characters so it cannot print graphics. The
speed and print quality is not very good.
Advantages:
Impact printers have some advantages over the
Dot matrix printers use continuation paper
so there is no need to drop paper one by
one.
These can even be used to print carbon
copies.
These have lowest printing costs per page.
Though quality of print is not as good as
the new version of printers but these are
very reliable and cost effective.
Limitations:
Impact printers make lot of noise while
working.

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When it comes to printing graphics, they
yield no better results.
Speed is also very slow as these print one
character or even dot at a time.
2. Line Printer: Line printers can overcome
the speed problem of the character printers to some
extend. These printers print one entire line at a
time. So, these are used to print large amount of
data. These printers can print from 300 to 2500
lines per minute. Examples : Drum Printers and
Chain Printers.
3. Page Printer: These printers are high in
speed when compared to the line printers as they
print a full page at once. Not only this, they produce
high quality print. These can produce 10 to 25
pages in a minute. The technology used in these
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printers is the laser printer technology and thus,
these are called the laser printers.
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Classification of Printers on the Basis of Quality
C. Quality: The various types of printers
based on print quality are as follows:
1. Inkjet Printer: The Inkjet printer works
on Inkjet technology and produces better quality
printouts than dot matrix printers. These print
by spraying a controlled stream of tiny ink
droplets accurately on the paper forming either
dot matrix or solid characters. The printing
quality of these printers is very good with a
speed of 700 or more characters per second.
These are non-impact and hence are relatively
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 47
silent during the printing process. These printers
are easy to use and can be used to print colour
pages.
Advantages: Compared to other printers,
inkjet printers have a number of advantages. These
are:
These are fast printing machines.
The quality of printing is very fine.
These are not noisy devices.
Better quality text and images can be
printed using these printers.
Limitations
These printers run on expensive ink.
The ink get dried if not used for a few days.
Often empty cartridge message is shown
before the cartridge is actually empty.
2. Laser Printer: Laser printers are given this
name because they run on laser beam technology
to produce an image on a drum. Thus, the quality
of the print is really very fine. Speed of these
printers is also good. They function as photo-
copiers. Laser printers are also called page printers.
These printers can be further classified into
the following:
Monochrome Laser Printer: These
printers use single colour toner and cannot give
coloured print out. These are cheaper version of
laser printers.
Colour laser printer: These printers use
four toners to print variety of colours. These are
comparatively costlier than the monochrome.
Print speed, quality, printer resolution,
reliability and the costs of toner are the major
deciding factors for choosing a printer.
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48 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

Plotters: Plotter is again an output device. A

plotter is a printer that interprets commands from
a computer to make line drawings on paper with
one or more automated pens. Unlike a regular
printer, the plotter can draw continuous point-to-
point lines directly from vector graphics files or
commands. Plotters are mainly used for CAD
purpose or to draw big graphs, that is why these
are called graph plotters. These are more expensive
than printers. The quality of prints is very good. Microphone: A microphone, usually called as
These play a role in variety of designing mike is an electric device which is used to convert
applications. sound signals into electrical signals. These allow
the user to feed sound in the computer in form of
wave files. It has to be physically connected to the
computer before being used. Some new computers

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have integrated microphones too.

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Plotters are of two types:
Drum Plotter: These are lower version of

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plotters. It is a graphics output device that draws
lines with a continuously moving pen on a sheet
of paper rolled around a rotating drum that moves
the paper in a direction perpendicular to the motion
Q. 1. What do you mean by input devices?
of the pen.
Ans. Computer receives data as signals or
Flat-Bed Plotter: These plotters have
commands as input. This is done by using input
higher resolution than the drum plotters. These are
devices. Input devices which allow the user to
computerized plotters that plot by moving an arm
feed the data or information into the computer.
that moves a pen over paper rather than having
Examples are keyboard, mouse, joystick, etc.
paper move under the arm.
Input ca n be p rovi de d to t he compu ter
Speakers and Microphones
manually, by sensors or by using other storage
Speakers: Computer speakers, or multimedia
devices.
speakers, are output devices which when
Q. 2. What do you mean by output devices?
connected to the computer allow the user to hear
Ans. Output devices are attached to the
audio sound, songs, etc. In laptops generally
computer to provide output to the user. This output
speakers are inbuilt.

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can be in various forms, a display on screen, in
soft form (CD) or in form of a hard copy.
Q. 3. Name some input and output devices.
Ans. Input devices: Keyboard, mouse,
joystick, trackball etc.
Output devices: Screen, printer, plotter, CDs.
Q. 4. What do you mean by keyboard?
Ans. Keyboard is an input device which
contains alphanumeric, punctuation and special
keys. It allows the user to interact with the
computer and provide data and commands to the
system.
Q. 5. What do you mean by mouse and what
are its types?
Ans. Mouse is a popular input device which
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allows the user to move the cursor to point to an
item, select it and provide command to the
computer. Generally, a mouse has two to three
buttons. Different types of mouse are:
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Optical Mouse,
Mechanical Mouse, and
Wireless Mouse.
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Q. 6. What do you mean by scanners and
what are their functions?
Ans. Scanners are pick devices. These allow
the user to scan an image, picture, handwritten
document or map etc. and provide its image into
the computer in digital form.
Q. 7. What do you mean by joystick and
trackballs in a computer system?
Ans. Joystick is a remote control input device
for a computer. It has a stick that pivots on a base
and is used for controlling the action generally in
video games. These are also used to control heavy
machines and robots.
A Trackball is another input device, which is
in form of a moveable ball mounted on a stationary
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 49
device. It can be rotated manually by using the
fingers. It is also used in playing video games.
Q. 8. What is the function of Graphic
Tablet?
Ans. The function of Graphic tablet is to act
as an input device. It is used to draw images and
graphics. It can be helpful to capture signature etc.
Q. 9. What do you mean by multimedia
graphics tablet?
Ans. Multimedia means using more than one
media. A graphics tablet is a computer input device
that allows to draw images and graphics, write text
etc. and thus, helps to create multimedia products.
Q. 10. What do you mean by Computers
Microphones?
Ans. A microphone is an input device for
computers, which is used to convert the sound or
voice into digital signal and provides it to the
system to be processed further.
Q. 11. What do you mean by barcode
reader?
Ans. A barcode reader as the name suggests is
an electronic device, used to read barcodes. It is
based on laser beam technology to read the
barcodes.
Q. 12. What do you mean by digital
camera? Explain its various characteristics.
Ans. Digital cameras are pick devices which
are used to capture video or still images. These
provide a variety of choice to the user to choose
the resolution, style and other options. These can
save the images using memory and help to edit or
delete the images immediately or later on. These
can be connected to the computer to transfer the
data.
Q. 13. What do you mean by speakers?
Ans. Speakers are used as output devices for
computers. These provide the output in form of
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50 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
sound. Generally, these come in pair. These have
to be physically attached to the computer to get
the audio output.
Q. 14. What do you mean by printers? What
are the various types of printers?
Ans. Printer is most commonly used output
device. It is used to take the print out on papers. It
can print text, pictures etc. These provide the hard
copy of the work done on computer. Printers can
be categorized by:
Impact Printers:
(a) Line Printers
1. Drum Printers,
2. Chain Printers.
(b) Character Printers
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1. Dot Matrix Printers,
2. Daisy Wheel Printers.
(c) Non-impact Printer
1. Thermal Printers
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2. Inkjet Printers
3. Laser Printers.
Q. 15. What do you mean by plotters?
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Explain their characteristics.
Ans. A plotter is used as an output device to
computers. It receives signals and commands from
the computer and provide the high quality graphics
print out on paper. It can provide output in variety
of sizes. Basically these are used for designing
software.
Q. 16. What do you mean by a dot-matrix
printer?
Ans. A dot matrix printer is a type of impact
printer which is used to provide print out on paper.
Its head runs back and forth on a paper to leave
impact. These are cheaper cost wise.
Q. 17. What do you mean by Laser
Printers?
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Ans. These are non-impact high speed printers.
These use the laser beam technology and run very
fastly. The output is of very high quality.
Q. 1. Write in detail about the input devices
of computer.
Ans. Input devices are things we use to put
information INTO a computer. Below are some
examples of input devices.
Camera: Most cameras are used during live
conversations. The camera transmits a picture from
one computer to another.
Compact Disc (CD): CDs store information.
The CD can then be put into another computer,
and the information can be opened and added or
used on the second computer.
Mouse: The mouse is used to open and close
files, navigate websites, and click on a lot of
commands when using different applications.
Keyboard: The keyboard is a way to input
letters or numbers into different applications or
programs.
Microphone: A microphone is used to record
sound. The sound is then saved as a sound file on
the computer.
Drawing Tablet: A drawing tablet is similar
to a white board, except you use a special pen to
write on it and it’s connected to the computer.
Scanner: A scanner is used to copy pictures
or other things and save them as files on the
computer.
Joystick: A joystick is used to move the cursor
from place to place, and to click on various items
in programs.
Disk Drive: A disk drive can hold a CD or
a floppy disk. It reads the information on the
disk.
Touch Screen: A touch screen is a computer
screen or other screen that you can touch with
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your finger to enter information. Examples of
touch screens include a microwave, or an ATM
at a bank.
Bar Code Scanner: A bar code scanner scans
a little label that has a bar code on it. The
information is then saved on the computer.
Q. 2. Write in detail about the output
devices of computer.
Ans. Output devices are things we use to get
information OUT of a computer.
Below are some examples of output devices:
Monitor: A monitor is the screen on which
words, numbers, and graphics can be seem.
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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES / 51
Compact Disk: Some compact disks can be
used to put information on. This is called burning
information to a CD.
Speaker: A speaker gives you sound output
from your computer.
Printer: A printer prints whatever is on the
monitor onto paper. Printers can print words,
numbers, or pictures.
Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is used to record
information on. The information is stored on the
floppy disk and can be used later.
Disk Drives: A disk drive is used to record
information from the computer onto a floppy disk
or CD.
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52
My Personal Computer
Computer is a versatile machine. We have read
in the previous chapter about its all pervasive uses.
It is being used in almost every area, be it
education, banking, health, engineering, research,
etc.
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A personal computer is called personal
because of its size, ease of maintenance and low
cost as compared to the conventional computer.
But even the PC can be classified on the basis of
size and processing capacity. These can be
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classified as a desktop or a laptop or even a
palmtop. The area of usage is vast. Even a school
going child is using it, and the professional sitting
in a research center is using the PC. But yes the
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configuration of the PC will depend on the usage
and the cost will depend of the configuration. The
capacity of the personal computers increase when
connected to the network as it provides sharing of
information and resources.
In the current chapter, we will learn about the
meaning and purpose of the personal computer,
its types, hardware components, software and its
types, operating system installation process,
network configuration and tools and application
of personal computer. Some practical aspects will
also be discussed.
TYPES OF PC
We can classify a personal computer on the
basis of differences in the following areas:
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5
processing capability,
storage capability,
size,
appearance, and
problem solving capacity.
A PC used for gaming will be of different
capacity than a PC used by a computer operator
for simple data processing like word processing.
The configuration of the PC tells us about the
difference.
Configuration of a PC: Configuration tells
about the technical details of the PC. Configuration
depends on the requirement of work to be done
through a PC. It also depends on the amount of
money we want to spend on it. This is the first
question asked when we go to buy a PC. We select
the brand, the processor, the storage capacity
according to our need. We can get these assemble
to form a PC of your requirement or you can get a
ready branded PC. The following are to be
considered when configuration is talked about:
Processor: These are the main component
of the system. Pentium processors are most
commonly used brand by Intel. Core 2 Duo
processors (two processors on a single chip)
are used. Core 2 Quad (multi-chip
processors) even offer twice as good
performance as the Duo. Multi core
processors are used for multi processing
and enhance the system speed. One clock
cycle is the time it takes to perform one
instruction. Processor takes one clock cycle
to perform one instruction so its speed of
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MY PERSONAL COMPUTER / 53

executing instruction can be known by the Typical Configuration of a Work Station

clock speed which is measured in MHz Processor: Intel Core Processor (3.20 GHz)
(megahertz) or GHz (gigahertz). Memory: 4GB 1333MHz Hard Disk: 500GB,
RAM, RAM - 2GB
Hard-Disk Drive,
Desktop Computers
Video card, etc.
Speed of the processor can be seen during the
booting. The configuration of the system can be
seen by opening ‘my computer’ icon on the desktop
of the PC.
Workstation: Workstation computers are used
where high performance is needed for example
CAD, engineering applications etc. These are high
computing power systems and use multiuser
operating system like UNIX and Windows NT.
Having a multiuser operating system, these have
a higher processing capacity. Basically these are
meant to be used as single user computer system

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and have a capacity to get connected to LAN.
When connected to the network, the system Image of Desktop Computer
administrator can trace the activities of the user.
Desktop computer are called so because of the
High capacity mainframe computers are also
called workstation. A computer connected to ability of being fitted on the top of a desk. These

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network in a client server mode is also called are fixed on the top with wires connected to the
workstation. socket and it is not advisable to move them here
and there every now and then. These are not easily
portable. This type of PC is very common and can

www.neerajbooks.com be seen easily, actually it made the concept of PC

very popular. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, etc.
are used as operating system as a general practice.
These are provided to the customer in many forms
of designs of the cabinets.
Advantages
This type of PC can be connected to
internet.
These are not very costly and can be used
for variety of uses.
Desktop PC provides more space for heat
to escape.
These have low power consumption.
Branded PCs can also be purchased apart
from buying the assembled PC.
A Configuration of Desktop Computer
Image of a Workstation Processor: Intel Pentium 4

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54 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
RAM: 1 GB DDR II RAM (double data rate
type)
Hard Disk: 500 GB SATA /IDE
Graphics: Intel Graphics Media Accelerator
950 (Intel GMA 950) / Creative graphics card.
Laptop: Laptop are smaller in size and can
be taken anywhere very easily. These provide the
freedom to the user to take them anywhere. This
feature gains an advantage over desktop. These
are machines in which the screen and keyboard
are attached to each other. These can be folded
and kept in a bag after working. All components
are present in a single unit. Famous brands selling
laptops are Sony, Wipro, Compaq, Dell, HCL.
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Advantages
Image of Laptop
Portability.
It can get backup from the batteries and do
not depend on electricity each time. These
batteries can be recharged through
electricity.
These can work when the electricity is
gone.
These provide the freedom of attaching
devices like mouse externally through
ports.
Efficiency is higher than PCs.
Limitations
The scope of upgrading the laptops is very
limited.
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A Configuration of Laptop is given below:
Processor: Intel Pentium processor P6200
(2.13 GHz, 3 MB)
Hard Disk: 320 GB SATA HDD
RAM: 3 GB Memory: 1 GB DDR3 RAM
Netbook: Netbooks are also referred to as mini
notebook, mini laptop, or sub notebook. Netbook
is a term coined by Intel that describes a portable
computer that is about half the size of a traditional
laptop. These are light in weight and small in size.
This feature makes them very portable. These can
serve as a general PC and allow the internet
connection. Operating systems used may be:
Windows, Linux, Android, etc. Famous brands are
Sony, Apple, Acer, Dell.
Netbook
Advantages
The cost is lower as compared to laptops.
More portable than desktops and laptops.
Limitation
Less powerful hardware.
A Configuration of Netbook is given below:
Processor: Intel Atom Memory: 1 GB DDR2
RAM Hard Disk: 80 GB
Tablet PC: A tablet PC is a computer of the
size of a tablet. It functions as a personal computer.
Portability comes to its peak with a tablet PC. It is
smaller in size and can be easily carried. This
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MY PERSONAL COMPUTER / 55

computer provides the facility of touch screen, Computer Case

which helps in easy input and provides handwriting
recognition. It can be connected to network.
It is basically a slate shaped mobile computer
device. It has office suits, which allow a user to
use Word, Excel, etc. You can play games and get
connected to the internet also.
Operating system: Windows, Linux, etc.
Famous brands are: Acer, Lenovo, Panasonic, etc.

A computer case is a box, also known as

cabinet or computer chassis, which covers the
delicate components of the system. The CPU,

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RAM, Motherboard, RAM, Power supply, Hard
disk and other disk drives reside inside it. Besides
this, the wires and data cables can be found in
cabinet. A variety of sizes and colours are available

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in computer cases. There are power buttons which
help to switch on or off the power supply.
Tablet PC
Central Processing Unit

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Typical Configuration of a Tablet PC
Processor: Intel Core 2 Duo ULV processor
SU9300 (1.20GHz).
Memory: 5GB (1x1GB on board, 1x4GB
DIMM) DDR3 1066MHz.
Hard Drive: 80GB 5400RPM SATA HDD.
HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A PC
Hardware is the tangible section of the
hardware, which can be seen and touched.
Hardware and software both are important Central Processing Unit is known as the brain of
components of a computer system. the system. The processing unit is responsible for
There are many hardware components processing the data according to the commands
attached to a computer. Each of them has a separate and providing the output. CPU fetches the data
function to perform. These are CPU, Input and and information, decodes it, executes the
output devices like monitor, printer, mouse, command and provides the output. The parts of
keyboard, memory devices, etc. CPU are:

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56 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Arithmetic Motherboard: The motherboard, also

and logic unit as the name suggests, performs
arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and other scientific
operations and logical operations like AND etc.
Control Unit (CU): Control unit is
responsible for controlling the operation of the
other components of the computer.
known as the system board or main board, contains
the most important circuit of a microcomputer.
That is why it is also called the main board. As a
mother connects all the family members, the
motherboard connects all the components of a
system.

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It is responsible for communication in all the
parts and allows them to receive power supply.
Main function of the motherboard is to act as an
(vii) PCI Slots: PCI stands for Peripheral
component interconnect.
(viii) CMOS: Complementary Metal oxide
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interface between all the components, i.e., all the
devices used for input or output, CPU, memory,
semiconductor or, Non-Volatile RAM CMOS is
an on-board semiconductor chip powered by a
etc. It can be called the foundation of the system. CMOS battery inside computers that stores
It has many parts, some of them are: information such as the system time and date and
(i) ATX Power Supply Connector: This the system hardware settings for your computer.
power connector connects the computer power (viii) CMOS Battery: It supplies power to
supply to an ATX style motherboard. CMOS.
(ii) CD-in Header: CD drive is connected
through this.
(iii) AGP Slot: AGP stands for Accelerated
Graphics Ports. This allow the video card to get
attached to the motherboard.
(iv) HDD Headers: HDD stands for Hard
Disk Drive header. This is used to connect hard
disk.
(v) FDD Header: FDD stands for Floppy Disk
Drive. This is used to connect floppy disk.
(vi) USB Headers: It is used for attaching These days high performance video cards are
external or auxiliary devices such as pen drive, available for gaming purposes which requires very
printer etc. high resolution.

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Video Card: A video card is also known as
Graphics adapter. It is an expansion card, which
generates output images to a display. Most video
cards offer various functions such as accelerated
rendering of 3D scenes and 2D graphics, MPEG-
2/MPEG-4 decoding. The feature of TV output is
an added advantage of graphic cards. Some
advanced software for example, gaming high
performance video cards are required because high
resolution is required for these. But the only
drawback of using these high performance graphic
cards is that these consume very high power. Many
high resolution graphic adapters are available in
the market. The components of Video card circuit
board are:
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU),
Video Memory,
Video BIOS etc.
SOFTWARE COMPONENTS
You already know that hardware and software
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both are integral parts of the computers, in the
absence of one, the other cannot perform. Software
is a set of programmes which is written by
programmers for specific tasks. These programmes
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Media Player
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MY PERSONAL COMPUTER / 57
may be written in variety of programming
languages. These program help the computer to
solve a particular problem by providing step-by-
step instructions. Software can be classified as
follows:
1. System Software: These are software
which are necessary for a system to run. These
work as interface between the hardware
component and the user. These are used to control
the functioning of the system. The main example
is Operating System. Operating system is a system
software which allows the user to interact with
the machine and manages all the peripherals. It
also provides a platform for application software
to run on. It takes care of the input and output,
memory management etc. So it is the most
important software. Without an Operating System,
it is not possible to run a computer. Example:
Microsoft Windows, UNIX, LINUX, etc.
2. Application Software: Application
software are also set of programmes but these are
designed by programmers to get specific task done.
These are meant for one or more specific purposes
such as accounting, word processing, etc.
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Media Player
Media player is an application software which is used to play multimedia files. These contain media
library. Generally, these are capable of playing audio and video. These are used to play music on computer
and watch movies. Example: Winamp, WinDVD, Real player etc. Windows OS provide inbuilt Windows
media player. Some latest media players provide the features like:
Ripping: This feature allows converting an audio track to a digital audio file.
Burning: This feature allows converting a digital audio file to an audio track.
Audio file formats which are commonly used are: .mp2,.mp3, .mp4, .wav etc.
Video file formats which are commonly used are: .wmv, .mov, . rm, .mpg etc.
Calculator

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Windows operating system provides calculator Computer Games.

software which allows the user to perform Utility Software: Utility software or utilities
mathematical operations. are used to perform routine tasks of the system.
Some other commonly used application These system software which are designed to
software are: maintain the computer. A single piece of utility
Word Processor software is usually called a utility or tool. Software
Spreadsheet utilities are specifically designed to help the end-
Presentation Software user manage and tune the computer hardware,
Accounting Software software, operating system or application software
Graphics Software and perform routine tasks. It performs as single

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MY PERSONAL COMPUTER / 59

precise task. Examples: Disk Defragmentation This can fix logical file system errors.
System, Profile/Status Virus Scanners, Text Editor How to do?
Archive, etc. These software can be classified as : In Microsoft windows, DOS and OS/2 we use
System restore CHKDSK command for this. CHKDSK helps to
Disk checker repair bad sectors, lost clusters, directory errors
Disk defragmenters etc.
Disk clearners 1. This command can be given from My
Disk management computer in the following way:
Back up Double-click on my computer icon on the
Anti virus desktop or select My computer from Start
Network utilities. Menu.
Utilities come clubbed with the operating Right-click on the disk drive to be checked.
system or these can be added. Utility software Select properties from the list.
helps to: Now click on tools tab given on the top.
Search a file or folder Click on Check Now button under Error
Scan for virus checking.
Format the system A dialog box will get opened now select
Check for available space in memory or Check disk options:
hard disk Automatically fix file system errors check
Take backup of files. box will repair errors without scanning the volume

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Let us understand a few utility software and
their functions:
Disk Checkers: Disk checkers are used to
check the integrity status of file system of a disk,
be it a hard disk, floppy disk or pen drivem etc.
for bad sectors.
Scan for and attempt recovery of bad
sectors check box will repair errors and locate bad
sectors. It will also recover readable information.
Select one of the above and click Start.

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60 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

2. This command can be given from the command prompt by following these steps:
Click Start and then click Run.
In Open box type cmd and click on OK button.
DOS window will appear write CHKDSK on the command prompt if you want to run check disk in
read only mode, press Enter.
or
Type CHKDSK volume:/f and press Enter if you want to repair errors without locating for bad
sectors.
or
Type chkdsk volume:/r at command prompt and press Enter if you want to repair errors, locate bad
sectors and recover information.

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After finishing the command the control returns a code which means :
Exit Code Description
0 No Errors found
1 Errors found and corrected
2 Disk cleanup was performed/not performed because /f was not specified.
3 Could not check the disk, errors could not be corrected or errors were not corrected
because /f was not specified.

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System Restore: System restore is a facility which helps to roll backs system files, registry keys,
etc in case of system malfunction or failure, for later use. All the modern operating systems from Windows
Windows XP, Windows vista, Windows ME, etc. provide this facility. System restore brings the computer
system’s file to the earlier state. This is necessary to do restore when there occurs some malfunctioning
due to any cause. Reinstalling the software and files may fix the problem, but if not, restore can help
bring the files back to the previous state. System restore does not help to take back up of our personal
files, these cannot be restored using system restore.
Steps to Use System Restore
1. Click on Start menu, select All Programs, click Accessories, now click on System Tools, and
then click System Restore.

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2. On the Welcome to System Restore page, click Restore my computer to an earlier time (if it
is not already selected), and then click Next.

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3. On the Select a Restore Point page, under On this list, click a restore point list, click the most
recent system restore point and click Next.
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4. Click on next on the Confirm Restore Point Selection page.

Now the previous configurations will be restored and the system will get restarted.

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5. Log on to the computer as Administrator. The System Restore Restoration Complete page is
displayed.
6. Click on OK.
Disk Defragmenter: Disk defragmenter utility helps to fragment the files and store them in
contiguous locations on the hard disk which were previously spread here and there. This utitlity is
provided by the operating systems. This helps in minimizing the head movements of the hard disk and
thereby reducing the time of moving the files to and fro into the memory. Fragmentation of the memory
slows the performance of the system, this utility helps to defragment the files. Defragmenter should be
run at regular intervals to get faster access to the files.
Running Defragmenter
1. Click Start menu on the task bar, select All Programs, click on Accessories and then click
System Tools, and further click on Disk Defragmenter.

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2. In the Disk Defragmenter dialog box, click on the drives to be defragmented and then click the

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Analyze button. It will tell you whether there is a need of defragmentation or not.

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3. If you want to defragment, click the
Defragment button.
4. The result will be displayed.
5. If you want to view the detailed report, click
on View Report.
Data Compression: Compression means
squeezing or packing together. Data compression
is the process in which data stored on the disk is
encoded with lesser bits as compare to the original
representation. By using this utility, the size of the
file can be reduced to get more and more data
stored on the disk. The size of text file can be
squeezed much as compared to graphic file. We
use zip/unzip utility for this.
Zip utility helps to compress a file and create
its compressed version with zip extension.
Advantages
Lesser storage space is required to store
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same file.
Smaller file gets fastly transmitted.
Some zip utilities allow to encrypt the data
for security purposes.
Using Zip
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Right-click the file to be zipped.
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Select WinZip from the menu
Click add to zip file
It will zip and make a zip file.
Unzip utility helps to unzip a file to make its
contents visible.
Using unzip
Right- click the zipped file.
Select Extract from the shortcut menu.
Disk Management: Disk Management utility
is used to manage the disks and their partitions.
This is used to initialize disk, create and format
volumes etc. It is very user friendly utility. Disks
and volumes can be seen in graphical or list views.
A command line tool disk part can be used as its
alternative. You can also display disks and volumes
in graphical or list view.
How to Open Disk Management
Click My Computer, and then open Control
Panel. Click Administrative Tools, and then
double-click Computer Management.
In the console tree, click Storage and then
click Disk Management.
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Another way:
1. Click Start menu, click on Run, type compmgmt.msc, now click OK.
2. In the console tree, click Disk Management.
DESKTOP
Desktop is the screen area which the icons, files, folders, task bar are organized in graphical user
interface. Desktop is the background area of the functional computer. Which provides a chance to a user
to select any of its content using mouse or even keyboard. Any file or folder present here can be opened
by simple double click. Icons provide the freedom of GUI and provides ease of selection, and other
features like copy paste with them. These can be easily dragged from one place to another place and
escapes the need for the user to remember commands for all these functions. The desktop can be
customized by adding or deleting items, changing the background etc.
Commonly found items icons of Desktop:
My Computer
My Documents
Recycle Bin
Task Bar
Recycle bin

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Customised icons

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My Computer
My Computer allows the user to explore and
manage the contents of available drives or disks
on the computer.
My Documents
My documents is a folder that stores
documents, program settings and other files that
are there on the system. This is the default folder
where all the files saved without giving path will
get saved.
Recycle Bin
Recycle bin is a folder, which holds deleted
files and folders. When a file, folder or program is
deleted, it goes to the recycle bin, from where it
can be restored. For permanent deletion, it must
be deleted from the recycle bin too, by emptying
the bin. It can be compared to your room dustbin.
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If you throw any paper or file in your room dustbin
you can pick it back till it is there but once it gets
cleaned, it will not be possible to get your things
back. The Recycle Bin only stores files, which are
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deleted from hard drives. It does not do it for files
deleted from removable drives or network. If you
want your files to get deleted directly without going
to recycle bin, keep the SHIFT key pressed while
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deleting the files.
Restoring files from recycle bin.
Open the icon by double clicking it.
Right click on the file and select restore.
Or
Click on restore all items if you want to
restore all.
Taskbar
You can see a horizontal bar at the bottom of
the desktop. This is the task bar which contains
the Start menu, and the tabs of the running
programmes. It can be dragged and be made a
vertical taskbar. It can be placed on any wall of
the desktop. Make sure the lock taskbar option is
not switched on before dragging it, as it will not
allow it to move.
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Components of Taskbar
The Start menu button.
The quick launch toolbar.
The opened programs or file’s tabs.
The notification area: Which includes a
clock and status of certain programs and
computer settings.
INTERNET ON A PC
Internet is a network of networks. It enables
the user to share information and resources with a
wide network. It allows the user to get updated
and any type of information can be found on just a
few mouse clicks. Use of internet can be seen in
every area, be it education or industry, banking or
communication, shopping or counselling, there is
an ever increasing list of its usage. We can get our
many works done without moving to the specified
place like banks, reservation counters, shopping
complex, etc. This makes the life easier and keeps
us connected with the outer world.
Common ways to get connected to internet:
Dial-up Internet Connection: The most
common way to get connected is the PSTN, public
switched telephone network via telephone lines.
It helps to get connected to an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). It is based on the telephone
network. A MODEM (modulator demodulator) is
used for connection. It is a hardware device or
software application program which allows the
computer to transmit data/information over a
network. We know that computers store infor-
mation in digital form but data transmission over
telephone lines needs the data to be converted into
analog signal. While receiving the data the opposite
is to be done. This is done by a modem.
Broadband Internet Connection: As
compared to dial up connections Broadband
Connection provide a high data rate transfer. This
allows quick uploads and downloads.
Webcasting is a video or audio broadcasting
of a presentation over the internet. Activities of
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this type are facilitated by broadband and the like
connections having high speed. This is playing a
vital role in education, entertainment and so on.
Proxy Server: A proxy server is a computer
server or it may be a software program that is part
of the gateway server or another computer that
separates a local network from outside networks.
The function the a proxy server is mainly to cache
the pages accessed through the network and allow
the users to visit it again. This gets loaded fastly
and help to reduce the network traffic. If a user
wants to open a new page, it will access the page
using its own IP address, cache the page, and
forward it to the user. So its function is to work as
an intermediary between the client application and
the Web server. It can also filter certain websites
to be prevented to view. It is also used to increase
the safety.
Internet Explorer can be used to work as a
proxy over a LAN connection. Follow the steps to
do this:
1. Open Internet Explorer, go to Tools menu
and click on Internet Options, select the
Connections tab, and then select LAN Settings.

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2. In Proxy server, select the check box of Use a proxy server for your LAN. Type the IP address
of the proxy server in Address box.
3. In the Port box, type the port number used by the proxy server. Default being 8080.
4. If you do not want it to work while working on LAN, select Bypass proxy server for local
addresses.
5. Click OK in LAN Settings dialog box.
6. Click OK in Internet Options dialog box to come out.

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Q. 1. What is a PC? What are different
types of a PC?
Ans. PC is a computer, which has the features
of becoming a personal computer, like its size,
capacity and cost must be according to the
requirements of an individual. These are general
purpose computers which can perform variety of
functions and can cater to the need of almost every
individual. The configuration may vary from
person to person according to the need.
PC can be of following types:
Desktop Computer
Laptop Computer
Netbook
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PC Tablet.
Q. 2. How a laptop is differ from a desktop?
Specify one configuration of a laptop.
Ans. Laptop and desktop are types of PC. The
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main distinction is portability. A laptop is highly
portable computer which can be taken anywhere
in a bag, but a desktop is kept on the top of a desk
and can not be removed every time to take it here
PC.
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and there. The size of laptop is smaller than the
Configuration of a Laptop
Processor: Intel Core™ i5-2410M
Memory: 4GB DDR3 1333MHz memory
Hard Disk: 640GB HDD (5400rpm).
Q. 3. What is the need of a motherboard in
a computer? List some major components of a
motherboard.
Ans. Motherboard, also known as system
board, is the most important component of the
computer as it holds many important and delicate
parts of the computer. It works as a base for the
processor, main memory and some other
semiconductors. Various devices are connected
to motherboard through ports. Components are
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MY PERSONAL COMPUTER / 69
ATX Power Connector, AGP Slot, CD-in header,
etc.
Q. 4. What is an operating system?
Ans. Operating system is a system software
which works as an interface between the user and
the machine. It also provides platform for
application software to run on. It is a must for the
hardware and software to work. It manages the
input, output processing and file management of
the system.
Q. 5. What is utility software? List some
utility software used in a PC.
Ans. These are the software which help to
perform day-to-day tasks and maintenance of the
system. Normally, these clubbed as a package in
system software. These are meant to perform a
specific function. Examples:
Anti virus
Disk Defragmenter
Data Compression
Disk Management
File compare
Back up,
Q. 6. Why System Restore is used? Explain
how you will use the System Restore.
Ans. Sometimes due to any problem, system
data may get corrupted. These changes can make
the system slow or don’t allow to function properly.
These changes can be undone by using System
restore. It can restore system backup files but not
user made files.
Steps:
1. Click on Start menu, select All Programs,
click Accessories, now click on System
Tools, and then click System Restore.
2. On the Welcome to System Restore page,
click Restore my computer to an earlier
time (if it is not already selected) and then
click Next.
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3. On the Select a Restore Point page, under
On this list, click a restore point list, click
the most recent system restore point and
click Next.
4. Click on next on the Confirm Restore
Point Selection page. Now the previous
configurations will be restored and the
system will get restarted.
5. Log on to the computer as Administrator.
The System Restore Restoration
Complete page is displayed.
6. Click on OK.
Q. 7. What is desktop on a computer? What
are different items found on desktop?
Ans. Desktop is a main screen or background
on a computer. It contains icons, files, folders etc.
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It can be customized, the user can add or delete
icons from the desktop.
Some common items of desktop:
My Computer
My Documents
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Recycle Bin
Task Bar.
Q. 8. What are the different methods for
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accessing the internet? Explain methods.
Ans. Following are the methods of accessing
the internet:
Accessing the Internet are through a dial up
connection, here the connection is set through
telephone lines. ISPs are service providers. It
requires a modem.
Accessing through direct connection or say
broadband. It is faster than the previous
connection. Direct connection is an ISDN
(Integrated services digital network) line, a fiber
optical line, etc.
Q. 1. Write in detail about the laptop.
Ans. A laptop computer, usually called a
notebook computer is a battery- or AC-powered
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personal computer generally smaller than a
briefcase that can easily be transported and carried.
A laptop typically weighs less than 5 pounds and
is 3 inches or less in thickness. Among the best-
known makers of laptop computers are IBM,
Apple, Compaq, Dell, and Toshiba.
Laptop computers generally cost more than
desktop computers with the same capabilities
because they are more difficult to design and
manufacture. A laptop can effectively be turned
into a desktop computer with a docking station, a
hardware frame that supplies connections for
peripheral input/output devices such as a printer
or larger monitor.
Laptops use several different approaches for
integrating a mouse into the keyboard, including
the touch pad, the trackball, and the pointing stick.
Laptops usually come with displays that use thin-
screen technology. The thin film transistor or
active matrix screen is brighter and views better
at different angles than the STN or dual-scan
screen.
Q. 2. What are the components of computer
software?
Ans. Software is the compilation of computer
programs and similar data that supply the
instructions for what a computer should do.
Software also refers to greater computer programs
and information that are held in the storage area
of a computer for a particular purpose. Software
programs carry out the operation of the program
they implement by either serving as input for
additional software or by directly supplying the
computer hardware with instructions.
Software is a term that was created in contrast
to the term hardware, which means a physical
device. Unlike hardware, software cannot be
touched. There are times that software refers to
items not typically connected with computers such
as records, tapes, and film. There are even great,
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open source software applications like Freemind
and GNU Cash that allow users and developers to
see and change the code that runs the programs.
Some examples of software for a computer
include:
Middleware: This coordinates and controls
what is known as distributed systems.
Application Software: This includes
applications such as ERP software for groups,
video games or suites like Open Office.
Programming Languages: These describe
the semantics and syntax part of computer.
System Software: This includes the OS which
oversees computing resources. Currently, large
applications that run on machines such as websites
are referred to as system software since the user
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interface typically is through a graphical user
interface, like a web browser.
Firmware: This is small-level software that
is typically stored on programmable memory
devices that are electrical.
Test Ware: This is a type of software that is
used for testing software packages or hardware.
Device Drivers: These control the sections of
computers that include computer monitors, CD
drives, printers or disk drives.
Programming Tools: These achieve tasks on
computers. With programmers, these tools can be
used for reverse engineering or debugging legacy
systems that are older in order to verify source
code compatibility.
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72
BASICS OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software Evolution
A computer, as you must have realized till now,
is a versatile machine, which can help us perform
a variety of functions. It is being used to solve
difficult scientific problems to simple operations.
It is being used today in almost every sphere of
our life.
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You might have noticed that computers
perform different tasks at different outlets.
Children at home are using it to play or to learn,
bank officers are using it to keep track of the
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transactions and to perform e-banking, clerk at the
ticket counter uses it to book tickets, and so on.
How the same machine is capable of doing
different functions at different end? Actually, the
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difference lies in the use of software in that
particular computer. Software provides a variety
of functions and one has to choose proper software
according to the need to perform variety of tasks.
This chapter will help us understand about
meaning and need of software and its types, and
different aspects of software evolution.
WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
Till now, we have been reading about the
hardware part of the computer, means its various
components, various input or output devices. But
these are not enough to make it a system. These
are just the physical structure of the computer. But
actually computer is a system of hardware and
software both.
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6
Software is a set of programmes and
programme is a set of instructions for the computer
to perform a particular task or tasks.
These set of instructions tell all the parts of
the computer what is to be done and how it is to
be done, how the result will be flashed or saved
etc. These programmes are written by computer
programmers.
The computer programmers write these
programmes in English like programming
languages, which is then translated into machine
language (0s and 1s) by another computer program.
This translated program, called the software is
eventually executed to perform the preplanned task
and thus, get the job done.
SOFTWARE EVOLUTION
Evolution of the software has been very
interesting over the years. It has been taken
versatile shape with variety of tasks to be
accomplished. Now softwares are available to
perform almost every commercial task. The
architecture, designing paradigm has changed a
lot. Not only this, there has been a positive change
in the difficulty level of the programming
languages used to make programmes. These have
been more easier and user friendly now. Costs are
also becoming favourable. These points are
discussed below:
Evolution of Software Architecture:
Software architecture has to go hand in hand with
the evolution in the hardware:
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Mainframe Architecture: In the
mainframe software architectures, all the
intelligence lies with the central host computer.
Users interact with the host computer through
terminals that caputres keystrokes and sends that
information to the host. These terminals are not
intelligent. The main limitation of this type of
architecture is that it does not support any graphical
user interface or access to multiple databases from
geographically dispersed sites.
File Sharing Architecture: In this kind
of architecture, the server downloads files from
the shared location to the desktop environment.
The requested user job is then run both logic and
data in the desktop environment. These
architectures are good if shared usage and content
updating are very low as well as the volume of
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data to be transferred is low.
Main limitation of this architecture is that the
file sharing gets disturbed with the increase of
number of online users. The full file has to be
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downloaded to the user machine each time he/she
requests for a file, it enhances the traffic.
Client/Server Architecture: This
approach overcomes the limitation of file server
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where for each query the full file content has to be
uploaded every time. Here, by using a relational
database management system, also called
RDBMS, user queries are answered directly. This
reduces the network traffic by supplying relevant
query response to the client instead of the total
file transfer. It highly improves multi-user updating
through a GUI front end to a shared database. In
this architecture, remote procedure calls or
standard query language statements are being used
by clients to communicate with servers. A server
machine acts as host and runs programmes to share
resources with the clients. Clients send requests
to the servers and it fulfills them. The client and
server system may be of the following types:
The client/server system may be two-tiered,
three-tiered or n-tiered.
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 73
Two-tiered Architecture: With the advent of
RDBMS, it became possible to send a query and
fetch the required detail instead of mounting the
whole file as in the file server approach. Further,
the use of graphical user interface made it easier
to access the database. This system also helped in
reducing the traffic as the only necessary set of
information is being mounted. Here, the logic may
retain with the server or with the client.
The problem with this type of system was that
with the increase in the number of clients the
network congestion happened. The system was not
very sustainable with the increasing clients.
Though, it was better in handling congestion as
compared to file system because the full file was
not being mounted every time but still very high
number of clients made it congested over the
network.
Three-tiered Architecture: With the
advance-ments, another tier appeared in between
client and server and the architecture was called a
3 tier architecture. Here, the presentation (user
interface), processing (business functionality) and
data are separated into separate distinct entities.
This helps in improved performance. The first tier,
called the presentation layer normally consists of
a graphical user interface. The middle tier consists
of the application logic and the third tier is the
data layer. The three logical layers can lie in the
same machine also through smart software
configuration. This separation brings increase in
performance and flexibility.
The problem with this architecture is of
reusability of a computer programme in various
situations, which may be helpful in reducing the
cost of the software development because no new
software has to be developed for each and every
tiny task. Scalability is also problem with this
architecture.
N-tiered Architecture: In the term “N-tier”,
“N” implies any number, like 2-tier, or 4-tier,
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basically any number of distinct tiers used in the
architecture. Any number of levels arranged above
another, each serving distinct and separate tasks.
It can increase reusability and reliability.
Internet-based Architecture: It is by
definition a meta-network, a constantly changing
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Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a style of computing
whose foundation is the delivery of services,
software and processing capacity using private or
public networks. Cloud-based software services
typically mean that the consumer does not own
the hardware and software, but still gets the desired
service. It is an IT delivery model that offers large-
scale, shared infrastructure and computing
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collection of thousands of individual networks
intercommunicating with a common protocol. This
architecture is based in the very specification of
the standard TCP/IP protocol, designed to connect
any two networks which may be different in
internal hardware, software and technical design.
resources as a service through self-service pay-
per use access. Although it leverages recently
developed technology, cloud computing is a
business, not a technical trend. It is based on
Internet and remote servers. Web based emails and
chat are best examples of cloud based computing.
Key features of cloud computing are:
Infrastructure sharing
Scalable solution
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Self service
Pay per use
Rapid respond to customer’s need.
Benefits of cloud based solutions are:
Lesser cost of getting started.
Needs lesser time for a customer to go on
cloud solution.
Rapid respond to customer’s need.
Scalability.
Evolution of Software Design Paradigm
The style of the software programming also
envisaged new trends with the advancements in
other areas. Reusability of the software has always
been seen as a goal to achieve. To realize this goal,
the software design paradigm has to
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compartmentalize it according to the various
functions to be performed. These small
compartments or subunits may be used in any other
programme to perform the same function.
Non-structured Design Paradigm: This is
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the traditional type of programming where
statements were followed one after the other. These
were numbered to allow jump to any line. There
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were no procedures means in non-structured
programming no reusable units were there.
Structured and Modular Design Paradigm:
Structured programming allowed the use of
procedures, which further allowed the reusability
of the modules and repetition of the procedures
without hassle. It makes it easier to code, make
and understand. Alike functions and procedures
were grouped in form of modules. These modules
may be used in some other set of software.
Object Oriented Design Paradigm: OOD is
a type of programming in which programmers
define the data type of a data structure and the
types of operations (functions) that can be applied
to the data structure. Thus, the data structure
becomes an object that includes both data and
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 75
functions. OOD also allows the programmers to
create relationship between various objects. For
example, objects can inherit characteristics from
other objects. This allows reusability of modules
and also troubleshooting becomes easier.
Component Based Paradigm: The
component based programming is simple, easy,
reusable and organized. A component is one or
more classed that are compiled in a separate DLL
file. These classes are logically related. These can
be used in one or more applications. The
components can be encapsulated which means it
will provide the features needed, other features will
be hidden. These components can be smaller
having a single object inside the class or a complex
application. It supports the development of
software systems by assembling a set of
independently developed Components Off-The-
Shelf (COTS) in a ‘plug and play’ manner.
Service Oriented Paradigm: In these years,
a programming paradigm shift is in progress:
researchers and developers are moving from
component-based to service-based development.
This shift is deeply affecting the technology,
changing the way of addressing old problems and
producing new standards and methodologies to
address the new ones. A service has all the
characteristics of a component and it has some
additional also such as it can be developed using
different technologies and it can be executed in
different run time environments.
Evolution of Programming Languages
The need of programming language shifted
with the time from procedural to object oriented.
Some features are elaborated as under:
(a) Procedural Language: A computer
programming language that follows, in order, a set
of commands. Each instruction is executed in set
order from top to bottom. Examples of computer
procedural languages are BASIC, C, FORTRAN,
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and Pascal. Any programming language in which
the programmer specifies an explicit sequence of
steps to be followed to produce a result is called a
procedural language.
(b) Object Oriented Language: Object-
oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming
paradigm that uses objects. These objects are data
structures consisting of data fields and methods
together with their interactions. These are used to
design applications and computer programs. An
object oriented language supports the following:
Encapsulation: Encapsulation means the
mechanism of restricting the access to few objects’
components. Encapsulation makes the interface to
become visible but the implementation details of
the object are kept hidden.
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Inheritance: The child inherits some
characteristics from the parents. In object-oriented
programming too inheritance is a way to form new
classes using classes that have already been
defined. The new classes, known as derived
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classes, take over (or inherit) attributes and
behaviour of the pre-existing classes, which are
referred to as parent class. It helps to reuse existing
code with little or no modification.
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Polymorphism: By this feature different data
type values can be handled using a uniform
interface. It is the ability to process objects
differently according to their data types and to
redefine methods for derived classes.
Some features of object oriented
programming
1. Class: A class in object-oriented
programming to refer to a set of related objects
that share common characteristics. Classes and the
ability to create new classes are what make object-
oriented programming a powerful and flexible
programming model.
2. Object: An object is a specific instance of
a class. It receives all of the characteristics of a
class, including all of its default data and any
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actions that can be performed by its functions.
These objects are to be used with specific data or
to perform particular tasks.
3. Parameter: A parameter or argument is a
variable that is passed into a function to be
processed.
4. Method: A method is a programmed
procedure that is defined as part of a class.
5. Property: A property is the default set of
data of a class which can be changed. A class can
have more than one properties.
Evolution of Software Licensing
Since past few years, the concept of software
licensing is also getting weightage.
Introductions of Software Licensing:
Earlier the software was provided with access to
the source code and the modification was
allowed. But with time and increasing demand
of variety of software, it was felt that providing
copyright to use the software is more beneficial
than to allow to change the source code according
to the need of the user on their own. The license
of the software authorizes the purchaser to use it
without any time limit.
Propriety software is software that is the
property of the manufacturing company. No source
code is provided with them to get modified. Open
software is software that comes with the source
code to get modified by the user as per need or the
user can redistribute it by using its license.
Types of Software Licensing
1. Individual License: Individual license
gives permission to the software installation to only
one PC that is stand alone. It cannot be shared. It
can be of the following types:
(a) Perpetual License: This license allows
the software to be used unlimately on a stand alone
machine.
(b) Subscription Based: This license allows
the user to use the software for a limited period. If
he wants to use it further it has to be renewed.
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2. Open Source License: This license allows
the user to use, modify or redistribute it.
3. Commercial License: Commercial License
is need by the large enterprises because they need
it for the commercial purposes.
Main licensing models are:
(a) Traditional Model: Traditional models
can be of the following type:
single user-single license,
multi users-shared license,
temporary or fixed-period licenses.
(b) Transaction-based Model: This model
gives the user the liberty of accessing the system
from anywhere. This can be done by internet. The
user is not to be worried about the maintenance of
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the database. This is done by the service provider
who charges of per transaction from the user. The
pricing is based on the number of transactions.
(c) Rental Model: This model provides
liberty to the user from making heavy investment
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on hardware and software and provides them as
service. The service is provided on the special
demand on monthly or annual basis by the service
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providers on a predetermined rate as rent.
(d) Technology Partnerships: This type of
partnership happens between the service provider
and the user. The user becomes authorized to use
the technology for a longer period.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
Computer software can be broadly classified
as:
1. Systems Software: System software as the
name suggests is necessary for the system to
function and to work as a system. It enables the
hardware components to operate and works as an
interface. It prepares a platform for application
software to run. It includes the operating system
and all the other utilities that enable the computer
to function. Common system softwares are:
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 77
(a) Operating System: The operating system
works as an interface between the user and the
machine. It also provides the user the facility to
interact with the application programmes. We
cannot understand the language of the computer
and the computers are unable to understand our
language, it is Operating System (OS) that works
as an interpreter and translates our language or
commands into binary so that the computer and
understand and execute it provides the result in
our language. If we are interacting with any
application software or hardware of the computer,
we are actually interacting with the system OS
which is working as an interpreter. Some common
functions performed by the OS are:
Controlling the system
Directing input and output
Keeping track of the files
Controls the processing
Managing the functions of hardware
Running application software
Serving as an interface
Security.
(b) Server Programs: Server programs are
programs that awaits and fulfils programs in the
same or client computer. These run as services and
serve the requests of other programs. Examples:
Print server is used to manage multiple
print requests for multiple printers.
File server is used to manage file storage
and retrieval.
Web server is used for hosting websites.
Mail Server is used to manage and transfer
electronic mail.
Database server provides database
services to clients.
(c) Device Drivers: Device drivers work as
interface between the device and the system
operating system or the higher level programmes.
Only physical connection of the hardware does not
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78 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
do. Its driver should also be installed to get it
connected to the system operating system. Most
of the devices need drivers. Example:
Printers
Keyboards
Sound cards
Network cards
Card readers
Mouse
Image Scanners
Graphics cards
CD drives.
(d) Communications Software: Communi-
cation Software is needed in a networked
environment. It helps the computer to interact with
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other systems. Here, interacting means sharing of
resources and information. Security is also taken
care of.
2. Programming Software: Programming
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software allows a programmer to write
programmes for the computer without facing the
hurdles of machine language interaction. He can
use the programming languages for this purpose.
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Examples:
(a) Compilers: Compilers are programs that
translate the source code from a higher level
programming language to lower level machine
language. The compilers do not execute the
program, but they are used to translate the program.
(b) Debuggers: It is used to debug the target
program. It runs the program step by step to find
errors which can then be debugged. Some more
efficient debuggers are available which also help
to modify the program.
(c) Interpreters: It is a programming software
that executes the written program or the source
code after translating it. Read, check, execute loop
goes on.
(d) Linkers: These are the programs which
are used to combine one or more object file codes
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generated by a compiler to make single executable
program. Structured programming promotes a
modular approach where separate modules are
developed on the basis of nature of function they
perform. Programming for these modules can be
done independently and compiled to get object file.
At last this is the work of a linker programme to
link all the object files and make them turn into a
single executable program.
(d) Text Editors: These are the programs that
enable the user to create and edit text files. There
are many different types of editors.
Example: Notepad.
Application Software
It includes programs that do real work for
users. These are task specific software, which
have been developed to perform some specific
tasks. For example, word processors,
spreadsheets, and database management systems
fall under the category of applications software.
These are:
(a) Word Processing Software: As the name
suggests these are meant to create textual
documents. These software provide the utility of
editing, saving, printing these documents.
Example: MS Word by Microsoft Corporation.
(b) Spreadsheet Software: These documents
are needed to create numeric based documents,
which allow the numeric data to be entered and
processed. Editing, saving, formatting etc. features
are provided here also. Example: MS Excel by
Microsoft Corporation.
(c) Database Software: Database is an
organized collection of data in digital form which
allows the updation, addition, deletion and retrieval
quickly. These are used to maintain large data
collection. Example: Oracle.
(d) Presentation Software: These software
allows the user to create presentation files to be
shown slide by slide as a show in meetings,
seminars, etc. Features like sound and animation
effects can be added to make the slide show more
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effective. Example: MS Power Point by Microsoft
Corporation.
(e) Graphics Software: There is a need to
manipulate pictures or movies to make them
presentable and to make the presentation more
effective or to mix some effects. Graphic software
allows the user to do this. Example : Photoshop
and MS Paint.
(f) Multimedia Authoring Application:
Some effects of multimedia turn the presentation
into magic. These applications are used to make
digital movies with sound, video, animation, etc.
Mediator 9 is an example of multimedia authoring
tool.
(g) Entertainment Software
(h) Education Software
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(i) Video Games
(j) Business Software. Example: Airline
reservation
(k) Mathematical Software
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(l) Telecommunications
(m) Scientific Software
(n) Medical Software
(o) Image Editing Simulation Software etc.
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UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility software is software that provides an
added capability which was not provided by the
operating system. These are specialized in nature
and relatively limited in capability. Search and
replace utility is a good example. Utility programs
help to manage and control computer resources.
Some of them are as below:
(a) Anti Virus Software: Virus in computer
terminology is a destructive programmes that has
been developed with ill intentions of disturbing
the functioning of the system. It can create unusual
data, hide or delete the files and has the capability
of multiplying itself to occupy the memory and
slow down the system with a very low instruction
response. Anti virus programmes are needed to
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 79
detect the type of virus and protect the computer
from these.
Earlier it was possible to save your computer
from virus by not using infected floppies etc. by
now the virus can enter into the system online too.
Anti virus is the need of the hour. These software
use one of the following techniques:
1. Signature based detection: This is an
ordinary technique. To recognize the virus as well
as the Malware antivirus software evaluates the
stuffing of a file to a vocabulary or virus signatures.
The entire file is searched for this.
2. Heuristic-based detection: It is thought
that the heuristic based technology can find viruses
that have previously been unknown.
3. File Emulation: It is a heuristic approach
of virus detection. Here the actions of the infected
programme are recorded and these are analysed.
Then if found any discrepancy the follow up is
done.
There are some limitations of the anti-viruses:
This can hamper the computer speed and
performance.
False positive can occur with use of anti-
viruses. In this if an antivirus software
detects a programme or file as infected
though it is not so, it can cause problems.
New viruses are out of the reach of almost
all older versions of the anti-viruses.
Despite of the limitations or drawbacks,
anti-viruses are used to safeguard the
computers from undue damage of viruses.
Some famous anti-viruses are McAfee and
Norton.
(b) Backup Utilities: Backup in computer
terminology means keeping a duplicate or backup
copy of the file or programme. It is helpful in the
data crisis when the file is lost or damaged due to
some reason. It is always recommended to keep
backup utility and create backup files for important
data.
Backup softwares are easily available and the
user can choose according to requirements. But
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80 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
some features like ease of use, ease of installation,
data compression ability, safety, data security
should be taken care of while choosing a backup
software. Some of these softwares are available
even for free. Backup can be taken on CDs,
Floppies, FTP locations, tapes, online servers etc.
(c) Diagnostic Programs: Diagnostic
program is a program that recognizes and explains
the faults in the hardware or software or networked
system. It may provide solutions or can provide
hints to find out the solution.
Some common software diagnostic tools are:
Power-On Self Test (POST): This
diagnostic utility is found in the system
BIOS and runs at startup to diagnose any
problem in the system. If any discrepancy
is found it flashes error message.
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MEM.EXE: Mem stands for memory, it
is found in operating system by windows
and tells about the memory configuration
and memory usage.
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MSD.EXE: It stands for Microsoft
diagnostics. It is DOS utility used to show
inventory of the contents of the PC like
computer brand, memory, network, OS,
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drives, ports, etc.
The Windows Device Manager: As the
name suggests it tell about the devices
attached.
Norton System Information: This is an
extension of MSD and provides detailed
view of PC contents.
Microsoft Scan Disk and Norton Disk
Doctor: These scan the disk for any kind
of problem.
Scandisk: This utility is used to scan the
disk, as the name suggests. It is done to
check whether bad blocks or any problem
is there in the disk.
Microsoft Disk Defragmenter: This
software helps to collect the small blocks
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of free area that has been created here and
there in the disk due to deleting some data.
Norton Diagnostics: It performs test on
processor and motherboard etc. to identify
problems.
QAPlus: It provides a detailed infor-
mation of the system. Being a diagnostic
software it also helps to trace problems.
(d) File View Programs: File view utilities
helps the user to view files and their content
without having application on the system. As the
name suggests it helps to view the contents or the
user can print it, but modification rights are
reserved. If one has to modify the contents, he or
she has to copy the content in some other file and
then edit it. Some file viewers are meant to view
picture files too. Examples: Microsoft word
viewer, Microsoft Power Point viewer, Acrobat
reader and some viewers provided by Google.
(e) Computer Performance Enhancement
Utilities: Computer performance enhancement
utilities are the utilities which are available to
enhance the performance of the computer. These
may be purchased separately or some are available
in BIOS and OS. Example:
Disk defragmenter
Accelerator
Registry clean expert.
PERVERSE SOFTWARE
Perverse means contrary to what is acceptable
and expectable. A perverse software is a program
which causes trouble in the execution of other
programmes by spoiling it in part or full. You might
be thinking if it is so dangerous why should one
use it. But these malicious softwares are not
purchased or downloaded by the users choice.
These are destructive software meant for damaging
the data or applications by some anti-social
elements and enter in the system without the
consent of the owner. Malware can harm the
system badly by damaging the useful data and
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application software, even it does not spare the
operating system of the computer. Malware can
be:
Computer Virus: A computer program that
is designed to replicate itself by copying itself into
the other programs stored in a computer. Viruses
are destructive programmes designed to damage
the system functioning. It may be in form of a
software program, script or macro. These are
designed with the intention to infect or cause other
problems to files and computers. These need the
user action to start themselves like switching on
the system, opening file, giving some commands,
etc. These can be avoided or removed by using
effective and up to the mark anti virus software.
Some viruses do not harm much. They just
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replicate themselves to consume memory or just
flash funny messages now and then. But some
viruses can cause data damage.
Computer Worm: A computer worm is a
destructive software program, set of codes which
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make it capable of gaining access to computers or
networks. Once within the computer or network,
the worm causes harm by deleting, modifying,
distributing, or otherwise manipulating data. These
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always provide atleast some harm to the network.
Trojan Horse: Torjan horse is very
destructive but works very interestingly. It pretends
to be a very irresistible benign program. The
viewer gets attracted to it. He installs it on the
system and the problems start. It can steal or even
delete the important files or fill the memory with
useless programmes. These do not replicate but
provide damage to the security and privacy.
Rootkits: It is a technique which prevents
the destructive processes to be visible as running
program and making them able to keep on
destroying the system. These are installed usually
by trojans and pretend to be operating system files
which are necessary for functioning of the system
so user will not delete them.
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 81
Trap doors: It is a back way or a hidden
method or other way of by passing traditional
security in order to gain access to a secure system.
A malware prepares trap doors in the system for
entering in these easily in future.
Logic Bombs/Time Bombs: A time bomb
or logic bomb hides itself on the hard disk. It
silently waits for a specific date to come or a
specific action to occur like opening or saving a
file, giving specific command, etc. They do not
replicate themselves and cannot be called virus.
These are calm and harmless till the date or action
occurs which triggers them to destroy data and files
on the system of the user. Examples: April Fool
Day or Friday the 13th.
Spyware: These are designed to show
alluring advertisements and redirect the search
engines to paid advertisements to get access to
user’s data. These work in a hidden style.
Keystroke loggers: The keylogger
program records each keystroke the user types and
uploads the information over the Internet
periodically to whoever installed the program. It
is used in malpractices such as fetching the
password or credit card number while shopping
to be misused in future.
Data-stealing: Data-stealing problem is
increasing day-by-day. It is done to get commercial
gains by stealing information and using it for
commercial use. Example, steal and sell numbers
of credit cards or membership cards of some
reputed organization or club. It may cost its
members a lot.
Ways Counter Preserve Software
The operating system and other progra-
mmes are being updated from time to time.
Blocking any kind of virus from entering
into the system. This can be done by using
blockers and filters.
Anti-virus software should be used. These
must be updated from time-to-time.
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82 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Be aware of the spyware and avoid
installing unnecessary programmes and
avoid opening each and every advertise-
ments.
Anti spyware must also be installed.
OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE
Open Source Software is software that you can
get the source code for. Open Source Software
tends to be more reliable and have bugs fixed more
quickly, because many talented developers can
access it. Open Source Software (OSS) also
provides rights to study, change and improve the
software.
Objectives of Open Source System:
1. Encouraging innovation globally.
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2. Providing chance to individuals too.
3. Gaining benefit form larger knowledge
pool.
4. Getting updated software.
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5. Software quality gets improved.
6. Software cost is reduced.
The OSI are the stewards of the Open Source
Definition (OSD) and the community-recognized
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body for reviewing and approving licenses as
OSD-conformant. To get OSD compliance the
following criterion must be followed:
Free Redistribution: The software
should be available to redistribute it free of cost.
Source Code: The program is distributed
in both the source code and the executable file.
Derived Works: Changes must be
allowed and distribution must be done with the
same liberty.
No Discrimination Against Specific
Applications: The use must not be conditioned.
License Must not be Specific to a
product: The license must cater to the full program
not any part of it.
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License must not restrict other
software: There should not be any restriction
about distribution of other programs which are
being distributed on the same medium to be open
source software only.
Some examples of Open Source Software
are:
PHP - Scripting language suited for the web
MySQL - database,
Mozilla Thunderbird
Limitations of Open Source Software:
Lack of product support.
Lack of end user training.
These limitations can be overcome.
Q. 1. Compare and contrast the following:
(a) Mainframe and File Sharing architec-
ture.
(b) Client server and Distributed archite-
cture.
(c) Structured and Non-Structured
Programming.
Ans. (a) With mainframe software architec-
tures all intelligence is within the central host
computer. Users interact with the host through a
terminal that captures keystrokes and sends that
information to the host.
In a file sharing architecture smart download
files from a shared server. The requested user job
is then run (including logic and data) in the desktop
environment.
(b) In Client Server architecture, the Client
software requests for the service and Server
software provides the service. These two softwares
can be on two well distanced machines or it may
be on the same machine. In the distributed systems,
various machines on a network are used to run
variety of jobs.
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(c) Structured programming or modular
programming is a subset of procedural
programming that enforces a logical structure on
the program being written to make it more efficient
and easier to understand and modify. The entire
logic of the programme is divided into modules
which can be used elsewhere also.
Non-Structured programming is the earliest
programming paradigm where the full logic of the
programme is implemented in a single module.
These are more hard to understand, debug and
modify.
Q. 2. Describe the following terms:
(a) Software Reusability
(b) Software Reliability
(c) Encapsulation
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Ans. (a) Software Reusability: This is a
feature of a computer program which makes it easy
to be used repeatedly in some other program in
full or in part. The code for addition can be used
in multiplication also as multiplication is repeated
addition.
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(b) Software Reliability: This feature
specifies that the software performs the function
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which it is intented to perform in specified
environment without failure.
(c) Encapsulation: This feature allows to
camaflauge data and methods while exposing only
few required data and methods. This feature can
be useful to protect data by hiding internal details
from the world.
Q. 3. What do you understand by Software-
as-a-Service? How is it different from Cloud
Computing?
Ans. Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) is a way
or model of delivery of the software. It allows the
user to pay just according to the use. It spares the
user from buying, installing and running the
software on his own. Cloud computing helps the
user to use the files and applications over the
internet. SAAS runs on cloud computing.
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 83
Q. 4. What is pay-per-use licensing?
Ans. In the pay-per-use licensing the user is
charged according to the use of the software,
service or module. Here the user need not buy
the product. The services can be availed for per
use as rent. It can be based on time or frequency
of usage.
Q. 5. Compare and contrast the following:
(a) System and Application Software
(b) Compiler and Linker
(c) Compiler and Interpreter
Ans. (a) A system software is used to work as
an interface between the machine and the
application software. A computer is unable to
function in absence of a system software. It also
allows the user to interact with the machine.
Example: Operating systems.
Application software is task oriented software
which is indented to perform a particular task like
accounting or text editors.
(b) Compiler is used to convert the source code
in high level language to the object code in low
level language.
Linker is used to link all the related object files
which are parts of a software and create a single
exe from it.
(c) Compiler is used to convert the source code
in high level language to the object code in low
level language. Any errors are reported at compile
time for the complete code.
An interpreter also translates the source code
into object code and executes it but the
difference is that it translates and executes one
line at a time.
The compiler translated the whole program
then runs it but the interpreter translates one line
at a time while the program is being run. Complied
programs are faster to run than interpreted
programs.
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Q. 6. Give an example of each of the following:

(a) Decision Making Software
(b) Education Software
(c) Industrial Automation Software
(d) Mathematical Software
(e) Simulation Software
Ans. (a) Decision Making Software : Decision Manager
(b) Education Software : Educosoft
(c) Industrial Automation Software : Computer Aided Manufacturing
(d) Mathematical Software : Matlab
(e) Simulation Software : Open Modelica.

Q. 7. You bought a new printer. You (b) Device Driver for the scanner

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attached it to the computer and plugged to the (c) Operating System (like Windows)
power, but it still does not work. What do you (d) Database Software (like Oracle).
think must have happened and how can you
Q. 9. Differentiate between open source and
resolve the issue? proprietary software?
Ans. Only plugging the new hardware to the

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computer and the power does not work. It has to
be installed on the system. For this, its drivers
(software) must be installed.
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Q. 8. List which software will be required
to perform the following actions:
(a) You have write code in C++. What
software you will use to write the code in?
(b) You have attached a new scanner to
your machine to scan your photo-
graphs. What software you will use to
get it working?
(c) You have bought a new PC. What is the
first piece of software that is needed to
be installed for it to be useful so that
other software could be added?
(d) You have created a student registration
system. What will you use to store the
students data.
Ans.(a) Text Editor (for ex TextPad)
Ans. Proprietary software is a software
t h a t h as be en o wn e d b y a co mp a n y or
individual. The developer does not provide
any right of modification or copying or further
distribution. That is why he keeps the source
code a secret.
Advantages of proprietary software
include:
Strong support system.
Modular formats.
Regularly.
Easy updation.
The disadvantages of Proprietary Software
are:
It is very costly.
Further development is blocked.
Open source programs are provided with
the source code to the user to use it or
modify it.

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Advantages of Open Source Software are:
Cost is low.
No license fees.
Easy integration with other systems.
Easily customizable.
Scope for further improvement is there.
Limitation of Open Source Software are:
Professional support is not always
available.
Developer communities get emerged.
Q. 10. Identify open source software from
the following list?
(a) Open Office
(b) Filezilla
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(c) MS Word
(d) Pidgin
(e) Confluence
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Ans. OpenOffice, Filezilla, Pidgin.
Q. 11. What measure should you take to
safeguard your computer from a virus attack?
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Ans. The following measures should be taken:
Anti virus must be installed.
Antispy ware must be installed.
Operating system must be updated.
Scanning should be done from time-to-
time.
Anti virus must be updated from time-to-
time.
Click on reliable links only.
Emails should be scanned before opening.
Q. 12. Name a few computer performance
enhancement utilities?
Ans. WinUtilitites, Boost Windows 2009,
TweakVista, System Optimize Expert.
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SOFTWARE EVOLUTION / 85
Q. 1. Explain the importance of computer
software for the professionals.
Ans. The development of software during
the past 30 years has been just as dramatic in
many respects. Whereas future developments in
hardware technology can be expected to provide
smaller, cheaper, and more powerful computers
as has been the case during the past 25 years,
future developments in software technology can
be expected to play an important role of
expanding the user base for computers, thus,
making it economically feasible to exploit
technologies on the hardware side. Although
today’s computer software offerings are very
broad indeed in terms of the number of tasks
they perform, one can reasonably expect that
entirely new uses will be found for computers,
through the development of new kinds of
software, in the future. By exploiting the huge
memory capacities of today’s newer computers,
future software will be easier to use and will be
capable of carrying out several tasks
simultaneously.
It will also be much more forgiving, adapting
itself automatically to the work style of the user.
By incorporating at least a part of what
constitutes the stock of knowledge in particular
applications, so-called “expert systems”, one
may expect future software, particularly in areas
such as financial and statistical analysis, to
enable the computer to work more as a partner
or colleague than as an unintelligent tool.
Perhaps to an even greater extent in the future
than has been true to date, the evolution of the
computer as a useful tool will depend on
software, rather than hardware, innovation. The
hardware advances necessary to place hearing,
speaking, seeing, and even thinking computers
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86 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

on everyone’s desktop, each of which would be
able to provide ready access to truly mind-
boggling quantities of information, is at hand.
Only the software really remains to be
developed.
Q. 2. What do know about software license?
Ans. A software license is a legal instrument
governing the usage or redistribution of
software. All software is copyright protected,
except material in the public domain. A typical
software license grants an end-user permission
to use one or more copies of software in ways
where such a use would otherwise potentially
constitute copyright infringement of the
software owner ’s exclusive rights under
copyright law.
Some software comes with the license when
purchased off the shelf or an OEM license when
bundled with hardware. Software can also be in
the form of freeware or shareware. Software
licenses can generally be fit into the following
categories: proprietary licenses and free and open
source licenses, which include free software
licenses and other open source licenses. The
features that distinguish them are significant in
terms of the effect they have on the end-user’s
rights. A free open source license makes software
free for inspection of its code, modification, and
distribution.

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87

Operating System 7

We have read earlier that operating system is

a system software. Operating system is needed by
a computer to function. As computers can
understand only binary and it is not possible for
us to provide each and every command in binary,
we need some interface, which should work as an

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interpreter between the machine and user. This
work is performed well by the operating system
software. This software is a set of programs that
make the hardware useable. It also provides
platform for the application system to run on.

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In this chapter, we will discuss about the
history of evolution of OS, concepts of an
operating system like command interface,
bootstrap loader, kernel, nano kernel, thin clients,
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multitasking and multi-programming OS, services
provided by OS.
THE CONCEPT OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating system is the set of programs that
controls a computer. It is an essential software
required by the computer system. The main
function of the operating system is to work as an
interface between the user and the machine.
Operating Systems are resource managers. The
main resource is computer hardware in the form
of processors, storage, input/output devices,
communication devices and data.
Some examples of operating systems are
Microsoft Windows, Android, iOS, Linux, UNIX,
Mach, MS-DOS, Windows/NT, Chicago, OS/2,
Mac OS etc.
The above diagram shows the status of the
operating system in the computer system. It
interacts with the hardware and allows the
application software to run on it. It facilitates the
user to interact with the machine and get the
desired process done.
Some of the operating system functions are:
implementing the user interface,
allows the user to execute the programme,
provides boot strapping to boot the system,
manage network services,
sharing hardware among users,
facilitating input/output,
allowing users to share data among
themselves,
scheduling resources among users,
recovering from errors,
accounting for resource usage,
facilitating parallel operations,
file system,

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88 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
organizing data, and
handling network communications.
Suppose you provide a command to the OS,
now to execute it, OS will have to:
(i) First of all accept a command. It may be
provided using input devices such as
keyboard or mouse or touchscreen. It has
to recognize the medium of input.
(ii) After accepting, it has to interpret the
command, means what has to be done
must be recognized.
(iii) Take actions according to the command
for process.
(iv) For this, it provides a file system to find
the name of the program being requested
and determines the location of the file.
(v) Fetch the file into the memory to get the
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command executed.
(vi) Allot time to each program if more than
one program is running.
The Operating System can be divided into two
parts:
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Resident part: These are all the necessary
services which should remain in the
memory all the time to run the system. The
other name of these essential parts is kernel
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of the operating system. It works as a bridge
between the application and the actual data
processing done at hardware level. These
are loaded in the memory at the boot time
or say start time of the system. Contents or
services of this nature reside in the memory
as long as the machine is switched on. For
easy retrieval, the bootstrap is usually
stored in the ROM. Some machines allow
the resident part of the operating system to
also reside in the ROM for promptness.
This is the era of delivering big services in
small packages. This happens in kernel
also. That is technology is advancing
towards nano kernals.
Non-resident: These are those parts which
need not be in the memory all the time. These
services can be loaded as the need be.
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Where does the OS Reside?
The operating system may or may not reside
inside the computer. If the computer is attached to
a network and does not have any disk of its own,
then it may fetch the OS like other applications
and files from the server and in that sense it is
called a thin client or diskless workstation.
Multitasking Operating System
There is a need of operating systems that allow
a user to keep on doing number of tasks at the
same time, this may be done on a single machine
or on a network. The Operating System which
allow this are called multiuser and multi-
programming or multitasking operating system.
These allow many users to share computer
resources at the same time.
Online, Interactive System: Online means
the system is directly in contact with the user and
the user is providing data and instructions to the
computer.
Interactivity of the system implies the feature
that allows the user to interact directly with the
program to provide data and commands. Today is
the era of interactivity.
Batch Processing: Batch processing refers to
processing transactions in a group or batch. User
interaction is not allowed while the batch
processing is on. For example, monthly bills for
utilities and other services received by consumers
are typically generated by batch processing. Batch
processing has a number of benefits, such as
enabling the sharing of computer resources and
facilitating better use of these resources.
Graphical User Interface: The term GUI
simply implies the interface for user in a graphical
manner. Now-a-days the OS combine this feature
to provide user much higher level of interactivity
with the computer. GUI includes windows, icons
and menus, which can be easily manipulated by
mouse, though one can use the keyboard as well.
GUI makes computer operations more intuitive and
easier to use.
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OPERATING SYSTEM / 89

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Those are a few examples of graphical user
interface where the user can see the icons or menus
and can command the system by simply clicking
the mouse.
Command Line Interface: This user
interface depends on the written commands. The
commands are provided in written to perform
specific tasks. Example: UNIX.
OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES
We have outlined the basic services provided
by the operating system. Let us discuss in detail
the most common few:
Command Processor and User Interface:
User Interface Service is the main service provided
by the OS to the user. It also provides the facility
to execute commands. The user is required to
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memorize the commands to get the work done.
New users find it cumbersome.
(b) File Management: A file is a collection
of related information stored under one name. For
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example, a text file may contain data of letters, or
student records etc. A file may contain sounds or
visuals too. These files are logically stored on the
disk. The task for file management are:
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It identifies the files by their unique
names.
It maintains a list of file storage about
where the file is storage exactly.
Provide access to user according to the
security setting.
Bring the files in the memory as per the
need and then save back on appropriate
location using the process manager.
Help users interact using simple
commands about file handling.
It also keeps track of mapping.
Allows mounting and unmounting of file
structures.
(c) Input/Output services: Input and output
services are provided by the operating system for
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all the input or output devices. The driver
programmes of devices installed on the system help
to do this. The devise driver programs of the
operating system help to accept input or output
request and performs the job accordingly.
(d) Process Control Management: Process
control is an integral part of the operating system.
A process is a running program or function or it
can be called a program in execution. The
operating system has to manage the process by
allocating appropriate resources to a particular
process at a time, it also has to allocate resources
to other processes running on the system. It has to
make the processes able to share the information
if needed. It also has to make sync among the
process to make them happen successfully. There
may be need of more than one process to run
simultaneously. The operating system has to be
multiprocessing or multitasking to cater to this
need of the user. A multiprogramming or
multitasking OS is a system executing many
processes concurrently. Here, the OS has to decide
which job is to be processed first and which is to
be taken next. This is called job scheduling. A
process can be further divided into smaller
independent units. These are called threads, which
can run separately from other threads of the same
process and thereby allocating the resources more
logically.
Memory Management: It is the process of
managing computer memory. Memory manage-
ment is all about assigning segments of the memory
to various tasks or information as needed. In a
multitasking system many programs have to be
there in the memory at the same time. Main tasks
are:
To keep track of the available space.
To provide space to specific tasks.
To keep track which track is provided to
which process.
To make queues of programs based on
priority.
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To deallocate the space when the process
is over.
A BIT OF HISTORY
History of operating system may familiarize
us about the trend in evolution of operating
systems.
Serial Processing: The earliest electronic
digital computers had no operating systems. This
was the era of 1940 to early 1950s. Machines of
the time were so primitive that programs were
often entered one bit at time on rows of mechanical
switches (plug boards). The operating systems
were not born at that time and even programming
languages were not there. The programmes had to
be coded in machine language though card readers.
This kind of processing was called serial
processing. With time variety of software tools
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were invented to make serial processing much
more easier and efficient.
Simple Batch Systems: During 1950’s, the
routine had improved to some extend with the
introduction of punch cards. The General Motors
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Research Laboratories implemented the first
operating systems in early 1950’s for their IBM
701. The system of the 50’s generally ran one job
at a time. This is the reason of calling them single-
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stream batch processing systems or simple batch
systems because programs and data were submitted
in groups or batches. Burroughs design of Master
Control Program (MCP), came in 1963 which
supported multiprocessing and multitasking. Soon
the advancements in the operating system started
which made the features of multiprogramming and
multitasking even better. Operating systems were
developed which were able to keep several jobs
are in main memory at once; a processor is
switched from job to job as needed.
Time Sharing System: Multiprogramming
made the system more efficient and the use of
resources increased. Interactivity is also a much
desired feature as the user is the best person to
tackle the tasks. This feature also provides freedom
to user to use the machine directly.
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OPERATING SYSTEM / 91
Multiprogramming can be used to handle
multiple interactive jobs at the same time. This
technique is referred to as time sharing. In this,
the time of the processor is shared among various
users who run various programs at the same time.
Batch processing and time sharing use
multiprogramming but the difference is that the
objective of the batch processing is to maximize
the use of the processor and the objective of the
time sharing is to minimize response time.
A system called MULTICS was developed
by, Bell Labs, MIT and GE in a team work
as a time sharing system which provided
many concepts of multitasking to the
generations to come.
Hierarchical approach to OS.
Modular programming design.
Development of UNIX: UNIX is an operating
system that was developed by some of the members
of the Multics team at the bell labs starting in the
late 1960’s. It was written by Ken Thompson and
Denis Ritchie.
UNIX a wonderful operating system was
written in assembly language but it was rewritten
in C after some time for better performance.
UNIX was a great milestone in the population
of operating systems which gave many concepts
which are considered ultimate such as hierarchical
file system, the shell concept, redirection, piping,
and the use of simple commands that can be
combined to perform powerful operations,
techniques for inter process communication,
networked and distributed processing etc.
Development of the concept of graphical user
interface was another big achievement in the
making of operating system.
Development of Personnel Computer
Operating System: The development of personal
computers by IBM was the biggest achievement
in the world of personal computing. It was
designed as single user computer. Not only this it
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was provided with PC-DOS an amazing operating
system. We know this by the name of Microsoft
DOS as it was later marketed by Microsoft.
Other Developments during 1980-1990s:
MS-DOS travelled the journey to Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 is a graphical user interface based
amazing operating system which can work as a
single machine to a networked OS.
Linux operating system client-server
configuration model was developed and basis for
development of new operating systems with better
options opened the door for a better technology.
The development of the Distributed
Computing Environment, plus object-based
extensions that make distributed processing
practical.
JAVA Virtual Machine and other aspects of
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the JAVA language was another big achievement
of this century.
Apart from these milestones other
technological advancements also came into the
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fore in the world of operating system during this
duration.
Q. 1. Define the following terms:
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(i) Online Processing
Ans. Online processing is said to be done when
the user is directly connected to the system and
can directly interacts with the program.
(ii) Batch Processing
Ans. Batch processing is a technique of
processing data in large group instead of
individually. The basic aim of using batch
processing is to help utilize the system resources.
For example, banks batch process all their
transactions once every hour instead of processing
each transaction at the time.
Q. 2. How does multi-programming
improve performance of a system?
Ans. Multi-programming improves perfor-
mance of a system by overlapping CPU and I/O
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operation on a single machine and allowing the
user or users to use various programmes at a time.
Q. 3. What are the important components
of an OS?
Ans. These are the important components of
an OS:
Command Processing
File Management System
Process Management
Memory Management.
Q. 4. What is job scheduling?
Ans. In the multitasking environment the
operating systems decides which job to be
executed when and how. This scheduling of job is
called Job Scheduling.
Q. 5. What is a thread?
Ans. A process is divided into threads which
can be individually executed. This is done to use
memory efficiently.
Q. 1. Explain in detail about the operating
system of computer.
Ans. Operating systems perform basic tasks,
such as recognizing input from the keyboard,
sending output to the display screen, keeping track
of files and directories on the disk, and controlling
peripheral devices.
The operating system is responsible for
security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not
access the system.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:
Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run
programs at the same time. Some operating
systems permit hundreds or even thousands of
concurrent users.
Multitasking: Allows more than one program
to run concurrently.
Multiprocessing: Supports running a program
on more than one CPU.
Real Time: Responds to input instantly.
General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS
and UNIX, are not real-time.
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Multithreading: Allows different parts of a
single program to run concurrently.
Operating systems provide a software platform
on top of which other programs, called application
programs, can run. The application programs must
be written to run on top of a particular operating
system.
Q. 2. Explain the term time sharing in a
computer.
Ans. Time-sharing is the sharing of a
computing resource among many users by means
of multiprogramming and multi-tasking.
Time-sharing was developed out of the
realization that while any single user was
inefficient, a large group of users together were
not. This was due to the pattern of interaction; in
most cases users entered bursts of information
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followed by long pause, but a group of users
working at the same time would mean that the
pauses of one user would be used up by the activity
of the others.
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OPERATING SYSTEM / 93
By allowing a large number of users to interact
concurrently with a single computer, time-sharing
dramatically lowered the cost of providing
computing capability, made it possible for
individuals and organizations to use a computer
without owning one, and promoted the interactive
use of computers and the development of new
interactive applications.
Developing a system that supported multiple
users at the same time was a completely different
concept; the “state” of each user and their programs
would have to be kept in the machine, and then
switched between quickly. This would take up
computer cycles, and on the slow machines of the
era this was a concern. However, as computers
rapidly improved in speed, and especially in size
of core memory in which users’ states were
retained, the overhead of time-sharing continually
decreased, relatively.
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94
Concept in Programming Language
Computer is mere a box of dumb peripherals
if there is no software in it, which tells it what to
do and how to do it. Software are set of programs
written by programmers to get a set of specific
jobs done. These software are written in
programming language. Programming languages
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are English like languages, which are used to
provide set of instructions to the computer to tell
the computer what is to be done. A programmer
should know any of the programming language
such as COBOL, FORTRAN, C, C++, FoxPro etc.
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to write programs. He or she must know about
algorithm to solve the problem.
An algorithm is a list of steps or procedure
used to solve a problem. A program is defined as a
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set of instructions, which are written using a
programming language. As you know the computer
can understand only machine language and
programmes are written in English like language,
there is a need to convert these programmes in
machine understandable language. This work is
done by compilers and interpreters.
In this chapter you will come to know about
need for programming, flow chart, elements of
programming Languages, looping and decisions,
differentiate between Assembler, Compiler and
Interpreter.
PROBLEM, ALGORITHM, PROGRAM AND
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Computer does not have any intelligence of
its own. It depends upon the humanbeings to
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8
instruct the computer in a correct manner. To do
this one has to understand the problem, make a
flowchart or algorithm to solve it and write
programmes based on the same logic. In this
process the knowledge of the following key
concepts is very important.
Problem: A computer cannot think on its own,
when it meets with a problem it has to be told what
is the way to solve it. A problem is a task to be
done, it needs the instructions to get the work done.
For this we need to give the sequence of
instructions in which these have to be performed.
It is always preferred to define the steps and their
order towards problem solving before typing them
into the commuter in any programming language.
Algorithms and flowcharts are two methods of
depicting the solution to any problem. After solving
the problem using algorithm or flowchart,
programs can be written using any computer
language.
Tools of problem solving:
Algorithm: When the problems have been
defined the procedure to solve the problem have
to be designed in simple steps. This procedure is
called algorithm. An algorithm is a set of rules that
define how a particular problem can be solved in
finite sequence of steps. These steps are sequenced
and written in a logical order. These provide the
solution of the problem. An algorithm can be said
the step-by-step process to solve any problem
written in a logical manner in simple English.
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CONCEPT IN PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE / 95

Methods of control of developing algorithm: (c) Input and Output

(a) Sequential: Here steps are executed in a
sequential manner.
(b) Decision/Selection: One alternative out of
many is to be selected and actions are performed
according to it.
(c) Repetition: These are called loops, here
the steps are executed again and again. These These boxes are used to show the steps where
methods of control are to be taken care of while the data items are selected or displayed.
designing an algorithm. (d) Decision Box
Algorithm are written in pseudo codes. This
is English like language.
Flowcharting: A flowchart is a
diagrammatic or pictorial representation of a setp
by step process to solve a problem. A flowchart
provides understanding of the problem and

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solution in a step by step manner. This serves as a
concise form of documentation. It shows the flow
of logic in a pictorial manner. Symbols are used to These are used to compare values or check a
depict the flow. These symbols are explained as condition. It has two outgoing arrows. The flow
under: goes to one if the condition is true and to the other

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(a) Terminal Box if the condition is false.
These depict the beginning and end of the (e) Flow lines
flowchart.

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These lines show the flow of the logic.

(f) Connectors
(b) Processing

These are used to show value being assigned These are used to connect two points in
to variables and processing. flowchart.

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Example:
Problem statement: Input two numbers and
find the greater.
Algorithm
Step 1 Start
Step 2 Input 2 numbers A and B
Step 3 If A > B then print “A is greater”
Step 4 Else print “B is greater”
Step 5 Stop
Flowchart
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Once the logic is developed it can be written
in programming language.
CONCEPT OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGE
Programming language is a language in which
a programmer provides instructions for the
computer.
Program: A program is a set of instructions
provided to the computer to perform a particular
work or set of tasks.
Programming Language: Writing program
is called programming. The language used to write
these programs is called programming language.
There are preset syntax and semantics of each
programming language. These are called building
blocks of a programming language. Syntax is the
structure of the command, which includes
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grammar and vocabulary and semantic provides
meaning to it.
There is a variety of programming languages
available for a programmer to write programs but
one has to be well conversant in a particular language
to use it as a base to write programmes. Every
programming language has its own features and the
programmer has to choose according to his needs.
Examples of programming languages:
BASIC, FORTRAN, C, C++, Java, COBOL,
HTML, Dbase, Pascal, etc.
There are some grammatical rules of every
language, which have to be followed to make an
error free program. There are some specific
character or alphabets and operators to provide
instructions. These may vary from language to
language. The rules or grammar of the language
has to be followed to design programs.
ELEMENTS OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGE
A programming language has various
elements, which a programmer should be well
versed with.
VARIABLES, CONSTANTS, DATA TYPE,
ARRAY AND EXPRESSION.
These are elaborated below as:
Variables: Variables are those symbolic names
which are given to the memory locations and
whose value may change. Each variable has its
own attributes that mean the type of values it can
hold. It has a unique name, which is used for
reference. It also has some value, which can be
changed. A variable can be thought of a location
in memory, which is capable of storing temporary
data within a program. This data can then be
modified, stored, or displayed whenever needed.
Example: (declaration of variables in
language C)
int x;
char y;
Here we defined two variables x and y, where
x is integer variable able to hold integer value on
the specific memory location and y will be able to
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hold a character value on its specific memory
location. When get changed the new values will
be assigned to the same memory location which
can be retrieved by the names.
Constants: A constant in programming
language is an identifier and have values, which
do not change during the execution of a program.
Once a constant is defined with a value, it cannot
be reassociated with some other value. Constant
means static so the values cannot be changed.
There are numeric and string constants.
Numeric constants are numbers, which allow
various mathematical operations to be performed
upon. String constants are a group of characters,
numbers, words enclosed within double quotes “
”. These allow some operations to be performed
over them.
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const. int b = 5;
Here integer b is defined as having a value 5
which cannot be changed during program
execution.
Data Type: Data, which is to be processed by
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a computer, can be of any type. It may be
numerical, alphabetical or alpha-numerical. A
programming language must provide a variety of
data types to be used. A data type can be known as
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a classification, which tells about the type of data.
The data type indicates which type of data it will
hold and which type of operations it will allow to
be performed on it. Variety of data types is
available in variety of programming languages.
The size occupied by these types may also vary.
Array: Related data valued grouped together
as one value is called an array. It is a collection of
values of the same data type, which is stored in
the memory. It allows to store data of a single data
type. An array of size n is indexed by integers from
0 to n-1.
int a[10];
Arrays can be generally of two types:
(a) One dimensional array or single
dimensional array: Remember a spreadsheet,
which is available in row and column manner.
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CONCEPT IN PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE / 97
Single dimensional array is represented as a single
column. Array has to be declared. These can also
be static or dynamic. Array can be declared using
any data type using C. A one dimensional array is
useful in grouping of data which is small in size.
It is declared as the following example:
<data type> <arrayname> [size_of_array]
int a[10];
Here integer a will hold 10 items stored
contiguously in the memory. Each value in this
array can be referred to using its corresponding
index number.
(b) Two-dimensional Arrays: As you were
referred to the example of a spreadsheet in one
dimensional array, in two dimensional array too it
will be easy to see it as a spreadsheet showing
row, column manner. It is like a table which has a
definite number of rows and columns.
int a [2][2];
Expression: Expression in a programming
language like C is a combination of operands and
operators. Even a single variable can depict an
expression. It must follow the rules, the syntax of
a language. Example: a = b + c; is an expression.
Assignment: Assignment is assigning a value
or expression to a variable. The assignment
comprises the variable, operator and value or
expression to be assigned. An assignment contains
an operator, be it arithmetic operator, relational
operator or logical operator.
Example
int a = 5;
or
int a = b + c;
Arithmetic: Arithmetic is a group of
operators, operands or expression. Such as:
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+ is used for addition
- is used for subtraction
* is used for multiplication
/ is used for division
% is used for modulo
++ is used to denote increment by 1 and
-- is used to denote decrement by 1
These can be used individually or in
combination. For example :
a = b / c;
or
a = a + 10;
Logical, relational and equality: We get a
Boolean representation of these types of
expression. These yield either True or False. Here
the expression is made up of operands and these
operators. These may be:
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&&is used for and
|| is used for or
! is used for not
== is used for equal to
!= is used for not equal to
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< is used for less than
<= is used for less than equal to
> is used for greater than
>= is used for greater than equal to
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Example:
Assuming the values of a = 5; and b = 2;
c = a*b;
c <=2;
The answer will be False.
Bitwise Operators: As we know a Boolean
or logical data type can have a value true or false.
These can be represented with 1 bit which can
either be 1 or 0. In many languages when you try
to do a Boolean operation on data types of more
than 1 bit, a bitwise operation is performed.
Conditional and Looping Statement
Conditional Statement: If is a selection
statement used to select a course of action
depending upon the given condition. This is used
to control the flow of the programme logic. If the
logic of the if statement matches with the logic of
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the programme than the code will be executed else
the rest of the programme will be taken care of.
If (a==2)
{
printf("2");
}
else
{
printf("0");
}
Now the Boolean expression will be evaluated
first if it is true then the statements in the second
part will get executed else the statement in the third
part will be executed, if the third part is not given
then the next command will be executed.
Looping Statement: A loop is a group of
instructions, which keeps on repeating itself until
certain conditions remain true. This is used to
repeat the instructions for known or unknown
times. In a loop the initial condition of the loop
has to be defined with the set of commands to be
executed and then the testing of the condition is
done and then the loop is repeated again.
In C programming there are three varieties of
loops are there:
(i) For Loop: For is a counter controlled
loop. The number of repetitions must be specified
before the loop starts.
for (control_variable; continuation _condition;
increment/decrement_control);
int a;
for ( a=1; a>=20; a++)
printf("\n number : %d", a);
The output will be as given :
number 1
number 2
number 3
number 4
number 5
number 6
number 7
number 8
number 9
number 10
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(ii) While loop: While loop is a controlled
repetition which can be repeated indefinite number
of times. Number of repetitions can be controlled
by using a sentinel variable (test expression).
while (test expression)
{ These can be of two types:
code to execute
} reusable codes. It receives values, performs some
int a=1;
while (a <= 5);
{ the main programme or from elsewhere. Even a
printf("\n number : %d",a);
a++;
}
The output will be given:
number 1
number 2
number 3
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number 4
number 5
(iii) Do while loop: Do while loop is a
repetition, which is different from the other two.
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The code is run first and then the test is checked.
It will have to be executed atleast once.
do
{ Example:
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(code to iterate);
while (condition);
Subroutine and Functions: The target of a
programmer is to make a programme without
repetition of codes as it makes the programme
lengthy unnecessarily. There may be instances
where a group of instruction has to be repeated
again and again. For example, addition code, if it
has to be written again and again in a programme,
it will make the programme lengthy. To overcome
this problem it would be better to use sub-
programmes, which allow the codes to be written
once and referred to as and when needed in some
other set of codes.
The main programme includes references to
many subprogrammes in desired order. When a
sub-programmes is called:
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CONCEPT IN PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE / 99
The execution of the main programme is
halted, then
The subprogramme is executed, then
Control returns back to the main
programme immediately.
(i) Functions: Functions can be said the best
calculations which are specified and return the
answer. Like subroutines, these can be called from
function can call itself. From the point of calling a
function, the control goes to the function and after
the execution the control comes back to the calling
point immediately.
(ii) Subroutines: A subroutine is a
subprogram. It is coded to perform a particular
task. Though being a part of the program
subroutines are independent entities.
They are called by the main programs in some
specific conditions and this has to be specified.
Subroutine do not have any values associated with
its name. These are also called procedures or
routines.
Write s subroutine ‘myadd’ to add two
numbers.
SUBROUTINE myadd(A,B, SUM)
REAL A,B,SUM
SUM = A + B
RETURN
END
This subroutine can be called by the main
programme as and when required by calling:
CALL myadd(A,B,SUM)
Library Function: A programmer may code
a number of functions. But there are some
functions which are predefined in the library of
the programming language. These are the ready
functions which can be used anywhere in the
program without defining them. These are just to
be called and values to be passed. The coding of
these functions resides in the library which has to
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100 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
be included in the programme before calling these
functions.
Example: In order to use printf() and scanf()
functions we will have to include this library:
#include<studio.h>
EDITOR, ASSEMBLER, INTERPRETOR &
COMPILER
Editor: Editor is required to create text files.
A programme is also a text file, so it needs an editor
to be written on. The files in an editor get the
extension as per the rules of the programming
language. For example in C the extension is .c, if
you name your file myprg then the full name will
be myprg.c. It may also depend on the operating
system.
Assembler: Assembly language is a low level
programming language which is like machine
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language, but far easier to write and understand
because machine language binary instructions and
operands are replaced by mnemonics that are
comprehensible to humans. We know that a
program written in programming language needs
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to be translated into machine code. A program
written in assembly language uses the utility named
as assembler for translation purpose. Assembly
language lacks conveniences which are provided
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by high level languages.
Assembly level program requires an
assembler to get it converted into machine code.
Interpreter and Compiler: It has been
explained earlier too that computers can
understand only machine language, it needs the
commands in the same, but for a programmer it is
difficult to design a programme in machine
language. Today, the most used programming
languages are similar to English language. Thus,
a higher level program needs to be converted into
a lower level program to get executed.
It is always easy for a programmer to write
programmes in higher level as it provides:
ease in developing software
ease in understading the codes
portability
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ease in debugging
ease in developing software.
The translators of programming language
are:
Compiled Language: Compiler is a
software which helps to translate the higher level
programming language programme file into a
machine executable file. Most high-level
languages include their own compiler or have
toolkits available that can be used to compile the
program. Compiled files runs faster and can run
independent of their intended platforms.
Interpreter: Interpreter is a program which
uses to translate the program written in
programming language line by line into machine
code. All the programming languages support
compilers and interpreters. The difference is that
the compiled code runs faster whereas the
interpreted code is slower and a compiler does not
need the compiler at run time, whereas interpreted
code needs the interpreter for running the program.
Q. 1. Write an algorithm for solving the
following problems:
(a) To calculate the area of a rectangle.
Ans. Algorithm
Step 1: Read length of the rectangle.
Step 2: Read breadth of the rectangle.
Step 3: Calculate Area = length X breadth.
Step 4: Print area.
Step 5: END.
(b) To find the sum of the first n natural
numbers.
Ans. Algorithm
Step 1: read the number (a)
Step 2: initialize b=1,i=1
Step 3: repeat 4,5 until i<=a
Step 4: b=b+i
Step 5: increment i by 1 i.e i=i+1
Step 10: Print “Sum of n given numbers
is”, a , b
Step 11: END.
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CONCEPT IN PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE / 101

Q. 2. Draw a flowchart for (a) and (b) in it needs commands or instructions. These
Question 1 cannot be provided to the computer in English
Ans. (a) or an y ot her la ngua ge whi ch we s peak.
Programmers need programming language to
write program.
Q. 4. What is the purpose of looping
statements in a programming language?
Ans. A loop helps to repeat the set of
commands more than once. If it is needed to repeat
some command or set of command in a
programme, a loop is used.
Q. 5. What are basic operators in any of
the programming language?
Ans. The operators can be basically divided
into these categories:
(i) Arithmetic Operators: These are used to

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do arithmetic operations.
(b) (ii) Logical Operators: These are used to
execute logical operations of AND, OR, NOT
etc.
(iii) Relational Operators: The relational

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operators are used to find relation among variables
or constants.
Example >,<,=, not = ,<=, >= etc.
Q. 6. What is the purpose of using an array
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i
b

in a programming language?
Ans. An array is used to store and process
i a
large amount of data of similar data type. It is
easier to refer, store or retrieve a large collection
b b i of similar data type in an array than individual
variables.
i i

Q. 1. Explain the concept of programming

Q. 3. What is the need of programming
language?
Ans. A computer is a processing machine.
In order to process data or to solve any problem
language.
Ans. A programming language is an artificial
language created to communicate instructions to
a machine, particularly a computer. Programming
languages can be used to create programs that
control the behaviour of a machine and/or to
express algorithms precisely.

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The earliest programming languages predate
the invention of the computer, and were used to
direct the behaviour of machines. Thousands of
different programming languages have been
created, mainly in the computer field, with many
more being created every year. Most programming
languages describe computation in an imperative
style, i.e., as a sequence of commands.
A programming language is usually split into
the two components of syntax and semantics. Some
languages are defined by a specification document
while other languages, such as Perl 5 and earlier,
have a dominant implementation that is used as a
reference.
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Q. 2. What do you know about the syntax?
Ans. A programming language’s surface form
is known as its syntax. Most programming
languages are purely textual; they use sequences
of text including numbers, words, and punctuation,
much like written natural languages. On the other
hand, there are some programming languages
which are more graphical in nature.
The syntax of a language describes the
possible combinations of symbols that form a
syntactically correct program. The meaning given
to a combination of symbols is handled by
semantics. Since most languages are textual, this
article discusses textual syntax.
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Computer Applications
We discussed about open source software in
the previous chapter, this is a software which is
supplied with the source code. In this chapter we
will discuss it in detail. We will also discuss the
role of the project manager who takes care of the
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project management process. Some basics of
computer software like word processing,
spreadsheets, database, email etc. will also be taken
care of.
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CONCEPTS OF OPEN SOURCE
SOFTWARE
Open Source Software as the name suggests,
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is a software which is given to the user with the
source code. It also carries a software license that
enables the user not only to read the code but also
the user becomes eligible to modify it. So it gets
the benefit of getting collaborative efforts and
expertise. It follows the free software philosophy
formulated by Richard M. Stallman in 1983. The
advantage of such software is that good ideas can
pour in from anywhere, resources are not scarce
and the flexibility directs innovative ideas.
The Open Source Initiative (OSI), formed in
1998 aimed to fill gaps among difference
constituencies in the open-source community. It
is also responsible for certifying software licenses
as open source licenses.
Introduction: Richard Stallman gave a
normative definition as free software, and Eric
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103
9
Raymond gave a descriptive definition as open
software.
Free Software Definition: It is based on these
freedoms :
1. To run the program.
2. To read its codes, and modify it according
to you.
3. To redistribute copies to smaller group.
4. To improve the program, and release it to
larger groups.
Open Source Definition: The Open Source
Definition OSI includes permissive software
licenses. The elements are:
Free redistribution
Source code available
Derivative works permitted
Integrity of the author’s source
No discrimination against persons or
groups.
No discrimination against fields of
endeavour.
Distribution of license with derivative
works.
License must not be specific to a product.
License must not restrict use of other
software.
License must be technological-natural.
Open Source Development Model: The
Open Source Development works under
collaboration of many anonymous developers and
contributors. But practically, these projects are
small and involve one contributor or a lesser
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104 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

number of contributors. Though, a few open source
projects, like Linux, are very large development
projects, which may have many contributors still
they have small number of gatekeepers, who take
care of the contributions. Which means they decide
which modification is worthy of adding in the
software. So, it is like a free market with a good
check.
The famous example of such kind is
Concurrent Versioning System (CVS), licensed
under GPL. It has a control system, which only
allows designated persons to check code into the
source tree and keeps track of published versions,
additions and modifications with the details of the
writers.
The main features of Open Source
Development model are:
modifications and so on. These rights and
responsibilities of the licensee may be in implicit
or explicit form.
If a license is distributed in a public domain,
the user does not need any license to read, copy,
modify or redistribute the codes.
Examples of free software license/open source
licenses:
Apache License, GNU General Public
License, GNU Lesser General Public License, MIT
License, Mozilla Public License, etc.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE
Project management helps the project manager
to plan, organize and manage the resources needed
to make software, which attains the specific
objectives of that particular software.
Project management is a carefully planned and

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(a) Here the users can work as co-developers
and hence, they can access the source
code.
(b) The base version should get released early
organized effort to accomplish a successful project.
A project is a one-time effort that produces a
specific result. It has a time limit, the resources
are limited and the goal is specific. Here the

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to find its co-developers early. challenge lies in the management of resources to
(c) The codes contributed by co-developers attain the goals in the stipulated time with the
must have a quick integration into the limited resources.
source code. A project can be divided into these stages:
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(d) The open source software should have
more than one version. A buggier version
with many features and a stable version
should be there to provide chance to the
co-developers to write codes for its
improvement and for finding the bugs and
fixing these.
(e) A modular approach of the software makes
it easy to study and modify.
(f) A well structured decision-making
structure should be there.
Open Source Licensing: A licence is a
permission to do specific tasks. In open source
license, there is a permission to read, copy, modify
and redistribute the source code. A licence may
also assign some responsibilities while enjoying
the rights such as distributing the source codes of

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Project Manager - Role and Responsibility:
A project manager is one who does the project
management. He is the main person in the process
of project management who has the responsibility
of planning, organizing and controlling the project
management activities. He does all this for the
successful completion of the project, which attains
the specified goals. For this, he has to plan
accordingly and make ultimate use of the scarce
resources and finish the project in stipulated time,
within the limits of cost and with due scope.
Software Project Management: Software
Project Management is management of the
software project. It includes the planning,
monitoring and controlling the activities of
software development. It helps to find the scope
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of the project, make list of the resources, work to
be done and plan a schedule of work accordingly.
A goal is to be defined for the software and other
activities revolve around that goal. For example,
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the task schedule is prepared and the tasks are
assigned, monitoring is done to keep track of the
work done and to find out any discrepancies. If
any problem is found it is the project manager who
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needs to fix it.
Project Management Software: Project
Management Software are used to help the
manager to perform various functions of project
management. There are a variety of jobs performed
by these software such as:
resource allocation,
scheduling,
communication,
cost control and budget management,
time management,
administration systems
quality management, and
Some of these are discussed here :
Scheduling: In any project there is a series of
tasks to be performed. These tasks need to be
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 105
scheduled properly to get best out of the resources.
The following are worth paying cognizance while
scheduling:
interdepending events.
resources needed for tasks
Scope of uncertain conditions.
Calculating Critical Path: There may be
instances that the same resources are needed for
various tasks, these type of scheduling is very
critical. There are software like Dependency
structure matrix solutions, can help in depicting
the tasks which share resources and the time
stipulated for them, it makes the controlling easy.
Providing Information: Information about
the project is needed by the stakeholders and also
helps to justify the levels achieved and work
accordingly. The information needed may be:
Tasks assigned to members.
Resource allocation.
Time management schedule.
Anticipation of the risks of the project.
History of development of such projects.
Use of resources according to the plan.
Timesheet Management: A timesheet helps
to keep record of every worker’s hours of work
done, amount of work done and kind of work done.
It helps the project manager in managing and
controlling the activities. It also helps to maintain
the record for each employee to be used for payroll.
It also helps the manager to find out the efficiency
level of the employees. Even employees get the
opportunity to see their efficiency level and try to
improve it. Examples of such software : Timesheet
Reporter, Ace Project, Time Reporting, Qtime.
Tools for Project Management
These are of the following types:
Desktop Applications: Desktop appli-
cations can be installed on desktop PC or other
type of personal computers like MS Project.
Web-based Services: Web based services
software support online project management tasks.
Example : iTeam Work
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106 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Web based Systems: Web based software
systems are to be installed in the system and
accessed through intranet network. Example : Dot
Project.
Microsoft Office Project: Software for
project management offered by Microsoft is very
popular for planning, management and
organization of the resources of a project.
Its scheduling engine is very good. The project
once given the information about the overall
project, tasks and resources, it provides the start
and finish date for each task by reading the details
of the tasks. This scheduling can be changed if
some details have been changed in the project
resources or tasks. The features of MS Project 2007
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are explained below:
Create and Schedule Project: A project
has to work according to the schedule. In most of
the projects, a starting date or finish date is known
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and the other needs to be calculated. Depending
upon the tasks, MS project helps to find out the
other one.
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How to do?:
Launch MS Project Professional by
connecting to MS Project Server.
On File menu select New.
MS Project displays a blank project.
On Project menu select Project
information.
On Project information dialog box, please
enter Start Date.
Choose the Calendar to be used.
On File menu select Save and provide
project name. Default version of the
projects in MS Project Server is published.
Click on Save.
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Define File Properties for the Project:
1. Open the project.
2. Click on File Tab, and then click Info.
3. Choose Project Information and then
Advanced Properties.
4. On the Summary tab, give the relevant
project information.
Add Tasks to the Project: The project can
be divided into variety of tasks:
Click the View tab, in the Task Views
group, now select Gantt chart.
In the Task Name field, type a task name, it
will create the unique task identity for each
task.
It is also possible to create multiple tasks
using the Task Form View.
Create Milestones: A milestone is an
important task or event in the project which shows
the progress of the project. To add a milestone do
it :
Select the View Tab, in the Tasks View tab,
click Gantt chart.
In the task name field write the name of
milestone.
Type 0 in the duration field of the milestone
task to create the task as milestone.
To create a task with greater than zero
duration as Milestone, select the task and
then on the Task tab, choose the Task
Information from the Properties group.
Select the Mark Task as Milestone check
box. In the task Information dialog box,
click Advanced tab and then give the
duration of the Milestone.
OFFICE APPLICATIONS
Applications which are very useful for official
work or any other kind of computerized activity
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are being used widely in every corner of the world.
Be it writing documents, preparing invoice,
budgets, charts, or e-mailing we use application
software. A few of them are discussed here:
Word Processing: A word processor is an
application software which is used used for
composition of mainly text, though it can contain
table, charts, graphs etc. These allow to edit the
material, format it and save it for future usage.
The application also allows to print the
information.
Introduction: The modern day word
processors allow many features which were not
there in the traditional applications. These are mail
merge, macros, variety of formatting, auto correct,
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thesaurus, etc. Above all these are graphical user
interface. These also allow to integrate images with
text, graphs and so on.
Most widely used word processor is MS Word
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by Microsoft corporation. It comes in the Office
suite. Earlier WordStar, WordPerfect, etc. were
used. But MS Word provides variety of features
apart being a GUI.
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There are some open source Word processors
like AbiWord, KWord, OpenOffice.org Writer etc.
Google Docs is also getting very popular being
an online word processor. Word processors, apart
from allowing you to manipulate text, allow the
following features :
Mail merge.
Input page numbers.
Input headers and footers of the document.
Insert tables with variety of formatting
options.
Features like sorting in the tables.
Insert graphs.
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 107
Hyperlinking.
Cross-referencing with section or page
numbers.
Tools such as spell check and grammar.
Version control of a document.
Apply themes to the documents.
Comments and annotations.
Saving options such as renaming, backup
etc.
Some of the features are elaborated :
Adding Header, Footer or Page Number to
a Document: MS Word allows any text or image
etc. to be added as header or footer. This will
appear on all pages of the document. This can be a
constant or a variable like page numbers. To add
header and footer:
1. Click on View tab from the menu, select
the Header or Footer option.
2. A toolbar will appear you can select from
that, whether you want to add page number
or date, time, file name, etc.
3. You can toggle between the header and
footer from this toolbar.
OR
1. Click on Insert tab from the menu select
page number.
2. A dialog box will appear, select position
whether header or footer.
3. Now select alignment of the text to be
appeared.
4. Click on format to select advanced
formatting options.
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Publications Adding Header and Footer in MS Word

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Creating a Table in Word: MS Word allows to insert a table. It can be done in the following ways:
1. Place the cursor on the point where the cursor has to be placed.
2. Click on insert tab, select table and then choose Quick table.
3. Choose the required template from the gallery displayed.
The chosen table will be inserted into the document.
OR
1. Click in the document where the table has to be inserted.
2. On the Insert tab, in the Tables group click Table, and then under Insert Table.
3. Select number of rows and columns required in the table.
4. The table will be drawn on the document.

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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 109

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Publications Inserting a table in MS Word

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In the latest versions of MS Word, there is a tab showing ‘table’ in the menu bar which allows
variety of options for tables.

Creating a Table of Contents: Table of Contents can be created by MS Word by applying heading
styles to the text. Specified headings are selected and table of content is created by Word. Follow the
steps to do this:

1. Select the text that is to be appear in the TOC.

2. On the Home tab, in the Styles group, click the Style (Heading1, Heading2….) that you want to
choose.

3. Click the place in the document where the TOC has to be inserted.

4. ON the Reference Tab, click Table of Contents on the Table of Contents group.

5. Choose the TOC Style that is required.

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Publications Creating Table of Contents

Creating a Memo for Multiple Recipients
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in Mail Merge: Mail merge feature allows the
user to write the main document once and then
merge it to the structured data source. For example,
if one has to send invitation to ten people, he or
she don’t have to type the invitation or copy paste
the invitation ten times. Rather he or she can type
the invitation once and merge it to the name and
address list containing the names of those ten
persons.
This is used to create personalized letters and
address lists to make pre-addressed envelopes or
labels. When the mail merge is run, the word
processing system creates an output document for
each row in the database. Fixed text is displayed
in each of the output and the variable is shown
one by one. For example, the invitation letter will
be the same by names and addresses will be
changed every time.
Steps :
1. Type the text or insert image or anything,
which you want to display in each of the
letter.
2. Connect the document to the data source.
3. Refine the list of recipients or items.
Microsoft Office Word generates a copy of
the main document for each item, or record,
in your data file.
4. Add placeholders, called mail merge fields,
to the document.
5. Select merger, the mail merge fields are
filled with information from your data file.
6. Preview and complete the merge.

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Publications Mail Merge
1. Click on tools menu and select mail merge.
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2. Mail merge helper will appear.
3. It will show three steps to be followed. Step
one asks you to select or create the main
document which has to be constant.
4. Step two asks you to select or create data
source.
5. Step three will merge the documents.
Thus, mail merge is used to create documents
that are essentially the same but have a few unique
data elements that vary for each document.
SPREADSHEET
A Spreadsheet, or worksheet is a grid made of
columns and rows known as cells. It is used to
manipulate numerical data and make charts and
graphs based on it. Variety of mathematical and
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 111
OR
statistical operations can be performed on the data.
Example: MS Excel.
Introduction
Each cell on a spreadsheet can have any of
the following data:
Text or Labels: These are the headings of the
colums like C3, B6.
Numbers or Constants: Numbers or values
or fixed entries like A2.
Formulae: These are formulae or functions
which decide what has to be done with the data.
These begin with = sign.
There is a unique cell address associated with
each cell. This is the result of the number of row,
column of the cell. E.g. B9 means the cell B9 is
the intersection of column B and row 9.
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Spreadsheet
Basic Features: There are many spreadsheets
or worksheets in a workbook. These sheets can be
renamed based on the data they carry. For example,
if sheet one is carrying data for the month of
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January and sheet two is carrying data for the
month of February, these can be renamed as
January and February instead of the default names.
This can be done by double clicking on the names
and changing them. Excel allows new sheets to be
inserted or deleted from a workbook. It also allows
the formatting of the cells.
Features like cut, copy and paste are also
supported in this application.
There is a feature called paste special. It
displays a variety of radio buttons, which if chosen
will do as follows:
Formulas: Only pastes the formulas from
the cells on the clipboard.
Values: Only values will be pasted.
Column Widths: Will paste only the column
widths of the copied cells.
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Skip Blanks: Blanks will be skipped only
data will be pasted.
Excel allows the cell, the worksheet or full
workbook to be protected.
Protecting a Worksheet
1. Click Tools, click Protection, and click
Protect Sheet.
2. Enter a password (if needed).
3. Confirm password (if needed).
4. Click OK.
Protecting a Workbook
1. Click Tools, click Protection, and Click
Protect Workbook.
2. Enter a password (if needed).
3. Choose to protect the Structure, Windows,
or both.
4. Click OK.
Formulae and Functions
Excel provides a variety of functions. It can
be chosen by selecting function from insert menu.
Some of them are as follows:
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Date and Time
1. MONTH: Converts a serial number to a
month.
2. YEAR: Converts a serial number to a
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year.
3. NOW: Returns the serial number of the
current date and time.
4. WEEKDAY: Returns a number corres-
ponding the number that represents a date.
Math and Statistical
1. SUM: Adds its arguments.
2. MEDIAN: Returns the median of the
given numbers.
3. SUMPROUCT: Returns the sum of the
products of corresponding array
components.
4. COUNTIF: Counts the number of cells
within a range that meet the given criteria.
5. COUNT: Counts the number of cells that
contain number.
Text
1. CONCATENATE: It joints given text
items into one text item.
2. L EFT: It returns the leftmost characters
from a text value.
3. RIGHT: It returns the rightmost characters
from a text value.
4. LEN: It returns the number of characters
in a text string.
Logical
1. IF: Returns a value if the condition is true
and returns other value if the condition is
false.
2. NOT: It reverses the logic of its argument.
3. AND: It returns TRUE if all of its arguments
are TRUE.
Advanced Functions
1. MATCH: Looks up values in a reference
or array.
2. INDEX: Uses an index to choose a value
from a reference or array.
3. SEARCH: Finds one text value within
another (not case-sensitive).

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4. REPLACE: Replaces characters within
text.
Database Functions
1. DGET: It gets a single record that matches
the specified criteria.
2. DCOUNT: It counts the cells that contain
numbers in a database.
3. DSUM: It adds the numbers in the field
column of records in the database that
match the criteria.
4. DPRODUCT: It multiplies the values in
a particular field of records that match the
criteria in a database.
Lookup & Reference
1. VLOOKUP: It looks the first column of
an array and moves across the row to return
the value of a cell.
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Preparing Chart in MS Excel
Macros: Macros are short programs which
allow the user to save time. These are written using
VBA. These record a specific task and when
carried out perform the same. VBA is used to write
programs in Word, Access, Power Point, Excel,
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2. HLOOKUP: It looks in the top row of an
array and returns the value of the indicated
cell.
3. INDIRECT: It returns a reference indicated
by a text value.
Charting: Excel allows to insert and create
Charts based on data. Charts can be inserted as an
object in the same sheet or can be inserted as a
new sheet.
Steps to create a chart:
1. Insert the data in the worksheet.
2. Select the data.
3. Go to Insert tab in the main menu.
4. Select the chart type.
5. The chart will appear.
6. Follow the wizard.
etc. It is basically a subset of Microsoft Visual
Basic.
Steps to record a Macro:
1. Go to the Tools menu, select Macro, now
select Record new Macro.
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 115

2. Write the name for the Macro, it can describe the function to be performed.
3. Description can be added if needed.
4. Assign a keyboard shortcut to run the Macro.
5. Now click on OK.
6. Simply perform the actions you want to be recorded.
7. Press stop.

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Recording a Macro

The Macro can be executed in the following ways :

1. Run a Macro by using the menu command.
2. By pressing a CTRL combination shortcut key.
3. Clicking a toolbar button or an area on an object, graphic or control.
4. Run a Macro automatically when the workbook is opened.
A Small Example in Excel 2007: Given below are the marks of a student in various subjects. We
will add these using the function SUM, and find its percentage.

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We get the sum by inserting the function SUM
in the cell B9 (=sum(B3:B7)) and we define a
Excel 2007
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formula for calculating the percentage by =(B9/
500*100) in the cell D9.
DATABASE
A database can store a large number of data in
form of tables. Different tables showing different
data can be joined by setting relationships. It helps
in improving the speed, accuracy and memory
usage.
Introduction: A Table is used to store data in
a databse. It is used to store a specific data like
price of a commodity, discount offered on various
commodities etc. In a table there are various fields
and an individual record is known as a Tuple or
row. There is a primary key in each table which is
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unique and helps to remove duplicity. A primary
key of another table is called a foreign key.
Example of database: MS-Access.
Create Table in Database
1. Launch the MS Access software
application.
2. A dialog box appears. Select the option of
making a blank database or you can use a
wizard.
Or
Click File menu and select new.
3. In the File Name box, type a file name for
the new database.
4. To browse to a different location to save
the database, click the folder icon.
5. Click Create.
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 117

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It opens a new database for you and a new table named table 1.
Add Fields to the Table
New data can be entered in the Design view.
Select design view from the view tab.
Add fields and set their properties like datatype, size, default value, input mask etc.
Access makes a primary key in this view, it can be changed.
Save the table by selecting save from file menu.

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Add Data in the Table: Data has to be entered Set a Table’s Primary Key: Access allots a
after making a table. primary key to the table when it is created in design
1. Open the database to which data has to be view. Its field name is ID and datatype is
added.
AutoNumber. But it allows changes in primary key
2. Select the table where the data has to be
attributes.
added.
3. Add the data to the table record by record 1. Select the table for which the primary key
in the datasheet grid. has to be set or modified.
4. Save table.
2. Open design view mode from view menu.
The datasheet view allows modification too.
Add New Fields in the Table 3. In the Design grid, select the field.
New fields can be added by: 4. On the Design tab, in the Tools group, click
1. Open the design view from view menu. Primary Key.
2. In the table design grid, add the new field.
3. Define its properties like datatype, length, Defining Relationships: Relationship can be
default value, etc. created in two tables having a common field with
4. Save the table. same data type. Relationship can be created by:

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1. Select Relationships from the Tools menu.
2. Choose the Table option and add the tables
between which relationship has to be
created.
3. Drag a field (typically the primary key)
from one table to the common field (the
foreign key) in the other table. To drag
multiple fields, press the CTRL key, click
each field, and then drag them.
4. The Edit Relationships dialog box appears.
5. Select the enforce referential integrity if
needed.
6. Click Create.
A relationship line is drawn. The line of
referential integrity is thicker.
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OR
Use wizard to create a query.
The query will be executed and the result is
displayed in the grid.
Reports: A Report is used to present
information from tables and queries. It stores it in
variety of designs such as labels, headings and
graphics.
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 119
If we select referential integrity, no entry can
be made which violates referential integrity of the
table.
Defining Queries: A query is used to get fast
answer to specific question. It also helps to pick
data for modification, viewing or deleting. It helps
to filter data and perform calculations on data.
1. On the Create tab, in the query group, click
query design. A show Table dialog box
appears.
2. In the Show Table dialog box, choose the
table on which query has to be based and
close the show Table dialog box.
3. In the selected Table, double click the fields
that have to be added to the query.
4. On the Design Tab, in the Results group,
click Run.
Steps:
1. Select the query or Table from the
navigation pane.
2. Select create tab and then select Report
group, click on report.
3. A Report will be created.
4. It can be modified in report design view.
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120 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE

OR Student_parent_name Text
Use wizard to create a report. Student_age Number
A Small Example in Access 2007 Stream Text
Here we will create a small database for Student_master
students in a school. We will add only a few Student_ID Autotype
students of class XI and XII using MS Access
Stream Text
2007.
We have made tables Student_detail and Define Student_ID as Primary key. Then
Student_master database tables with the following define the relationship.
structure:
Add data to the table.
Student_detail
Student_ID Autotype Here we have defined a simple query to see
Student_name Text student ID and name whose age is more than or
Student_class Number equal to 18.

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SELECT student_detail.[Student ID], student_detail.Student_age

FROM student_detail
WHERE (((student_detail.Student_age)>=18));
The result can be viewed in datasheet view or can be used as a report.

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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 121

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Data sheet view

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Report view

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E-MAIL Software like Outlook uses these email

E mail is an acronym for Electronic mail. It is
one of the boons of internet which provide
instantaneous messaging service over the internet.
It can be used to send mails containing text, images,
large files of any kind over digital medium. A mail
can be forwarded to more than one person at a
time.
Introducation: In order to send and receive
mail electronically, the user must have an email
account, which can be provided by Internet Service
provider, employer, or webmail services like Gmail
or rediffmail etc.
accounts. Outlook POP, an application-layer
Internet standard protocol to retrieve e-mail from
a remote server over a TCP/IP connection. Email
account information has to be given to Microsoft
Outlook to receive email through it. It allows many
email accounts within a single outlook profile.
Creating Email Accounts and Profiles:
Before using Outlook, an Email profile and
account has to be created.
1. In MS Windows, go to control panel and
select Mail option.

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2. Click Show Profiles.

3. Click on Add and Type a name for the profile and then click OK.
4. Add email account to use in your profile.
Create a new Email Message
Steps:
1. On the File menu, select, New >Mail Message.
2. In the Subject box, type the subject.

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3. Add the recipient’s name in the To, CC,
Bcc box. You can add more than one name
by separating them with semicolon.
4. If the recepient’s name is there in the
address book, choose To or CC to select it
from the list of addressees.
5. The level of importance for message can
also be set.
6. If you want to attatch any file or website
link you can do it.
Manage Contacts: Address book can be
updated. New Contacts can be added.
Steps:
1. Select file menu, click new and then select
contact.
2. Fill in the contact details on the contact
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form.
OR
1. Open or preview the email message that
contains the contact name to be added.
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2. Right Click the name of the sender and then
select Add to contacts.
Calendar Management: Calendar makes it
possible to schedule activities. You can schedule
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activities like appointments, events etc. These can
be added, modified or deleted. This can be viewed
by clicking on calendar in the navigation pane and
choosing the specific date for which the schedule
has to be seen.
You can add schedule to calendar by right
clicking on the specific date and time and selecting
the type of activity. It may be one of the following:
Meeting: You have to insert a specific time
and location for a meeting.
Appointment: Appointment with whom and
when has to be specified.
A task: It is an entry that is seen in the calendar
but doesn’t need to be scheduled for a specific time.
An event: It is an activity that lasts long a
whole day. It appears as banners on the top of the
date specified.
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 123
Q. 1. Give the names of a few Open Source
Software applications?
Ans. 1. These are:
Operating System Linux
Web Browsing Mozilla Firefox
Instant Messaging Pidgin
Email Mozilla Thunderbird
Word Processing OpenOffice.org
Graphics Paint.NET
Q. 2. What are the advantages of using
Open Source Software?
Ans. Advantages:
These are available for free, thus, reduce
the overall functional cost.
The updated versions are available.
The help of troubleshooting is available
online.
The software can be customized according
to the need.
Q. 3. How is the Open Source Code
maintained with the developers distributed
across geographical regions?
Ans. There is provision of using Revision
control systems such as Concurrent Versions
System (CVS). These help to track and centrally
manage the source code files and changes made
in the software.
Q. 4. Give name of other industries besides
software, where the concept of Open Source is
being implemented?
Ans. Besides software industries, the concept
of open source software is being implemented in
these industries:
Electronics: The Open Source Hardware
are made available with initial
specifications to be redistributed without
paying royalty or fees. Example : SUN
Microsystems’s OpenSPARC T1 Multicore
Processor.
Beverages: Some recipes are provided
openly. Example : OpenCola
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124 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
Digital Content: Some sites display
content which can be reused and offer
changes to be made are available. Example:
Wiktionary.
Robotics: This provides blueprints,
schematics and source code are released
under the open source model to be reused
and redistributed.
Q. 5. What is a Milestone in a project?
Ans. A milestone depicts a markable point of
specifying a major event in a project. These are
the indicators of the progress of a project. Any
task can be defined as a milestone.
Q. 6. What is a critical task in a project?
Ans. Critical tasks are those which have to be
completed on time. If not completed these can
affect the schedule of completion of the project. A
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series of critical tasks makes up a project’s critical
path.
Q. 7. What information can help me analyze
my projects progress?
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Ans. The following task information help to
analyze the project progress:
Duration Work Start date
Finish date Cost
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Q. 8. What is the difference between Lead
time and Lag time?
Ans. Lead time is the overlapping between the
tasks which have a dependency. Whereas, a lag
time is a delay of such tasks.
Q. 9. Is it possible to import data from Excel
into Access?
Ans. Yes, it is possible to import data from
Excel workbook into Access 2010.
We can do it in the following ways:
Copy data from worksheet and past into
Access datasheet.
Import a worksheet into a new or existing
table.
You can link the worksheet.
Q. 10. What is a signature of an email
message?
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Ans. As signature appears in a letter on paper,
in an email message, it is the way of showing the
name of the sender. This can be done manually in
each mail or create a default signature.
Q. 11. Is it possible to get a delivery receipt
from the email recipient?
Ans. Yes. It tells the sender that the mail sent
by him or her has been delivered to the receiver.
Q. 12. Which of the following entry will be
best entered as an event in your calendar?
A party that occurs from 4 pm to 6 pm
Birthday
A visit to the dentist
Ans. A party has a time of starting and ending,
it is a short time, visit to a dentist also may take a
short while, but a Birthday’s happens all day long.
So it is an event.
Q. 1. What do you know about the funding
in the computer software?
Ans. Software can be created as a consulting
project for one or more customers. The customers
pay to direct the developers’ efforts: to have bugs
prioritized and fixed or features added. Companies
or independent consultants can also charge for
installation, training, technical support, or
customization of the software.
Another way to funding is to provide the
software freely, but sell licenses to proprietary
add-ons such as data libraries. For instance, an
open-source CAD program may require parts
libraries which are sold on a subscription or flat-
fee basis. Open-source software can also promote
the sale of specialized hardware that it
interoperates with.
Many open-source software projects have
started as research projects within universities, as
personal projects of students or as tools to aid
scientific research. The influence of universities
and research institutions on open source shows in
the number of projects named after their host
institutions.
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Companies may appoint developers to work
on open-source projects that are useful to the
company’s infrastructure: in this case, it is
developed not as a product to be sold but as a sort
of shared public utility. A local bug-fix or solution
to a software problem, written by a developer either
at a company’s request or to make his/her own job
easier, can be released as an open source
contribution without costing the company
anything.
Q. 2. What do you know about Word
Processor?
Ans. A Word Processor is a computer
application used for the composition, editing,
formatting, and possibly printing of any sort of
printable data or material.
Word processors for number of years usually
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featured a monochrome display and the ability to
save documents on memory cards. Later models
introduced innovations such as spell-checking
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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS / 125
programs, increased formatting options, and dot-
matrix printing. As the more versatile combination
of a personal computer and separate printer became
commonplace, most business-machine companies
stopped manufacturing the Word processor as a
stand-alone office machine.
Word processors are descended from early text
formatting tools. Word processing was one of the
earliest applications for the personal computer in
office productivity.
Early, Word processors used tag-based markup
for document formatting, most modern word
processors take advantage of a graphical user
interface providing some form of what-you-see-
is-what-you-get editing. Various powerful systems
consisting of one or more programs that can
produce any arbitrary combination of images,
graphics and text, the latter handled with type-
setting capability.
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126
INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
Networking and Internet
Initially the advent of computer can be
attributed to the ability of numerical data
processing. With the rapid growth in technology
computers were being used in every walk of life.
Now we can see computer being used in almost
every sector, whether it is institute, educational or
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commercial, banking or entertainment. The advent
of varieties of PC at cheaper price but with high
capabilities made it possible to reach the computer
to the masses.
Development of ARPANET, a network by
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Advance Research Projects Agency in 1960 paved
the way of networking. This led to the advent of a
huge network of networks called Internet.
Currently Internet is being used to share and
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transfer data and information among millions of
users all over the world.
In this chapter, we will read about basic
concepts of networking, basic models of networks,
types of networks, differences among various
networking devices, advantages of networks and
addresses used on the Internet.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?
Computer network is a system of
interconnection of two or more computers, which
are connected in order to share data, information
or resources. The scope of networking is vast. We
can find networked machines in business
organizations, showrooms, banks, ticket counters
and even at home. These are used for a variety of
reasons or uses.
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10
Advantages of using Computer Networks:
Computer network are popular for the following
reasons:
Resource Sharing: A network allows its
users to share data, information or equipments such
as storage space over the network. Here, the
barriers of space are eliminated.
High Reliability: Reliability increases while
working on networks because there are ready
alternatives like storage, replicated data and
programs, etc.
Cost-benefit Advantage: In a network
various computers may be assigned various tasks
and can enhance the capacity and functioning
power at lower cost. Many computers can be
connected to a server to get their requests
completed. This kind of client server model
provides ultimate performance at lower cost.
Scalability: This is the ability to perform
better gained by adding more processors.
Powerful Communication Medium:
Networks allow the users to communicate in
seconds and transfer large files or data in seconds.
It allows to use email, chats, video, audio chats
and online conferencing.
The Internet: Internet is a network of
networks. There may be a large number of
networks connected to it, may be thousands of
millions users are using internet. With the advent
of Internet in 1967 the era of information blast
started. The most popular application which is used
by internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). It
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provides pool of information to the user. WWW
was started in 1989 by Sir Tim Berners Lee at
Physics Laboratory (CERN). It helps the user to
easily click and find interface. The hyper linked
document or text or element when clicked on links
the user to the web page whose address is stored
on the link. We should have an Internet connection
by a service provider to use internet. We need web
browser software to get access to the information
over the net. Example of browser software: Internet
Explorer, Goggle Chrome, etc.
The Internet is popular due to its incredible
features of:
(a) Searching,
(b) Browsing,
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Publications A Simple Communication System
(Source: PhD thesis of Professor Manohar Lal)
As you can see it has five parts, which are
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explained here:
1. Source: The message to be communicated
is produced by the source. It can send it in any
form be it a binary digit or a waveform, etc.
2. An Encoder: Encoder represents any
processing of the source messages/signals prior to
transmission.
3. The Channel: It is a medium, which is used
for data transfer. A radio link, telephone line or a
storage medium can be a medium. There may be
different kind of disturbances on a medium. For
example, in a telephone line the noise disturbance
may be:
Time varying frequency,
Thermal noise,
Crosstalk,
Impulsive switching noise, etc.
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NETWORKING AND INTERNET / 127
(c) E-mail,
(d) Chatting,
(e) E-learning
(f) E-business,
(g) Funds transfer,
(h) Shopping,
(i) Advertising, etc.
Data Communication System: In the era of
ICT we need to communicate with the outer world.
In order to communicate, we have to share data and
information. Data is transmitted on Internet in digital
or analog form. But noise and attenuation can affect
this. Noise is the external disturbances whereas
attenuation is the degeneration of the signal.
These disturbances may be corrected by an
error correcting code.
4. The Decoder: A decoder decodes the data
encoded by encoder to travel through the medium.
5. The Destination: It is the receiver of the
message. A person or object can be a receiver.
Some standard data transmission concepts are:
The data may be transmitted as analog or
digital form.
It can travel through a single path serially
or use number of parallel paths.
The data can be sent asynchronously or
synchronously.
Modes of Data Transmission are:
(a) Simplex Mode: Only from one point to
another point. It is unidirectional. The sender will
send and receiver will receive, he cannot send back
the data. Example: television telecast in non-
interactive mode.
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(b) Half Duplex Mode: From one point to
another and reverse but only one at a time. Data
can flow from both the points but one at a time.
Example : Walkie talkie.
(c) Full Duplex Mode: Both ways
simultaneously. The sender and receiver both can
send and receive data. Signals going in either
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direction share the capacity. Sending and receiving
data use half bandwidth each. Example: telephone
communication.
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Speed of Transmission: Speed of data
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transmission is also called bandwidth.
Bandwidth is a data transmission rate that tells
the maximum amount of information (bits/
second) that can be transmitted along a channel.
Bandwidth is measured in kilobits, kbps, or
megabits (Mbps).
Some Sample Transmission Speed: Dial-
up modems are slower than broadbands. These
provide usually maximum bit rate of 56 kb/s
whereas broadband provides minimum 256 kb/s
(0.256 Mb/s).
Packet, and Circuit Switching: Circuit
switching involves creating a switched path for
entire communication, and then breaking the link.
In a packet switching a message is broken in small
packet and are sent to destination.
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What should you know about a Computer
Network?
A computer is said to be a part of a network if
it is connected to the network through physical
wires or wireless medium.
We must also know that whether the computers
are connected in no order or is there some
architecture. We should also know the way of data
transmission. The issue of data transfer should also
be known.
DATA TRANSMISSION CHANNELS
The data transmission channels are needed for
data transmission. These can be:
1. Guided Channels or 2. Unguided Channels
1. Guided Media: Guided media use a
physical connection between two devices. The
waves are guided along a physical path over the
medium. A signal has to travel within the physical
limits of the guided medium. These may be :
(a) Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable
is a cable which is made by intertwining two
separate insulated wires together. A twisted pair
cable consists of two conductors, which are
normally made of copper. This pair has a
bandwidth to distance ratio of about 1 MHz per
kilometer. These are of two types: shielded and
unshielded. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) has a fine
wire mesh surrounding the wires which helps to
protect the transmission; Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) does not have that mesh.
Shielded cable is used in older telephone
networks, network, and data communications to
reduce outside interference.
(b) Optical Fiber: Optical fiber cable is a
cable made of optical fibers that can transmit large
amounts of information at the speed of light. It is
a medium and the technology associated with the
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transmission of information as light pulses along
a glass or plastic strand. Optical fiber carries much
more information than conventional copper wire.
In one cable, there are many optical fibers. The
glass fiber requires more protection within an outer
cable than copper. Basically, it consists of two
concentric cylinders: an inner core and a cladding
used to surround the core. These are made of
transparent plastic or glass material. The density
of the core and cladding must be such to be helpful
to reflect the beam of light.
The core guides the beam and cladding
prevents it. The signal is usually generated by a
laser or Light Emitting Diode (LED). The speed
of data transfer is really high.
Due to high speed and little disturbance these
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are being used rapidly in telecommunications.
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Advantages of Optical Fiber
Higher Bandwidth helps data at a higher
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rate.
Less signal attenuation.
Immunity to electromagnetic interface.
Light weight.
Limitations of Optical Fiber
It needs experts to install it and provide
maintenance.
Being unidirectional needs two fibers for
bi-directional communication.
Cost factor is high.
2. Unguided Media: Unguided media
transfers the signals through wireless medium. It
transports electromagnetic waves in the air which
can be received by the devices to catch them. These
can be:
(a) Radio waves
(b) Micro waves
(c) Infrared.
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NETWORKING AND INTERNET / 129
(a) Radio Waves: Radio waves are an
invisible form of electromagnetic radiation, and it
is one of the widest ranges in the electromagnetic
spectrum. A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave
propagated by an antenna. The frequency ranges
from 3 Kilo-Hertz to 1 Giga-Hertz. These can
travel in any direction and easy to produce waves.
It eliminates the cost of physical medium and
is very useful for long distanced communication.
These are of a very long wavelength, such as
thousands of meters, tend to travel along the surface
of the earth and even penetrate into the water. These
are useful for communication with submarines and
for broadcasting time signals, radio broadcast,
cellular telephones, etc. Each communication
service uses a part of the spectrum that is suitable
for its needs. These days cellular radios are used to
provide mobile phone networks. These operate in
the VHF (Very High Frequency) band.
These help in multicasting, which means it
transmit a signal for specific group which may be
more than one. These are also used in FM radios,
cordless phones, etc.
A communication between single source and
destination is known as unicast and if there are
many receivers to catch the signals sent by sender
at any destination, it is called broadcast.
Bluetooth: Bluetooth is used to send and
receive data over short distance in mobile and
related technology. A Bluetooth connection is
wireless and automatic, and it has a number of
interesting features that can simplify our daily lives.
(b) Microwaves: Microwaves are radio
frequencies, which ranges between about 1 GHz
(one gigahertz) to about 300 GHz.
It may be defined as a short electromagnetic
wave (longer than infrared but shorter than radio
waves); used for radar and microwave ovens and
for transmitting telephone, facsimile, video and data.
These are unidirectional waves and hence have less
interference by a pair of aligned antenna to another.
Uses of Microwave are radio transmission,
telecommunication carriers and TV stations.
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Satellite is another form of microwave system.
Repeaters present in the sky supplement it. Satellites
have a high bandwidth and can support variety of
channels. It has some limitations such as:
High set up cost.
The lifetime is limited.
These waves cannot be received inside the
building.
(c) Infrared: Infrared is a energy radiation or
say electromagnetic radiation with a frequency
below our eyes sensitivity. Even that we can not
“see” sound frequencies, we know that it exist. This
ranges between 300 Giga-Hertz to 400 Tera-Hertz.
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PublicationsMicrowaves
Optical transreceivers help to generate and
receive these signals. These are relatively cheap
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and make it a reasonable technology. Uses are
limited because it can cover lesser distance of say
around a kilometre. Currently, these are popularly
used for interfacing hand-held and portable
computing devices to Local Area Networks and a
wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data
with a very high data rate. This technology is being
used to send and receive signals between
keyboards, mouse and printers. Limitation is the
use of infrared inside building due to tendency to
get disturbed under sunlight.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
In networking, a topology is a usually
schematic description of the arrangement of a
network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
Strategy for future expansion is also described in
a topology. There are two ways of defining network
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geometry: the physical topology and the logical
(or signal) topology.
(a) Physical Topology of a network is the
actual geometric layout of workstations. There are
several common physical topologies. Such as ring,
bus, mesh.
(b) Logical Topology describes the nature of
the paths the signals follow from node to node. It
may be the same as the physical one or not.
Some Topologies:
Bus Topology: Bus topology is a network
setup where each of the computers and network
devices are connected to a single cable or backbone.
The computers are connected with single
communication cable. It allows only one computer
to send a message at a time. The more the number
of computers attached to it, lesser will be the speed.
A node can transmit the data when it finds the bus
free, means when the bus is busy it has to wait.
Each node connected to the network has a unique
address, which is used by the operating system to
keep track of data transmission.
Bus Topology
It is the most common and simple topology
used in networking. The nodes are connected
through a single wire called backbone. The nodes
wait for their turn and then send or receive data or
messages. For this, the unique addresses assigned
play a help.
Advantages of Bus Topology
It is simple to use.
It is reliable.
Cost effective.
Scope of extension is there, and it is easy
to implement.
Failure of one node will not disturb others.
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NETWORKING AND INTERNET / 131

Limitations of Bus Topology Can handle network traffic.

A computer has to wait for its turn to come.
Number of computers can affect speed of
LAN.
If extended, the speed will get affected.
Nodes are connected using terminators at
both the ends of the cable.
Ring Topology: In this topology, the
workstations are connected in a closed loop
configuration. This is also known as circular
topology because the nodes are connected in a
circle. Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly
connected. Other pairs of workstations are
indirectly connected.
In this node, there is no end of the network, means
every node is connected to the other one thus, forming
a ring. Every node will have two neighbouring nodes
Ideal for a larger network.
There is no need of a server to manage
functioning.
Limitations of Ring Topology
Expensive than bus network topology.
It is slower when compared to an Ethernet
network under normal load.
The troubleshooting is difficult.
If one node is not working properly, the
network will get disturbed.
Star Topology: It is one of the most
common network setups where each of the devices
and computers on a network connect to a central
hub. The hub is connected to all the nodes directly.
Each computer is interconnected indirectly to each

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whith are directly connected to it. A node accepts
data from one of the neighbouring node and transmits other. A hub is used to expand one network
to the other one. As the physical feature, the data has connection into many. In small networks we use
to travel in circular way. We can use this in peer-to- single hub and in larger we use many.
peer networks, where there is a need for every

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machine to work as processor and distributor of data.
Example:
(a) IBM Token Ring.
(b) Fiber Distributed Data Interface.
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Client

Client Client

Server

Client
Star
StarTopology
Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

Client
It is more reliable.
Ring Topology
Failing of one connection does not disturb
Advantages of Ring Topology the network, it can be isolated by hub.
All computers are given equal access to the It is easy to replace, install or remove hosts
token, no computer can monopolize the or other devices.
network. Easy to troubleshoot.

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Performance is fast. Components of LAN:

Limitations of Star Topology 1. Network Devices: Workstations, printers,
Costly network topology. file servers, etc.
The network will not work if the hub is not 2. Network Communication Devices: hubs,
routers, switches, etc.
functioning.
3. Network Interface Cards (NICs): to work
Usually, a device is needed to switch the
as interface between the machine and network.
network traffic. 4. Cable: for wired network. It is not needed
NETWORK CLASSIFICATION in wireless LAN.
We can classify the networks in the following 5. Network Operating System: It controls
main types: the network functioning.
1. LAN (Local Area Network) Characteristics of LAN:
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) It is a network used in restricted
3. WAN (Wide Area Network) geographical area.
Local Area Network (LAN): Local-Area LANs are private networks.
There is no tariffs or other regulatory
Network is a network that has networking
controls for wired LAN, but it may be there
equipment or computers in close proximity to each

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for wireless LAN.
other. It allows them to communicate, share data, These are high speed networks.
information and other resources, such as printer Allows variety of Media Access Control
or storage medium, software etc. Many business methods.
houses use a network of their own at building level, Advantages of LAN

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is known as a LAN. Computers connected to LAN LAN makes it possible to share resources
may reside in same room or building. and data among the network. Thus, it makes
it possible to utilize the resources properly.
Client LAN allows for high-speed data

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Helps to function the organization in a
better way.
Publisher
LAN Internet
Limitation of LAN
Security is an issue in LAN, but it can be
controlled using security system.
Agency
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A
Client
LAN Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a
types of computer networks. It is a network that is
As is earlier said the computers should be utilized in large networks. This network is larger
located closely say within 2 kms of distance. This than the standard Local-Area Network (LAN) but
allows to share with a higher speed. It also justifies is smaller than the Wide Area Network (WAN).
the use of resources. The Ethernet system based We can find use of MAN in school campuses and
on the bus topology servers as a good example of large companies having multiple buildings. They
LAN. typically use wireless infrastructure or Optical
A LAN may be connected to another LAN or fiber connections.
to WANs and MANs. We need to use a device It may cover a full city around 50 kms and
called router for this. may be a signally owned network. There are

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instances where many organizations use it. These
can be said an inter network of LANs. It is done
with the help of modem and cables.
Metro-Area Network
MAN
MAN
Characteristics of MAN:
MANs provide Internet connectivity for
LANs.
The network size falls generally between
LAN and WAN.
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Allow to share resources at a larger end.
MAN are high speed network.
It can cover large geographical areas
ranging upto 50 kms.
It started around 1980.
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Wide Area Network (WAN): A Wide Area
Network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed
telecommunications network. It is a collection of
computers and network resources connected via a
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network over a large geographic area. These cover
larger distance than a MAN. It can travel from one
country to another. It helps to connect cities,
countries and continents. It uses routers and public
communications links. Example: Internet.
Figure of WAN
WAN
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NETWORKING AND INTERNET / 133
As you can see in the above figure, WANs
are used to connect LANs and other types of
networks together. It allows data and
information sharing over a very large network.
These may be owned by single large
organization or may be served by Internet
service providers, etc. These can use leased lines
and a router. But being costly many WANs use
public network or Internet.
Virtual Private Network (VPN): Virtual
Private Network is a network which used public
telecommunication infrastructure for example,
internet to provide access to remote individuals or
groups to their organization’s LAN. It can
authenticate the user.
Characteristics of WAN: It can spread to
larger geographical area.
Communication Medium: satellite, public
telephone networks, routers.
Advantages of WAN
It covers very large area.
Helps to share resources on a larger
network.
Helps to connect various LANs.
REFERENCE MODELS
Reference models work as a model or
standards, which can be referred to. OSI is one
such important reference model.
OSI Model: The Open system interconnection
model is an ISO standard for worldwide
communications that defines a networking
framework for implementing protocols in layered
structure. There are seven layers in OSI model. It
has protocols which are set standards to be
followed to communicate in a network.
These layers are Application, Presentation,
Session, Transport, Network, Data-Link, and
Physical Layers.
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Each layer contains similar functions. It takes
the service from the lower layer and provides it to
the upper layer. The physical layer is number 1
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and the application layer is number 7. In
transmission side data flows from layer 7 to layer
1, and from the reception side, it flows from layer
1 to layer 7.
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7. Application Layer: User interacts through
this layer with the help of application software.
This layer describes the way the work gets done
actually.
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6. Presentation Layer: The data formatting
tasks are done here.
5. Session Layer: This layer manages the
network of different layers.
4. Transport Layer: This layer ensures the
reliable arrival of messages and provides error
checking mechanisms and data flow controls. It
deals with quantity and nature of data delivery.
3. Network Layer: It contains routes and fixes
route for data path.
2. Data-Link Layer: The Data-Link Layer
assures that an initial connection has been set up,
divides output data into data frames and provides
error free transmission.
1. Physical Layer: This layer describes the
physical properties of the various communications
media, as well as ensures the functional
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requirements for activating a physical link. Data
is transferred from one device to another.
NETWORKING DEVICES
We need some devices for creating a network.
These are explained as follows:
Network Interface Cards: The Network
Interface Card or NIC, is an expansion board which
is inserted into a computer to make it able to get
connected to a network. Generally, these are
designed to serve a particular media or protocol,
but now we can get network interface cards which
serve many networks. The speed of the network
data transfer depends upon the quality of Network
interface cards. Example: Ethernet cards. Every
Ethernet network controller has a unique serial
number called a MAC address.
Network Interface Card
Modem: Modem or Modulator Demodulator
is needed for data transfer on the network. It is a
hardware device or software application program
which allows the computer to transmit data/
information over a network. We know that
computers store information in binary form but
data transmission over telephone lines needs the
data to be converted into analog signal. While
receiving the data, the opposite is to be done. This
is done by a modem.
Physical Modems are of two types:
1. Internal Modems: An internal modems is
a plug-in circuit board. It is fixed inside the
computer. These are less expensive than external
modems because they do not require a case, power
supply and serial cable.
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2. External Modems: External modems are
kept outside computer. These are connected to the
serial port using a serial cable. We can see the lights
blinking on them to show these working. But these
come costlier than internal modems.
External Modem
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Internal Modem
Repeaters: It is a network device, which is
used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters
are used in transmission systems to regenerate
analog or digital signals distorted by transmission
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loss. Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify
the signal while digital repeaters can reconstruct
a signal to near its original quality.
Bridge: Bridge is a product which connects a
LAN to another LAN which uses the same
protocol. It decides where the data has to go and
thus, handles traffic problems. These are protocol
independent devices.
Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that
connects multiple computers or other network
devices together. It sends data packets to all the
ports and leave them to decide which port will
receive it. This creates wasted transmission. These
can work well in small networks only as these
devices are not very intelligent. The advantage is
the low cost which makes it popular.
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NETWORKING AND INTERNET / 135
Hub
Switches: A switch is an improvement over a
hub. It can reduce the traffic on the network by
learning which port sends most of its packets to
which port. Then it sends the packets to directly
that port only and not to all ports. It is a hardware
device that is used to filter and forward packets
through the network.
Router: A router is used to join multiple wired
or wireless networks together. It translates
information from one network to another. These
are used to select the intelligent path to avoid traffic
on the networks.
Internet
DSL/Cable
Modem
Router
Notebook C
Computer A Computer B
Router
Gateway: A gateway is an address used as an
entry point into another network. For example:
168.66.10.2 could be used as a gateway. It is common
for an IP address ending with .1 and .2 to be a
network’s gateway. The gateway is commonly the
address of a network device such as a network router.
It may support address mapping from one
network to another. Network gateway can operate
at any level of OSI layers model.
These perform a complex task when compared
to router or switch.
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While working on a network, if a packet is to
be delivered to another network having different
set of protocols unlike routers, a gateway is able
to convert the data formatting according to another
network protocol. A network gateway is an
internetworking system that joins two networks
together and it can be configured in software,
hardware or both.
INTERNET AND ITS SOFTWARE
Components: Now we will study some
concepts related to internet.
Internet is network of networks. These
networks can be LAN, MAN or WAN. The
Internet can serve the user with billions of web
pages created by people and companies from
around the world, to locate information and
entertainment. It is also full of numerous services
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that help make life more convenient. The subunits
of internet are called subnet and has a unique
address and are connected using routers.
There are a number of search engines,
which allow you to search the information you
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want. Google and Yahoo are one of them. These
may fetch information from any of the subnet as
they use a common protocol for reliable data
transfer over the internet known as Transmission
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Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The
Internet is explored, which is more commonly
referred to as surfing, using a computer browser.
Workstation
Workstation
Hub
Workstation
Modem
Modem RAS SERVER
Laptop Computer
Structure of Internet
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We have already read that we need an
interface card to get connected to internet.
Internet uses TCP and IP (TCP/IP) as its
basic protocol.
The TCP is responsible for the reliable
delivery of packets. The IP protocol is
responsible for exact information of
addresses of source and destination
computer by its unique IP address.
Internet can be used not only to find
information but it is used for many other
features like e-mailing, chatting, education,
fund transfer, social networking, banking,
shopping, etc.
World Wide Web provides a pool of
information by linking to hyper linked
information.
Basic Software Components required to access
Internet are:
1. Operating System: It is required to make
the computer working and also to get
connected to internet.
2. Internet Browser: It is a software used to
locate, retrieve the contents from the world
wide web and display it on the user’s
screen. Example: Internet Explorer,
Netscape. It adds to the meaning of www
by converting HTML pages into simple
language.
3. Firewall: While sharing information on
such a big network, one may face security
hazards. These could be virus, information
theft, hacking, etc. In order to be safe it is
recommended to use protection tools
Firewall is one of them. If follows your
instructions to make your computer
secure. It restricts harmful information and
programs coming your way.
4. TCP/IP Protocol: This are set of standards
which have to be followed while
communicating on internet.
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TCP/IP Stack: Internet is used basically

for data and information transfer and sharing
on a large network. This transfer must be in a
secure way, and to make it sure some set of
protocols have to be followed. TCP/IP, software
which was originally designed for the UNIX
operating system, provides this to the computer.
T hi s is n ow avail ab le f or almos t every
operating system.
There may be a bulk of data or information to
be transferred over the net. The TCP works to
divide the data into little data packets to be sent
with proper information to make its re assemblage
easy and accurate.
The IP puts destination-addressing information
TCP/IP Model

on each of the packets. The Internet aims to work Internet Layer: This may work to deliver data
and control the flow on same or different networks.

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as a single network. It is a challenge to identify a
computer on Internet though, it is not impossible.
Every computer has a unique address over the
internet defined by IP such as 192.168.1.4. It works
as a logical address and used to share information
Transport Layer: It is the third layer of the
TCP/IP model. It is positioned between Application
layer and Internet layer. The purpose of transport
layer is to permit devices on the source and
destination hosts to carry on a conversation.

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or communicate with other computers. When we
demand for any web or Email address it is
converted into the equivalent IP address the server
or resource. We can easily use website addresses
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and use Email addresses of our contacts, just
imagine if we have to remember the IP address of
all them.
TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP Model or Internet
Model or DoD model also has layers like OSI
model.
Host to Host Network: It has four layers.
These are not numbered these only have names.
The bottom most layer deals with hardware.
This layer also encodes and transmits data over
to the physical layer of the receiver. A variety
of methods are available for transmitting
packets. This is dependent on the variety of
connection. For example, dial up modem uses
PPP and broadband uses PpoE to transmit data
packets.
Transport layer defines the level of service and status
of the connection used when transporting data.
Application Layer: It is the top most layer of
four layer TCP/IP model. It defines TCP/IP application
protocols and how host programs interface with
transport layer services to use the network.
Advantages of using TCP/IP
This makes it possible for computers working
on various plateforms to communicate.
Superior failure recovery mechanism.
New networks can be added.
Most reliable protocol.
INTERNET ADDRESSES
There are two types of computers namely
servers and clients on network. A computer or
computer program that manages access to a
centralized resource or service in a network. It
makes possible for clients to share and
communicate with other computers. This
information may be in form of web pages, text
documents, videos files, sounds files, etc.

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Characteristics of servers:
1. These are computers with high capacity.
There must be web server software loaded to it.
Examples of web server software: Microsoft
Internet Information Services (IIS), Sun Java
System Web Server.
2. It has a high speed internet connection.
3. It has its unique URL and IP address.
IP Addresses
IP address: 192.168.1.97 in various forms:
An IPv4 address can be broken down to four
segments, which are separated by dots. Each
segment contains a number between 0 and 255.
Computer needs 32 bits of memory to store an IP
address. There is a unique IP address of every
computer. Even printers or any peripheral
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connected to network has its IP address. Network
Identifier or Net ID is a unique ID provided to
every network under internet. Device Identifier of
Device ID is a unique ID provided to devices
connected to network under its own Net ID.
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If we know the Net ID, subnet mask and IP
address of the device, the identity of the device
may be known.
Some IP addresses are reserved for private
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networks. These are not available to everyone
except specific organization.
The IP range that is allocated for such non-
routable addresses are (as provided in course
book):
IP Address Subnet Mask Number of IP
addresses (some what equivalent to maximum
possible number of Computers/ network devices)
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 16,777,216
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 255.240.0.0 1,048,576
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 255.255.0.0 65,536
The subnet mask like an IP address is a 32
bits field separated using dots. When converted
into binary, it gets converted into 0 and 1s. The
number of ones and zeros decide which kind of
mask. We can compare IP address with mask, and
can split addresses into network ID and device ID.
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Example:
Suppose your computer has an IP address of
193.168.1.20 and you want to access a location
193.168.1.25, as your subnet mask is
255.255.255.0, it will give you following answers:
Host : 193.168.1.20
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
Result: 193.168.1.0.
Accessed Location 193.168.1.25
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
Result: 193.168.1.0
Result of both the operation depicts the same
Net ID therefore, we can say that the referred
destination IP address is local to our network.
We can identify whether the destination is
within the same subnet. Now to cater to the
increasing demands of the users 128 bit Internet
protocol version is being used.
DNS and Web Addresses: When we type the
web address of a site in the address bar, the web
page appears. When we arrive at a site or web page
through clicking on hyperlink and do not know its
address, we can see it in the address bar. It is easier
to remember website address as compared to
remembering IP addresses of the websites. Though
we ask for a particular web site by providing its
web address, there are services, which convert
these to respective IP addresses. Example: Domain
Name System (DNS).
There are umpteen numbers of websites and
their respective web addresses. It is not a simple
task for a DNS to do its work. In order to make it
simpler it follows a hierarchical naming scheme
supported by distributed database system.
For example, let us find out the hierarchy for
du.ac.in as:
At the top level the country domain shows in
which depicts India. Now within India look for ac
i.e. academic sub domain. Now you can find du in
academic sub domain as Delhi University. This
entry should point to the IP address for the du.ac.in.
This is the way DNS finds the addresses.
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Example of Domain Names on Internet

DNS does the following to convert domain page we should know its protocol, its home server
name in its respective IP address. and its name.

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It will supply the IP address, if it is known
to it.
It will find it from some other name server
if it does not have it.
An error message is reflected if it is not found.
A web page may have an address such as:
http://www.ignou.ac.in/ignou/studentzone/
queries/1,
We can see the protocol http is followed.
Web site name is www.ignou.ac.in. DNS

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Web Page: A web page is a portion of a web
site which can be accessed on internet. These may
be in form of files. If we want to identify a web
name of IGNOUs WWW server may be
identified.
The query page is under student zone folder.

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This address is the Uniform Resource Locater.
There are three parts in it. The first part will tell
us about the server type and is followed by ://.
Second is the domain name. These two parts can
be used to identify the web server which stores all
the information about the web page. The third
component shows the path of the document. Here
the path is form 1 in query in student folder.
The communication over the internet is
controlled by HTTP. It needs the services of TCP
to work.
Steps followed to show the web page:
(a) Launch your internet browser.
(b) Write the URL in the address bar.
(c) It starts to resolve the address, first it
checks in its cache.
(d) If not found then it requests the DNS to
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provide IP address.
(e) DNS server provides the address.
(f) Now the browser will request the web
server to provide the web page.
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(g) If the page is found the web server
provides it or it gives error message.
(h) The page or the error message will be
shown.
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E-mail Addresses: You have read earlier
about the uses of Internet. Email is one of the
facilities provided by Internet. Email or electronic
mail is a service, which helps the user to send or
receive mails online. For this the receiver and the
sender must have an email address. This is sent
over electronic medium using computers or
mobiles etc. We can send text, sounds, images etc.
The service providers like, Gmail, Rediff, Yahoo,
can be used to make an email account.
The format of email address is:
username@subdomain.domain
jaima@gmail.com
E-mail address may be provided by the
organization where you are working.
anjali@ignou.ac.in
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Username is anjali, subdomain is ignou, .ac
shows that it is an academic organization, .in shows
in India.
Q. 1. What is the need of computer
networks?
Ans. Computer networks helps to share
resources and information. Hardware resources
like storage, printer and software resources like
software and files can be shared. The list is very
long. It helps in optimum utilization of resources
and saving time and energy.
Q. 2. In the context of communication
system, what does a MODEM do?
Ans. MODEM is acronym of encoder and
decoder. If we want to share resources over internet
we need MODEM to convert digital signals to
analog to send the data and analog is converted to
digital when the system has to receive it.
Q. 3. How can you improve the perfor-
mance of twisted pair cables?
Ans. The performance of the twisted pair can
be improved if it is shielded by metallic shield. It
will become less prone to disturbance.
Q. 4. Describe the principle of optical fiber
and its advantages and disadvantages?
Ans. An optical fiber is made up of an inner
core surrounded by a cladding. These are made of
transparent plastic or glass material. These carry
light signals and use reflections to guide light
through a channel. The core guides the beam to its
path and cladding prevents it from escaping from
the path. It’s advantages are its high bandwidth
and functioning without disturbance. It’s
disadvantages are its high cost and need of experts
to connect.
Q. 5. Identify the characteristics of bus, ring
and star topologies and write the best
characteristic that you think while designing a
topology.
Ans. Bus topology is a network setup where
each of the computers and network devices are
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connected to a single cable or backbone. A single
communication cable is used to transfer data. The
nodes have to wait for their turn.
Ring topology is a network in circular shape.
Each node is connected with two nodes.
Star topology is most common network setup.
A hub is used to connect the nodes.
These are differentiated on the basis of
network scalability, cost, handling with traffic, etc.
According to me the best characteristic worth
thinking is the ability to perform required task in
a reliable manner.
Q. 6. Differentiate amongst LAN, MAN and
WAN in terms of their coverage area.
Ans. LAN is the smallest form of network,
it covers upto 2 Kms.
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MAN is larger network than LAN, it covers
up to 50 Kms.
WAN is larger than LAN and MAN and covers
large distances like states or countries.
Q. 7. Identify the examples of networks
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around you and classify them in terms of LAN,
MAN and WAN.
Ans. LAN Network in a small organization.
MAN Cable TV network.
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WAN Internet.
Q. 8. Differentiate between a bridge and a
router.
Ans. A bridge is used to connect many LANs.
It can solve traffic problems. It operates through
layer one and two of OSI model.
A router is very intelligent networking device.
It works better than bridge. It can find the fastest
and shortest way possible to deliver information.
Not only this it can translate information to be sent
to another network according to its settings. It
operates through first three levels of OSI model.
Q. 9. Explain the function of hub and where
should we use this communication device?
Ans. A hub is a device used for network
connection. It is used to connect various Ethernet
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NETWORKING AND INTERNET / 141
devices together and turn them into a network. It
forwards the received data packets to all the
connections, then the related connection decides
to take it. We should use this technology where
the money resources are limited, the network is
going to get less traffic and a very intelligent
system is not required.
Q. 10. What is the function of gateway?
Ans. Gateway allows inter network address
mapping. They accept data from one network and
format it according to the other network, which is
going to get the delivery of packets.
Q. 11. What are the services on Internet?
Ans. Internet provides the following services:
E-mailing
Chatting
Sharing ideas using blogs
Gaining knowledge using search engines
Information sharing
Using discussion forums, which help to get
knowledge from a group.
Making websites.
Q. 12. What is firewall? Where can it be
used?
Ans. Firewall is software, which is used to
protect the computer system from variety of
security problems such as virus, hackers, Trojan
house, etc. It can be instructed to work according
to the need of the user. It tries to keep a check on
data, information and requests that come to your
computer unwontedly.
Q. 13. What its TCP/IP? Why is it used?
Ans. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol shortly known as TCP/IP are set of
protocols which try to implement some rules on a
networked atmosphere. There must be some rules
when computers communicate over networks.
These make them followed by computers. The
function of TCP is to divide the message into small
packets, and fix related information and IP works
to put addresses on these packets to ensure correct
delivery.
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Q. 14. What is a URL?
Ans. URL stands for Uniform Resource
Locator. It is a standardized naming convention
for addressing documents accessible over the
Internet.
Q. 15. Define the terms DSN, IPv4 address,
Subnet mask.
Ans. DNS is acronym of Domain name
system. It is helps to point domain names to their
associated IP address.
IPv4 address is a 32 bit address of a host on
Internet.
Subnet mask or subnetwork mask is a method
of dividing a network of IP addresses into groups.
Q. 1. Explain in detail about the history of
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the internet.
Ans. Internet starts in the 1950s and 1960s
with the development of computers. This started
with point-to-point communication between main-
frame computers and terminals, expanded to point-
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to-point connections between computers and then
early research into packet switching. Networks
such as ARPANET, Mark I at NPL in the UK,
CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet
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were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP)
was standardized and the concept of a world-wide
network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks
called the Internet was introduced. Access to the
ARPANET was expanded in 1981. Commercial
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) began to emerge
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in the late 1980s and 1990s. The ARPANET was
decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was com-
mercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was decom-
missioned, removing the last restrictions on the
use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
Since the 1990s, the Internet has had a drastic
impact on culture and commerce. The research and
education community continues to develop and use
advanced networks such as NSF’s very high speed
Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and
National Lambda Rail. Increasing amounts of data
are transmitted at higher and higher speeds
over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s,
10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow,
driven by ever greater amounts of online
information and knowledge, commerce,
entertainment and social networking.
Q. 2. What do you know about the Bus
Topology?
Ans. Bus networks use a common backbone
to connect all devices. A single cable, the
backbone functions as a shared communication
medium that devices attach or tap into with an
interface connector. A device wanting to
communicate with another device on the network
sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all
other devices see.
Bus topologies are relatively easy to install
and don’t require much cabling compared to the
alternatives. However, bus networks work best
with a limited number of devices. If more than a
few dozen computers are added to a network bus,
performance problems will likely result.
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Web Applications I
Internet has become an important part of our
life. It not only opens the knowledge gates, but
allows the user to share resources on the net. The
TCP/IP is the basic protocol used on the net.
Basically, it is the network of networks that allows
millions of networks to get connected for the ease
of the user.
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In this chapter, we will read about the
Internet’s basic applications and some concepts
related to internet such as browsing, emailing,
searching and chatting.
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BROWSING
Browsing is an activity which includes,
searching, opening or viewing any content on the
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Your Computer Web Browser
How does Browser Work?
The services rendered by internet are based
on client server computing. Basic component of
this are:
Web client such as internet explorer.
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11
internet. It may include any kind of information.
It is also called surfing. For surfing, an internet
connection is necessary. You are said to be surfing
when you are working on the internet. It is helped
by a service provider which provides internet
services like BSNL.
How Communication Takes Place between
Web Server and Web Browser?: Browsing is
done using a software application called a Web
browser. It allows the user to access the World
Wide Web (WWW) to see or display the
information. It helps to see the contents by
converting the HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language) tags in formatted information.
Examples: Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, etc.
The Internet
Web server such BSNL.
Network connection such as LAN, WAN
or Internet.
HTTP: HTTP or Hypertext Transfer Protocol
helps to exchange information. It allows the user
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to access a web page containing information. Web pages may be available on web servers. HTTP may
not work properly when it comes to large amount of data transfer such as large sound files.
Voice over IP (Voice Over Internet Protocol): It is a new technology that will improve the way we
communicate. VoIP basically means voice transmitted over a digital network. It helps in real time data
transfer. Example : Real-time Transport protocol (RTP).
How Does it Work ?
In order to get connected to the internet, get an internet connection from the service provider. Now
launch the web browser. Now you can see address bar on top, write the address of desired website in this
bar.

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Now the browser will request the nearest
DNS server to get the site.
Nearest server will follow the request and
if the site is not found it will take help of
another server. If not found, error message
will be flashed.
IF it is found, DNS will return the resolved
IP address of the Web server of the website.
Now the web browser requests TCP/IP
protocol to establish a connection and
requests for and shows the home page of
the web site. Other related files may also
be downloaded.
In a web page there are many contents like
text, pictures, graphs, animations, hypertext and
hyperlinks. Hypertext is a text which store the

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address of some other server to show its contents,
or the content detail is stored somewhere else other
than the present page. If this feature is done with
other elements like graphics, sound, and video then
it is called Hypermedia. These links are called
hyperlinks. The hyperlinked text is shown in some
other, usually blue colour and may be underlined.
When you roll over the mouse, the pointer changes
into a hand. Hyperlink on clicking takes the user
to the stored content on some other page or server.
This process of loading one page after another, by
clicking the hyperlinks is known as browsing or
surfing.
Web Browsers help the user to:
find the desired information over the
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internet,
view contents of different file formats,
use spywares,
interact with other websites,
streaming multi-media,
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block unwanted pop-up advertisements,
protect through password,
use tabbed browsing,
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use features like auto fill, and
use download managers.
A Brief History of Web Browser: In the late
1980s, a variety of technologies laid the foundation
for World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in
1991. A detailed view of this topic can be taken
from the website http://www. wikipedia.org. Some
highlights are:
In 1993, the first graphical web browser,
NCSA Mosaic was developed.
The majority of market was covered by
Netscape Navigator which was released in
1994.
Microsoft Internet Explorer, which was
launched in 1995, soon gained the
popularity.
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WEB APPLICATIONS I / 145
1996 Opera was started and now being used
as a mobile phone browser.
Firefox evolved from Netscape was
released in 2004.
Apple Safari was developed in 2003.
Google Chrome, a very useful browser was
released in September, 2008.
Types of Browsers
(a) Line Mode Browsers: Initially, the
browsers used to display text line by line. These
were fast access because of the feature of
displaying only text. Example : Lynx.
(b) Graphical User Interface based
Browsers: These can manipulate images, audio,
video and animation, etc. Example: these run under
graphical user interface and provide liberty to point
and select options using mouse.
(c) Java enabled Web Browsers: These
browsers include a Java Runtime Environment that
support Java programming language. These are
more secure than the others. Example : LOBO.
Browser Security: HTTP Secure is a secure
protocol which was developed for applications
which need high security. These may be banking
or commerce applications. In a secure browsing
https:// is written in the beginning. So next time
log on to your secure information like banking etc.
by HTTPS.
Browser Cookies: A cookie, web cookie or a
browser cookie is used to store piece of
information. The browser stores it as a text file. It
is sent by the web server to a your web client. It is
used to store the information of user end for future
reference. This needs to be supplied to the web
server in future. Example : When a website
requires a form to be filled to get opened for you,
the information is supplied, now each time when
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146 / NEERAJ : COMPUTER BASICS AND PC SOFTWARE
you try to open it, there is no need to supply the
same information, the cookie will be sent to the
website containing your information.
Are Cookies Bad?
Cookies are not viruses, nor can these be
programmed for bad effects. However, these can
be used by the spyware to get personal information
provided by you. These can be deleted.
Some Security Tips While Browsing:
Use the latest version of browsers.
Use antivirus and keep it updated.
Use anti spyware.
Use a secure user account.
Do not click on unnecessary links. These
may be spyware which can use your
information for unwanted use. Example :
your credit card details may be hacked.
Do not login to a critical application if it
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does not have https://.
Do not download or install anything from
any ambiguous party.
Do not visit unsolicited websites.
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SEARCHING
Internet is a network of networks. It may
include millions of computers having varied
information. It is not easy to search content in all
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the machines. So in search we use search engines,
which produce the list of specific content sources,
needed by the user. Example : Yahoo, Google, etc.
These search engines use programs called
spiders or robots or wanderes etc. which keep on
updating their lists of the available information
on various web pages, engines finds, classifies and
stores information about the contents of various
websites on the Internet. They find and classify
the content available on the internet.
Types of Search Engine
(a) Primary Search Engines: These scan
websites for key words, phrases, to generate
database of web pages in a pattern. Example :
Google etc.
(b) Web Directory: These present organized
information in form of directories. Example :
Yahoo.
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(c) Meta Search Engines: These search
engines provide summarized result of queries sent
to various search engines and web directories.
Example : Metasearch, Infind, Metafind.
How Does a Search Engine Work?
It does the following functions :
1. Spidering or Web Crawling: These are
the software programs used by search engines to
query websites or pages to collect the specified
information and sort it. These make it easier to
search for users. These search for the information
in systematic manner and also make a copy of
visited pages.
2. Indexing: Spiders provide the information
to the search engines, then seach engines show
the result in a way that is helpful for a user to search
easily. It may make a list in order or ranking. Web
history stores the website addresses surfed.
3. Searching: The search engine displays a
list of web pages that have the keyword asked by
a user. This list shows the title of the document
and may contain a few lines. Example :
Boolean Operators: In order to refine the
search we may use Boolean operators :
AND: This commands the engine to search
the webpages that contain both the keywords.
Example “Junk” and “Food”. The pages having
both the keywords will be displayed.
OR: This operator can be used as “Junk” OR
“Food” and will display web pages containing
either junk or food or both.
NOT: This operator will be used as “Junk”
AND (NOT “FOOD”) will display web pages
containing only junk not food.
Some other Boolean expressions are Followed
by, Near, Quotation Marks, etc.
Search can be limited by using Limiting
Search.
There may be different syntax for same
Boolean operator or may be a different operator
for different engine.
Search Engines
Google search engine at www.google.co.in
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Yahoo search engine at www.yahoo.co.in

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Some Searching Tips: When we type any Alerts
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words in the command line for a search engine to
go for, it follows every word. In order to make the
Language tool
Answers
search accurate do as given: Updates
Choose words carefully. Directory
Provide correct spellings. Stock updates
Do not use ambiguous words, if there is Discussions
more than one meaning to a word use a Weather
second word with it which describes it. Mailing
Example : “web” will yield more than one Maps
meaning and will make the result wast. In Business, etc.
order to limit it, say spider’s web or world E-MAIL
wide web. Internet has blessed the world of
Use phrases instead of words to make it communication with its fast speed and capability.
fast. Now it is not a dream to get connected to a person
Use specific words to describe your search. or group sitting miles away from you. Email allows
Search engines like Google and Yahoo provide you to send mail electronically within seconds.
some products such as: This can contain text, figures, images or videos

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etc. You must have an email address to send or
receive mails. This is better than traditional postal
mail in the following ways:
Advantages of Email
It is quite faster than postal mail.
Accuracy of mailing address ensures the
receipt of mail. It cannot be lost or
destroyed.
Can carry a lot of data.
You can save a copy of sent mail.
If you want to send mail to far off places it
costs higher, email is cheaper.
Email can be forwarded to many people.
We can send video and audio using email.
Limitations of Email
There must be a computer or mobile with
internet connection.
Sender and receiver should have an Email
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identity.
Sender and receiver must be computer
literates.
History of E-mail: Internet based E-mail
system is started from the year 1971. A computer
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engineer Ray Tomlinson started it while working
with ARPANET.
Initially it followed the protocol of SMTP
(Simple Message Transfer Protocol). As the name
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WEB APPLICATIONS I / 149
suggests SMTP is very simple. But it is not able to
find the authenticity of the sender.
POP (Post Office Protocol) servers started
in 2004. It was a refined protocol.
Many standards have been defined by Internet
Engineering Task Force for Emails though there
are not many protocols used in internet follow
these fully.
How to Create Email Account?
Email account can be provided by the
organization where you work or you can create it
with email provides.
1. If you are provided Email account by your
organization, just install an Email client
software such as Microsoft Outlook
Express, Mozilla Thunderbird, etc.
2. If you create your account on any of the
web based mail providers such as Yahoo
mail, Gmail, Rediffmail, etc.
Steps to create Email account in Gmail.
1. Launch the browser.
2. Go to Gmail Homepage by typing
www.gmail.com.
3. Select create an account on the right hand
side as shown in the following image.
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4. Now a new screen will be loaded having a form to be filled. Fill the details asked there. The
screen will look like the following image:

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5. Read the terms of service given at the end and if accepted press the button to create an account.

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This way your account will be created. You
can log in to your account any time. It generally
has the following folders:
1. Inbox: This folder contains all the received
E-mails. You can see the mails and read
them.Unread mails are shown in bold letters.
2. Sent Mail: It shows sent emails by you.
3. Drafts: This contains the stored but not sent
by you.
4. Spam: Unsolicited or junks are called spam.
These are generally unwanted advertisements sent
to you. These can produce harm by causing virus.
5. Trash: Deleted mails go to trash folder. If
keeps files for a few days to allow you to restore
Text Area: This area is to write the text.
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A compose mail window looks like the above image.
Contacts: Gmail provides some other facilities such as:
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WEB APPLICATIONS I / 151
these, and if not restored, it deletes these after a
few days.
An email account allows these features:
Compose Mail: It allows you to write and
send mails.
Contacts: This feature stores the email
addresses which you have used send mails to for
future. It also allows to store and retrieve additional
information about these contacts.
Subject: This depicts the mail heading of the
mail. Example : If you are sending a question set
of English to your friend, you can write here
“Question set of English”. It helps the receiver to
know about the mail without opening it.
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Chat, Voice Chat and Video Chat allow to add voice and
Photos, face to face chatting with the other person
Calendar, respectively. For a voice chat, we need a speaker
Orkut,
and a microphone, and in addition a web camera
Web, etc.
is needed in a video chat.
CHAT: Chatting on computer means to
Examples of Chat services: Gtalk (Google )
converse with someone using the same medium
and RediffBol. The software can be loaded for
through typing the text or symbols using keyboard.
It is a casual conversation with one or more people. google to chat on gtalk.

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There are many communities, forums and The user is provided with a feature of
discussion groups on chat rooms. You can become creating his or her electronic avatars.
a member of any of it and get in touch with the Get added to a community or a discussion
group.
people of your community or can share your views
Chat with an individual or a group.
in a discussion group. Some Chat Rooms:
Chat Software allow the following to the Java Chat rooms
user: Flash Chat rooms
The user can do text, voice or video chat. Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
The user can use graphics as well. MIRC

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Some Basic Mannerisms while Chatting:
The term chatiquette is used to describes basic
rules of chatting. When we are chatting the other
person is not able to see our expressions except a
video chat. He or she may take the wrong meaning
of our words. For example, if I write in
UPPERCASE, then it is taken as a loud expression
in chatting. We should show good manners while
chatting.
SECURITY THREATS ON INTERNET
Basic security threats on internet are:
Confidentiality: You should not allow any
unauthorized person to see your
information.
Integrity: Do not allow any unauthorized
person to modify your information.
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Availability: Your information should not
be accessible to general public.
Beware of virus and spy wares.
How to Get Secure ?
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Use your username and password and keep
it a secret. Use HTTPS.
Protect your computer by using anti virus
and anti malicious software.
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You can use firewalls to block websites
having unwanted contents.
Delete unnecessary cookies as these may
harm your confidentiality.
Download from authorized sites only.
Q. 1. What is a browser? Discuss various
types of browsers.
Ans. A browser software is used to access and
display web pages from a web server. It is used as
a window to view the downloaded files.
These are:
Text based browsers,
Graphical user interface based browsers,
Java enabled browsers.
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WEB APPLICATIONS I / 153
Q. 2. How does web server communicate
with web browser?
Ans. On the user’s demand, the browser takes
the help of DNS to resolve the IP address of the
website. It tries to get connected to the web server
and loads the web page following the HTTP
protocol.
Q. 3. What is cookie? Is it really bad?
Discuss.
Ans. The web server sends a small message
containing information to web client. It is needed
every time you request for the same site. This
information gets saved in form of cookies. These
are not computer programs which may harm the
computer. These do not spread virus. But these
can be used by spy wares to get your personal
information. These can be deleted hence you
should delete them regularly.
Q. 4. What is a Search Engine? How does it
work?
Ans. Search engines are special sites which
allow the user to find information on the web in
an organized way. The basic function of search
engines are:
Web Crawling: The process of building list
by spiders is called web crawling. Spiders are used
for this purpose.
Indexing: The search engines use the list made
by spiders in an organized manner. This process is
called indexing.
Searching: The user selects an option from
the index and it is searched for and displayed.
Q. 5. What is searching? How efficiently
you can search:
(a) Tutorials of XML
(b) Universities in India and USA
(c) Universities is not in USA or Britain
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(d) Cleaning process of gold, it should not
give process related to cleaning of
jewellery.
Ans. Searching on the web using a search
engine by typing the keywords to be searched is
called searching.
(a) We will be able to search by placing in
quotes, e.g. “Tutorials of XML”.
(b) Universities and (India or USA).
(c) Universities and (not USA or Britain).
(d) Cleaning process of gold (Not cleaning
process of jewellery).
Q. 6. What facility of email makes it
appealing than postal mail?
Ans. Following are the facilities of email:
are faster than postal mails,
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can be saved,
gives features like contacts,
can be sent to many people simultaneously,
can be forwarded.
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Q. 7. How chat is different than email?
Ans. Email can be sent to the receiver’s inbox
even if he or she is not online. But chatting is
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possible when both are online.
Q. 8. What are security threats? How can
you prevent it?
Ans. Security threat happens when the
information is seen or modified or deleted by an
unauthorized person. This may be a person or a
virus.
It can be prevented by using password, anti
virus, anti malware and firewall. We should also
not click on unwanted links.
Q. 1. What do you know about web
browser?
Ans. A web browser is a software application
for presenting, retrieving and traversing
information resources on the Internet. An
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information resource is identified by a Uniform
Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page,
video, image or other piece of content. Hyperlinks
present in resources enable users easily to navigate
their browsers to related resources. A web browser
can also be defined as an application software
designed to enable users to access, retrieve and
view documents and other resources on the
Internet.
Although, browsers are primarily intended to
access the World Wide Web, they can also be used
to access information provided by web servers in
private networks or files in file systems.
Q. 2. How search engine works?
Ans. Web search engines work by storing
information about many web pages, which they
retrieve from the html itself. These pages are
retrieved by a Web crawler – an automated Web
browser which follows every link on the site.
Exclusions can be made by the use of robots.txt.
The contents of each page are then analyzed to
determine how it should be indexed. Data about
web pages are stored in an index database for use
in later occasions. A query can be a single word.
The purpose of an index is to allow information to
be found as quickly as possible. Some search
engines, such as Google, store all or part of the
source page as well as information about the web
pages, whereas others, such as AltaVista, store
every word of every page they find. This cached
page always holds the actual search text since it is
the one that was actually indexed, so it can be very
useful when the content of the current page has
been updated and the search terms are no longer
in it. This problem might be considered to be a
mild form of link rot, and Google’s handling of it
increases usability by satisfying user expectations
that the search terms will be on the returned
webpage. This satisfies the principle of least
astonishment since the user normally expects the
search terms to be on the returned pages. Increased
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search relevance makes these cached pages very
useful, even beyond the fact that they may contain
data that may no longer be available elsewhere.
When a user enters a query into a search
engine, the engine examines its index and provides
a listing of best-matching web pages according to
its criteria, usually with a short summary
containing the document’s title and sometimes
parts of the text. The index is built from the
information stored with the data and the method
by which the information is indexed. Most search
engines support the use of the Boolean operators
AND, OR and NOT to further specify the search
query. Boolean operators are for literal searches
that allow the user to refine and extend the terms
of the search. The engine looks for the words or
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phrases exactly as entered. Some search engines
provide an advanced feature called proximity
search which allows users to define the distance
between keywords. There is also concept-based
searching where the research involves using
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statistical analysis on pages containing the words
or phrases you search for.
The usefulness of a search engine depends on
the relevance of the result set it gives back. While
there may be millions of web pages that include a
particular word or phrase, some pages may be more
relevant, or authoritative than others. Most search
engines employ methods to rank the results to
provide the “best” results first. How a search
engine decides which pages are the best matches,
and what order the results should be shown in,
varies widely from one engine to another. The
methods also change over time as Internet usage
changes and new techniques evolve. There are two
main types of search engine that have evolved: one
is a system of predefined and hierarchically
ordered keywords that humans have programmed
extensively. The other is a system that generates
an “inverted index” by analyzing texts it locates.
This second form relies much more heavily on the
computer itself to do the bulk of the work.
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156
Web Applications II
The usage of internet in our lives has been
discussed in the previous chapter. Many interactive
internet based applications use Web 2.0
technologies, including Java and its frameworks,
XHTML, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS),
Asynchronous JavaScript on XML (Ajax), Ruby
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on Rails, Adobe Flex, ASP.net etc.
In this chapter we will discuss about these
application. The definition and purpose of
e-learning and its process, use of Wiki, social
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networking, and creating Blog will be discussed
as well.
E-LEARNING
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E-learning is acronym of electronic learning
means learning by using electronic means, or
learning is being facilitated electronically. This
term is used in academic perspective. This could
include web based lectures, web based symposium,
content, or tutorials facilitated through net. It could
also be in form of providing multimedia content,
online tests or providing feedback etc. This concept
finds its base in the fact that learning is supported
electronically. It may include academic or
administrative activities, which are facilitated
electronically.
Advantages of E-learning are :
It is encouraging to use facilities on line.
It provides platform to share experiences.
Barriers of time and space are eliminated.
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12
Online content can be created or updated
in lesser time.
The content provided online may be
referred to or used at user’s own pace.
Students can interact at any time.
Fast updation facility makes it standard-
ized.
It provides new learning opportunities.
Students are given choice of programme
or course.
Leaning is no more dependent on moving
to the campus, it can be done from home
or even workplace.
Economical, as the same resources can be
used by a number of users.
Requirements of a Good E-learning System:
A successful E-learning system depends
on good student interaction, self-
motivation of individuals.
A student has to study in an effective
manner. This is essential as there is no
teacher to motivate or drive the student.
E-Learning Processes: While-learning on
line every user is provided a username which is
used to log in the system of E-learning. The
username is followed by a password. The process
of E-learning starts with user providing a username
followed by unique password and the system
identifying it. Every user is provided a unique
username. All his details are stored under this
username.
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After successful login the contents are
presented before the user. These may be in form
of lectures or tutorials. A quiz may follow it to
check the progress.
The systems like-learning Management
System (LMS) or Content Management System
(CMS) support E-learning system and help to
record information like topic selection, tutorial
attended, quiz taken by the user etc. These are
provided as progress track or feedback.
The E-learning technology is here to help both
the teacher and the learner. A learner may find it
easy to see the contents of his courses, get
assignments, see scores in various quizzes and
assignments etc. While a teacher may want to see
student’s progress, upload information for the
students or correct the specific content, or even
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use it to provide some message to the users via
messaging service.
A good e-learning facility provides users to:
Login to the system of e-learning.
Access the content and references.
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Take tests.
See assignments, submit it and see grades.
Get the feedback.
Be in touch with the faculty or students.
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Take terminal assessment on line.
Get grade card.
Certification.
E-Learning Content Development Process:
Content development for e-learning is a responsi-
ble job which can be well performed if the content
is developed under the light of the objectives of
the course. A process of content development has
also to be followed by the developer, which is as
follows:
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1. Analysis Phase: The development of the
design is based on the objectives of the content.
Analysis phase needs identification of these
objectives, target audience and resources to
develop the design. This forms a base for design
phase.
2. Design Phase: Design phase involves the
development of design, the flow of logic, structure
of the content etc. This forms base for
development phase.
3. Implementation or Development Phase:
The design of the previous stage is implemented
in this. Experts’ help can be used at this phase.
4. Verification Phase: The content so
developed is checked for its usability and
reliability.
An example of e-content and support–
IGNOU. There are two e-platform forms of
IGNOU. These are:
The first platform is on the website http://
www.ignouonline.ac.in. This helps to know about
various programmes, online admission, exam form
submission, etc.
The second platform (under development) is
based on IGNOU WIKI which is supported by
the MOODLE like-learning and content
management system. The blocks are:
Input Block ‘J’
Instruction Delivery
IGNOU Open Course Guide (IOCG)
Online/Self Tests and Feedback to the
Learners
Assessment
Examinations and Evaluation.
Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic
Learning Environment (MOODLE)
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MOODLE is e-learning software platform. It
is free and offers many features. Its website is http:
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//www.moodle.org. Or you can download it.
The user needs to create an account on
MOODLE to learn. It is like creating an email
account. It also allows to create content and has
number of capabilities to help users. It also allows
the users to interact themselves thus, creating a
user community. It provides standardized learning
contents. MOODLE tutorial are very easy to be
followed.
Advantages and Disadvantages of E-
learning:
Subjects which demand updation every
now and then can be catered to.
Learning is provided at users’ own pace.
Time and space limits are not there.
Helps to make the learner computer savvy.
Provides interactivity.
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It becomes easy to analyse the learners’
work.
Needs continuous updation and check by
experts on content design and functioning.
ELECTRONIC EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
Electronic educational resources mean
resources of learning available on the internet.
There are many websites, which offer educational
resources to the users. These cater to various areas,
be it education, science and technology or beauty.
The resources can be in form of the electronic
journals, encyclopedias, dictionaries, digital
libraries, educational resource databases, or
e-books. These are available for free or sometimes
paid. Examples are:
(a) E-Journals and Databases
EBSCO database
IEL Online
Springer Link
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JSTOR WIKI
Maths Sci_net Wiki is acronym of “What I Know Is”. It is a
Project Muse tool to create knowledge database. It is a page on
ProQuest which content can be written or edited. The content
ACM Digital Library can be hyper linked to enrich the content. These
(b) E-library are used to create websites also. The documents
elibrary are written using a markup language. Example :
WTO Wikipedia which is encyclopedia providing
(c) Indexing and Abstracting Databases: knowledge base on almost every topic. Its website
LISA is www.wikipedia.com. Wiki Wiki web the first
J-Gate wiki software was developed by Ward
(d) E-Books Cunningham in 1995. It is a database which
Credo References
provides the facility to create, edit, browse
Idea-Reference Resources
information.
NetLibrary

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Another example is Vedyadhara of IGNOU HTML. HTML is Hypertext Markup Language.

http://vedyadhara.ignou.ac.in/wiki/. The IGNOU website is easy to use. It will help the
This website of IGNOU is there to help the user in the following activities:
user to create and edit web pages without knowing Curriculum Design documents

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Compilation of documents
Developing learning material
Keeping daily records
Keeping personal information
The software, Vedyadhara will make the user
know about the objectives and concept of the
course, course calender, assignments, lectures and
content.
Collaboration: Collaboration is a process of
working together to achieve a goal. This concept
of functioning gained its importance with the ever
changing technology, scientific explorations,
advent of ICT, and other alarming issues like
terrorism. These issues need to be dealt with
collaboratively. Together we can and we will.
Internet provides wikis, chat, conferences as
helpers for collaborative efforts by allowing
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sharing of ideas. It helps to eliminate the barriers
of time and space. At the initial stage of the project
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issues affecting from political, ethical or social
scenario must be taken care of and discussed.
Key Questions: Questions based on
investment needed for collaborative projects.
Questions based on cumulative wisdom, chance
of getting expertise from collaborative effort.
Areas where big investments are needed may
be based on collaborations e.g. physical sciences,
big industries, health services, environmental
studies, etc. The discovery of new species of plants
and animals shows the winning edge of the
collaborative efforts.
Google Docs: Many collaborative tools are
available on the internet, for students a
good tool is Google Docs. It helps a user to
create projects online in collaboration. A
document may be created, edited, discussed
upon by members of a group spread
globally.
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Microsoft Office: Various software such
as Microsoft Office 2010 and Adobe
Acrobat also helps to collaborate.
Google Wave: It is a software used to share
web space for discussion or collaboration.
MediaWiki: Media Wiki is the software
that allows collaborative efforts to create and edit
documents. Each change is reflected in latest
version.

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Zoho: This software is a division of ZOHO
Corporation which is a US-based Software
management tasks like tracking, invoice making,
etc. in addition to the routine sharing and editing
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Company. This enables the users to do in collaboration.

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Volunteer Computing: Volunteer computing
is an arrangement in which volunteers provide
computing resources to projects. These projects
use if for distributed computing or storage.
Volunteers are people or organizations having
computers with network connection. A research
project that has limited funding but large public
appeal can get huge computing power. It is
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Social networking is the practice of making
contacts with the members of family, friends or
business society through online services. These
sites provide the freedom to chat, share messages,
pictures, videos, thoughts etc. on social sites. Very
old friends or even new people can be added to
friend lists and contacted with. The members of a
group are interdependent in form of relationship,
friendship, etc. This networking is being offered
by many social networking websites such as
Facebook, Orkut, Twitter, etc. Just be a member
and explore the groups or create new.
These sites allow a user to:
Create his/her profile to share information.
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somewhat similar concept to collaboration, here
you allow your hardware resources to be used for
the purpose of some online project. Example of
such project: Search of Extra-Terrestrial
Intelligence called SETI@Home by Space Science
Laboratory at the University of California, Berkley.
http://setiathome.berkeley.edu/.
SOCIAL NETWORKING
Visiting other’s profiles.
Searching friends.
Sending friend requests.
Sharing your thoughts with friends or
public.
Sharing pictures or videos.
Barring anyone to see your personal stuff.
Making friends.
Deleting a friend from your list.
Online chatting.
Get response on a thought instantaneously
may be from larger public.
Beware: These sites are full of members,
which may include anti social elements. Therefore,
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the user must be aware and should not get into
trouble by sharing any confidential stuff over the
internet. The user must follow the security policies
such as:
Do not tell anybody your username and
password.
Use anti virus and spyware.
Sign out properly before leaving the site.
Behave sensibly on social networks.
Do not allow strangers to be friends.
BLOG
Web log also known as Blog is a website which
is used to display thoughts or information on any
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Examples of blogs:
Corporate and organizational blogs made
by organizations.
Category based blogs based on various
themes such as education.
Blogs having different media and device
types
1. Containing only video is a vlog,
2. Containing only links may be called
linklog,
3. Clog for mobile devices is called moblog,
etc.
4. Blogs showing personal views such as
skshah95.blogspot.com.
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WEB APPLICATIONS II / 163
topic. These may include food, health, education
etc. We can create blog and share our thoughts
information, pictures or hyper linked data or
pictures. We can get comments from public on our
stuff, which may be helpful to get updated or to
get feedback. For the students, it is a very good
platform to get new ideas. Blogs can be of a single
author or can be open to get ideas of various
people. Example: http://edu.blogs.com/.
Many of the celebrities have their blogs and
use these to publish their thoughts.
The following is one of the many websites
through which you can create your own blog.
How to Start Your Own Blog:
There are variety of blogging service
providers such as Blogger, Webs etc. These
provide templates with variety of
formatting options to be used to create and
publish blog.
You can make a blog public or private.
Private blog will need a password.
Complete and publish the URL of blog on
website.
Allow others to visit and leave comments.
Keep it alive, give something new to views
every now and then.
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Some Issues while blogging: While blogging
you are showing your personal views to public,
but make sure these may not be hurting. Be careful
and avoid problems in future. This can bring even
legal liabilities. Mind your language and tone. It
should not hurt any person or organization. Do not
publish any confidential information on these sites.
Q. 1. What is E-learning? Compare
E-learning courses with traditional, on-campus
courses?
Ans. E-learning is learning that is imparted
electronically. It has features like anytime anyplace-
learning and provides flexibility to learner.
Interactivity is another feature of E-learning which
works as an advantage of using E-learning.
Like traditional on campus courses, the student
need not to go or even move from home. The material
is interactive and always available for a learner. The
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learner can learn with his own pace and interest.
Q. 2. How do E-learning classes work?
Ans. An E-learning lecture may be live or pre-
recorded lecture on internet. The students get
benefited by attending it from place of their choice
and can get into discussion about this online directly
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or after some time via e-mail, chat room etc. These
are followed by feedback sessions.
Q. 3. How is E-learning useful for Univer-
sities?
Ans. E-learning can help the universities to
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deliever the lessons, content material, assignments,
conducting group discussions, feedback sessions,
online tests, etc. It can provide the message to the
students in seconds which can save time.
Q. 4. What is WIKI? How is it useful?
Ans. Media wiki is software used to create
websites called wikis. These are used to provide
information to the users. It gets benefited by
collaborative efforts.
Q. 5. What is MOODLE?
Ans. MOODLE is a open source and free
software. It is used for content development. It also
works as management system.
Q. 6. Why is collaboration used on internet?
Ans. The collaboration provides collaborative
efforts to perform a particular task. It helps in sharing
of resources in form of intellect, time, hardware,
views, activity, knowledge, etc. These are used to
do projects which need huge funds or time or
knowledge base.
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Q. 7. What are the different ways of sharing
information on internet?
Ans. Ways of sharing information on internet
are:
E-mail
Messenger services
Chatting
Publishing thoughts on social networks or
blogs.
Q. 8. Explain the advantages of blogging.
Ans. Blogs are used to publish your ideas, when
you do this you use refined and articulated language,
which helps to improve writing abilities. Comments
on the writing expression provide a boost or a way
to upgrade it. Blogs help to get information on
various topics from the users.
Q. What are the approaches to E-learning
services?
Ans. E-learning services have evolved since
computers were first used in education. There is a
trend to move towards blended learning services,
where computer-based activities are integrated
with practical or classroom-based situations.
Bates and Poole (2003) and the OECD (2005)
suggest that different types or forms of E-learning
can be considered as a continuum, from no
e-learning, i.e. no use of computers and/or the
Internet for teaching and learning, through
classroom aids, such as making classroom lecture
Powerpoint slides available to students through a
course website or learning management system,
to laptop programs, where students are required
to bring laptops to class and use them as part of a
face-to-face class, to hybrid learning, where
classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, with
more time devoted to online-learning, through to
fully online-learning, which is a form of distance
education.
It can be seen then that E-learning can describe
a wide range of applications, and it is often by no
means clear even in peer reviewed research
publications which form of E-learning is being
discussed. However, Bates and Poole argue that
when instructors say they are using E-learning, this
most often refers to the use of technology as
classroom aids, although over time, there has been
a gradual increase in fully online-learning.