McDowwel History and The Natural Sciences

1. Professionalization of History: The document begins by discussing how history,

in the 19th century, began to be seen as a discipline akin to the natural sciences,
aiming for rigorous research methods and objectivity.
2. Differences in Study Objects: It contrasts the primary focus of history, which is
human actions and their societal consequences, with the natural sciences, which
concentrate on natural phenomena. The tools and methods used in historical
research are unique and distinct from scientific inquiry.
3. Historical Interpretation vs. Scientific Precision: Historians must interpret
events and cannot claim complete objectivity, unlike scientists who seek precise
facts to establish laws. The subjective elements in historical studies are highlighted
as adding depth and richness to our understanding of the past.
4. Extent and Reliability of Historical Evidence: The document explores the
challenges historians face in reconstructing the past due to the subjective nature
of human memory and the incomplete or biased nature of historical evidence.
5. Historians and Scientific Method: While historians aim for impartiality, the
document acknowledges the absence of scientific laws in human society studies. It
suggests that historical classifications don't necessarily lead to reliable predictions,
unlike in the natural sciences.
6. Proof and Inference in History and Science: Both fields rely on proof and
inference, but history often involves interpreting events without clear causal
connections, unlike the causal links sought in science.
7. Predictive Power of Science vs. History: Science’s ability to predict events under
controlled conditions is contrasted with history's focus on complex, non-
repeatable social events.
8. Subjectivity in Historical Analysis: The document emphasizes the inevitable
subjectivity in historical analysis due to the diverse interpretations and
perspectives of historians.
9. Limitations of Historical Reconstruction: It underscores the inherent limitations
in reconstructing history, as historians can never be entirely sure of their
interpretations' accuracy due to the lack of a definitive method to compare their
reconstructions with the actual past.
10. The Relative Status of Historical and Scientific Knowledge: The document
delves into the evolution of scientific knowledge and its perceived solidity
compared to historical knowledge, highlighting the human element in both fields.
 Wilson What Is History

1. Definition and Nature of History: It begins by defining history as both a

subject of study (what has happened) and a process (recounting and analyzing
what happened). It emphasizes that history is not just a collection of objective
facts, as historical evidence is inherently different from scientific evidence due
to its non-reproducible nature. The document argues that historical "facts" are
contingent on the historian’s perspective and the information available.
2. Subjectivity in Historical Inquiry: The text points out that historical inquiry is
strongly influenced by the questions posed by historians, and the available
historical records. It argues that historians often have to make subjective
choices about which evidence to consider, acknowledging the inherent
incompleteness and bias in historical records.
3. Practice of History: The document uses the example of a roommate’s
disappearance to illustrate how historians approach their subject. It suggests
that rather than methodically sifting through evidence, historians often
develop theories and seek evidence to support these theories, constantly
modifying their hypotheses.
4. Changing Perspectives: The evolving historical perspective of Christopher
Columbus is discussed as an example of how historical interpretations change
over time due to different political agendas, cultural assumptions, and
historical methodologies.
5. History as Argument and Process: The document asserts that history is a
continual, open-ended process of argument, always subject to change with
new evidence or perspectives. It emphasizes that there are no final answers in
history, only coherent arguments based on ever-changing evidence.
6. Reasons for Studying History: Finally, the text outlines six reasons for
studying history: change, time, otherness, perspective, collective memory, and
ambition. These aspects highlight the importance of understanding history as
a dynamic and complex field, integral to understanding our past, present, and
future.
 Nietzsche's
1. Nature of Historical Knowledge: Nietzsche discusses the impact of historical
knowledge on human life and happiness. He contrasts humans, who are
burdened by their memory and history, with animals, who live unhistorically
and thus more happily.
2. Historical Methods: Nietzsche identifies three types of historical methods:
 Monumental History: It is about celebrating past greatness to inspire
the present, but it often distorts facts to create idols and heroes.
 Antiquarian History: This method involves preserving and revering the
past, but can lead to an excessive focus on the old and a resistance to
change.
 Critical History: This method critically examines and judges the past,
necessary for freeing ourselves from its burdensome aspects.
3. The Dangers of Excessive Historical Awareness: Nietzsche warns against the
dangers of being overly absorbed in history. He argues that too much focus on
history can lead to a lack of action in the present, skepticism, and a sense of
belatedness, feeling as though one is a latecomer to history.
4. History Serving Life: Nietzsche advocates for a balance in our approach to
history. History should serve life and the living, not dominate it. It's important
to learn from the past but not be so consumed by it that it hampers our ability
to live effectively in the present.
5. Critique of Contemporary Historical Education: Nietzsche criticizes the
contemporary (his time) historical education for focusing too much on the past
at the expense of living a fulfilling life in the present. He calls for a reformation
in the way history is taught and understood, emphasizing the need to use
history for enhancing life rather than diminishing it.
6. The Role of Youth and Action: Nietzsche places hope in the youth, believing
that they have the potential to bring about change in the approach to history
and life. He encourages the young to challenge the prevailing historical
education and to find a balance that allows for both an appreciation of the
past and a vigorous, life-affirming present.
 How it Really Was-Arnold

1. Leopold von Ranke's Influence: The document begins with a discussion of

Leopold von Ranke, often considered the father of modern historiography.
Ranke emphasized a 'scientific' and 'objective' approach to history, advocating
for the use of documentary archives and a focus on telling history 'as it really
was'.
2. Historical Methods and Changes: The text outlines various historical
methods, including the work of antiquarians who focused on the detailed
collection of past artifacts and documents. It discusses how historical
approaches evolved from the 16th to the 20th century, highlighting the shift
from rhetorical and literary histories to a more evidence-based, archival
approach.
3. Truth in History: A significant theme is the question of truth in history and
how it has been interpreted and pursued through different eras. The
document notes the challenges of defining 'truth' in historical narratives and
the various methods historians have used to approximate it.
4. Enlightenment Influence: The Enlightenment period's impact on history is
discussed, with a focus on how thinkers like Voltaire, Hume, and others used
history to explore philosophical questions about human existence and the
natural world.
5. Ranke's Legacy and Critique: While acknowledging Ranke's significant
influence in shaping modern historiography, the document also critiques his
approach. It suggests that while Ranke promoted an objective and archival
method, many of his ideas were not entirely new and sometimes lacked a
comprehensive understanding of the complexity of historical events and
contexts.
6. Historiography's Evolution: The document describes the evolution of
historiography from focusing primarily on political events to incorporating
social, economic, and cultural histories. It also discusses how historiography
became more professionalized and specialized over time, leading to various
sub-disciplines within the field.
7. Contemporary Reflections and Future Directions: Finally, the document
reflects on the current state of historiography and its potential future
directions. It emphasizes the ongoing debate about the nature of historical
truth, the relationship between the past and the present, and the use of
sources in historical research.
 _Iggers.

1. Classical Historicism's Emergence: The document describes how in the early

19th century, there was a radical transformation in the way history was
researched, written, and taught, particularly at German universities. This period
marked a departure from the previously dominant traditions of antiquarian
and literary history.
2. Leopold von Ranke's Role: Ranke played a pivotal role in shaping modern
historiography. He aimed to turn history into a rigorous science, emphasizing
the use of primary sources and rejecting subjective interpretations and
metaphysical speculations. His approach was characterized by a tension
between striving for objective research and the implicit philosophical and
political assumptions that influenced his work.
3. Educational Reforms in Prussia: The document discusses Wilhelm von
Humboldt's educational reforms in Prussia following the defeat by Napoleon.
These reforms laid the foundation for modern educational, legal, and social
systems, and they heavily influenced the structure and goals of universities and
historiographical practices.
4. Historicism and Philosophy of Life: Historicism was more than a theory of
history; it was a philosophy of life, blending scientific approaches with political
and social views. It asserted that history revealed meaning and that this
meaning was only discernible through historical study.
5. Professionalization of Historical Scholarship: The professionalization of
historical scholarship in the 19th century, following Ranke's model, is outlined.
This period saw a shift in focus from broad cultural history to a more narrow
concentration on politics and the nation-state.
6. Crisis of Historicism: By the turn of the century, a "crisis of historicism"
emerged, particularly in Germany, where 19th-century philosophical
assumptions were increasingly seen as outdated. This crisis was a result of
intellectual developments, reflecting a growing sense of the relativity of values
and the meaninglessness of existence.
7. Expansion and Critique of Established Historiography: In the late 19th
century, there was a widespread conviction that the scope of historical studies
needed to be expanded to include society, economy, and culture. This period
also saw challenges to the conventional narrative and political history, calling
for closer links to empirical social sciences.
8. Impact and Evolution of Historicism: The impact of historicism and its
subsequent evolution is discussed, highlighting how historians outside
Germany adopted elements of German scholarly practice, often without fully
grasping the underlying philosophical and political convictions.
 Ranke

1. Historical Methodology: Ranke emphasizes the importance of detailed

analysis of primary sources. He argues that general historical themes can only
emerge from such empirical studies, valuing each historical era on its own
terms. He is skeptical of the notion of history as "progress" and seeks to find
out "how it really was."
2. Historical Perspective: In his introduction to "The History of the Latin and
Teutonic Nations," Ranke explores the intertwined development of Latin and
Germanic peoples. He discusses their historical interactions, focusing on
significant events like the founding of the Spanish monarchy, the collapse of
Italian freedom, and the beginning of the Reformation.
3. Contradiction between Philosophy and History: Ranke notes a contradiction
between philosophy and history, where some philosophers project their a
priori ideas onto history, selecting facts to fit their theories. He criticizes this
approach, emphasizing the uniqueness and complexity of historical events.
4. Critique of Progress in History: Ranke challenges the notion of uninterrupted
progress in human history. He argues against philosophically untenable and
historically unprovable concepts of progress, emphasizing the unique value of
each epoch.
5. Principles for Historical Study: Ranke believes that a historian should have a
love for the particular details of history and also an eye for the universal. He
stresses the importance of understanding the relationships between peoples
and the dominant tendencies of each century, rather than focusing solely on
abstract ideas.
6. Leading Ideas in History: Ranke critiques the Hegelian idea of history as a
logical process with thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. He suggests that history is
instead a network of different tendencies, with certain tendencies dominating
each century.
7. Humanity's Diverse Developments: He views humanity as containing an
endless variety of developments that appear according to mysterious laws.
Ranke's approach is to unravel these tendencies and understand the complex
history of mankind.
 FARGE

1. Nature of Archives: Farge describes the physical and sensory experience of

working with historical documents in archives. She emphasizes the tactile
nature of archival research, the handling of fragile papers, and the feeling of
connecting with the past through these materials.
2. 18th Century French Judicial Archives: The focus is on the archives from the
18th century, stored in various French institutions. These archives are
described as unadorned and straightforward, primarily consisting of civil and
criminal administration records like police statements, logbooks,
interrogations, and trial records.
3. Archival Material vs. Printed Texts: Farge contrasts the immediacy and
rawness of archival documents with printed texts. While printed texts were
created for public consumption, archival records represent unfiltered traces of
lives and events, often produced under duress or legal obligation.
4. Human Stories in Archives: The author highlights the personal and often
tragic stories found in the archives, such as a prisoner's secret letter to his wife
or a doctor's report about a medical anomaly. These stories, she argues,
provide a more direct and vivid encounter with the past than more formal
historical narratives.
5. Archival Research Experience: Farge reflects on the overwhelming and often
chaotic nature of archival research. She notes the difficulty in navigating the
vast amount of material and the challenge of finding meaning in the multitude
of documents.
6. Emotional Connection to Archival Work: The document describes the
emotional engagement and the sense of discovery that comes from working
with archival material. It portrays archival research as an act of uncovering
hidden aspects of the past, often leading to unexpected insights.
7. Distinguishing Between Artifacts and Historical Analysis: Farge argues that
while artifacts like seeds or a cloth letter found in the archives can be
fascinating, their true significance lies in their historical interpretation and the
context in which they are placed.
8. Reproduction and Reading of Archives: The transition from physical to
digital archival materials is discussed, with Farge expressing concern about
losing the tactile connection to history. She emphasizes the importance of
physically handling documents for a deeper understanding of the past.
9. Intimacy of Recopying Documents: Farge concludes by reflecting on the
process of manually recopying archival documents. She sees this as a way to
intimately engage with the past, allowing for a deeper understanding and
connection with the material.