01 Prehistoric History

Chapter 1
Introduction - Stone Age Cultures
Definition
The term ‘History’ is defined in several ways by the historians. History is
derived from a Greek term ‘istoria’. In Greek language, ‘Istoria’ means enquiry,
research, exploration, news or information. Indian classical Dictionaries explained
‘History’ as set of actions, story, upakhyana, purana, and descriptions. In this
sense, history may be considered as a journey of mankind, involving both positive
and negative aspects of life that lead to the progress of mankind.
The term ‘History’ is understood in different languages in different ways.
In Greek language, the term ‘istoria’ is in use. In Latin it got transformed as
‘Historia’. Today, this term is widely in use in Indo-European countries. In contrast
to the Greek-Latin terms, the Germans used the word ‘Geschichte’, which means
‘event’. In the 19th century, German historians, philosophers used this term instead
of ‘history’ to indicate the changes in human relations.
In Arabic language, the word ‘Tarikh’ is used to explain the historical
events. In Sanskrit, the terms itihasa-purana were used for history. In ancient
times these words were used to explain the dharma (Righteousness), kama
(Sensuality), moksha (Liberation) in a narrative form. Thus the term ‘history’
was used in different ways in different languages.
In course of time, an attempt was made to define history in different ways.
The earliest attempt to explain ‘history’ was made by the Greeks. It was
Dionysius of Hali Carnassus, who gave the idea that ‘history is Philosophy
2 Indian History - Culture
teaching by examples’. According to him, history offers us the essence of human

experience drawn from real life experiences. In the 4th BCE, Greek philosopher
Aristotle stated ‘history’ as ‘related to the unchanging past’. This description
has two meanings. One, History means description. Two, human nature does
not change. All activities originated with the similar intention but motives differ in
the degree of detail and not in their basic nature.
Greek historians Thucydides (5th century BCE) and Polybius (2nd century
BCE) think that history is a story of things worthy of being remembered.
According to them, all sundry events do not constitute history, and that only
unique, significant and remarkable happenings would figure in it. They further
suggested that all that is heard and seen is also not history.
British philosopher and political scientist Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
defines history as a ‘discipline that makes men wise’. In his opinion, ‘wisdom is
the ability to distinguish between right and wrong’ and it is the experience of the
world, for which reflection and knowledge would act as the commentary, which
is history.
German philosopher Leipvitz ( 1646-1716), British historian Leckey (19th
century) thought ‘history’ as a true demonstration of religion or the way of life
based on moral principles. An 18th century political scientist Edmund Burke
thinks that ‘history’ is related to something changing and whatever is changing
cannot be reduced to any principle. Hence, it should be considered as a preceptor
of prudence and not of principles. British Legal Historian Maitland (1850-1906),
said that ‘what men have done and said, above all what they have thought that
is history. ’ An eminent Litterateur Carlyle (1795-1881) holds the view that
‘history is nothing but the biography of great men, and that it is a record of
human accomplishment, particularly of great souls.’What history requires
according to Carlyle is geniuses and not masses. American philosopher Emerson
also expressed a similar opinion. He says that history is nothing but the biography.
English historian Seeley (1834-95) considered history as a reflection of politics.
He says that ‘history is past politics and present politics is future history’. Freeman
supported Seeley in this regard. Similarly, LordActon too twisted history with
politics, when he said ‘History is the unfolding story of human freedom’. He
opined that ‘great moments of history are not those when empires were built,
but those when good things of the mind were obtained and freedom of will was
gained’. But in recent years, with the expansion of the scope of history, politics
has become part of history.
Introduction - Stone Age Cultures 3
A.L. Rowse said that history is essentially the record of the life of men in
societies in their geographical and physical environment. The social and cultural
aspects of society are influenced by its geographical conditions and every country’s
history is their history of civilization. French historian Seignbos (1854-1942)
says that history is essentially a science of reasoning, since all historical knowledge
is indirect.
French Economist and Political Scientist Turgot (1727-81) and his
contemporary philosopher, mathematician and revolutionary Condorcet (1743-
1794) developed the Idea of Progress, a conception which heralded the dawn
of history, bringing unity and synthesis to history. They regarded history as the
yardstick to measure human progress.
Scientific research is based on systematic investigation of the nature. Even
in studies on society similar method is adopted to understand human activities.
Historical research is also greatly influenced by science is clear when Bury states
that history is ‘science no less and no more’. He argued that history does the job
of science namely to inquire, observe, explain and find out the truth.
But the most significant definition among all the western scholars is the one
given by German Historian Ernst Bernheim. He says ‘History is a science that
investigates and presents in their context of psycho-physical causality the facts
determined by space and time of the evolution of men in their individual as well
as typical and collective activity as social beings.’
According to E.H. Carr, an eminent English historian, History is ‘a
continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending
dialogue between the present and the past’. It involves an intimate dialogue
between the historian who is in the present and the historical events which were
in the past. There is an intimate relationship between the historian and historical
facts, similar relationship exists between the present and the past. A historian
cannot interpret without facts and facts without a historian are the dead data of
the past. Similarly, there is no present without the past and the past does not has
meaning without the present.
Pessimists attacked history as having no clear aims, no particular
methodology and no sense of purpose. Prussian ruler Fredrick the Great felt
history as a ‘lie’, English political scientists Robert Walpol, French philosopher
Voltaire, Emperor Napolean described history as ‘a fiction’. Businessman Henry
Ford regards ‘History is bunk’. The author of Ulysses, James Joyce regarded
history as a ‘nightmare’.
Thus, several scholars gave different definitions to history. While some are
based on ‘thought’ some are based on ‘record’. However, today History has
grown to a clear, united, trusted progressive science. It is working towards
achieving human development.
Nature of History:
In recent years, many new changes occurred in the human perceptions.
Consequently, new ideas and values brought about radical changes in the nature
and scope of history. In the past ‘history’ was merely a catalogue of events
serialized in a descriptive way. In contrast to this, today’s historian relies on
facts and not to repeat old stories, but to study history critically and in a scientific
way, see things in relation and to judge objectively while writing history. The
function of the historian is neither to love the past, nor to condemn it, but to treat
history as a continuous social stream where the past had its bearing on the
present and the present has its influence on the past. The main function of the
historian is to gather facts, interpret, to assess, to evaluate and to explain their
significance, and to present the ideas in a clear and attractive manner by explaining
of what, why and how it happened? These functions make the historian a scientist
to gather facts, a philosopher to interpret them and a litterateur to express them.
While describing the nature of history, historians have put forth the following
proposals:
1. History is a proven fact
2. Does history repeat itself?
3. All history is contemporary history
4. History is a continuous dialogue between the present and the past
5. History as an interpretation with the intention of predicting the future
6. Are value-judgements desirable in history?
7. History is progressive.
History is the meeting point of the established facts was proposed based
on the belief that historical facts are like raw materials for history. If this proposal
is accepted then all the established historical facts when collected, it will be like
‘Scissors and past history’ as expressed by R.G.Collingwood. But it will not be
a scientific analysis. Hence, this proposal cannot be accepted. Because, the
main concern of the historian is to analyze, explain and describe the events of
the past and it is important for the historian to remember the nature of historical
facts.
There are few scholars who think that ‘history repeats itself’, whereas
others refute this idea vehemently. Both these ideas are partially true. Those
who believe that history repeats itself feel that the things of the world are same
all the time but the ways are different every time. Those who oppose the view
contend that if historical events are repeated and if the future is like the past,
then the collective, creative and artistic efforts of mankind will disintegrate. But
so far, historical records of mankind has shown only progress and not decline.
As a corollary to the above concept of history repeats itself, the view that
all ‘history is contemporary history’ was proposed by Croce. The modern
thinkers R.G.Collingwood also subscribed to the same idea. He says that ‘the
historian studies not the dead past, but the past which is brought closer to the
present’. Here ‘present’ is contemporary and when a historian is writing history,
he forms a mental image of past records, but since he belongs to the present
period, he is inclined to the modern ideas and objectives while analyzing the
historical data. Since all history is motivated by social and historical events, they
are brought closer together into one homogenous whole.
Connected with the idea of contemporaneity in history is the view held by
E.H.Carr that “history is an unending dialogue between the present and the
past.” When a historian interprets history, he looks at it from the present
perspective. Past is the basis for present, because the present civilizations
originated on the foundations of the past cultures. Hence, ‘history’ is a continuous
dialogue between the past and present. History is a social process. In this
process, the past is understood with the help of the present and the present with
the help of the past.
The above proposal asserts the idea that ‘an interpretation of the past is
made with the intention of predicting the future.’ History in this sense becomes a
prediction demonstrating the past as a meaningful suggestion for the future. A
historian analyses the past experiences in a logical way to provide generalizations
for the future.
With regard to the nature of history, there is the controversy whether ‘value-
judgements’ are desirable in history or not. Lord Acton thinks that in ‘history
values are not only desirable but also form an essential part of a historian’s
work’. It is vital for the historian to give verdict on historical facts, events, and
values followed in institutions. When a historian investigates and enquires about
an event or the implementation of a system, he has to directly or indirectly give
judgement on values.
While explaining the nature of history some historians considered history
to be linear progression and some others viewed it as cyclic in nature. Those
who hold the linear view of history think it to be a straight line from an unknown
past passing through the known present to the unknown future. According to
this view history is progressive. Those who hold the cyclical view of history
think that history moves in a circle. While analyzing the civilizations and cultures
cyclic view conforms to the birth, growth, maturity, decline, downfall and
disintegration and this process starts again and again. According to Lord Acton
‘history is the idea of progress.’This progressive feeling gives history a unity and
oneness of the past and present. This whole process is complex and difficult to
explain the historical phenomenon. However, no one can dispute the dynamic
nature of history. Every historian is confronted with the three main issues of
what, how and why a problem arises. He discusses every issue in the context of
its time, space, nature and extent in order to make history exhaustive and
comprehensive.
Scope of History
The scope of history is much wider than any other social sciences. We
have already learnt that the term history is derived from the Greek word ‘Istoria’
– which means, investigate, search, and research, enquire, examine the matter.
This investigation, research is done to understand the past, because what we
investigate is related to the past. The present is a short time. It immediately
becomes past and hence, the historians’ investigation is also associated with the
past.
This research and explanation has started from man’s prehistoric stage to
the development of knowledge to the beginning of social life. History in the
beginning was filled with heroic stories, songs, folk stories which are imaginary.
But in course of time, the scope of history expanded. Initially, history dealt with
kingdoms, their expansion, decline, and development. It gradually shifted its
focus to explain the institutions – political, social, religious, economic and
understand the changes. It means, every aspect which reflects human civilizations,
cultures have become part of historical analysis. In this way, history had grown
from the stage of mere description of dynastic history to the status of social
science, through its explanation of variations in the human civilization. But for a
long time, only those human civilizations and cultures that had undergone changes
were described through facts. Hence, the historians belonging to different periods
and countries explained history from their own perspective. Further, depending
on the time in which the historian is writing, the transformations in human
civilizations and cultures came to be explained on the basis of cause and effect,
or from economic or scientific perspectives. With the introduction of scientific
principles and methods in history writing in the 19th century, history has reached
to the status of a science. Providing an analysis and commentary on why it
happened? How it happened? started. As a result, a change has come in the
scope of history. An interest to know about political institutions and political
aspects has reduced. Instead, now more focus was on examine, research and
investigate the economic and social aspects that had impact on human life. By
associating with other social sciences and auxiliary sciences, history used various
methodologies highlighting the changes in the people’s life styles, in understanding
social, economic institutions and above all in analyzing the way of ‘thinking’ in
man. Consequently, today history is treated as a social stream, and people’s
history. Thus the scope and progress of history came to be defined by theoretical
changes, scientific methods and multifarious studies.
The days when history came to be treated as part of departments of literature
or philosophy have gone. History now has its own independent status.
Historicism increased. With the emergence of Historical Relativism in America,
the scope of history further expanded. Historical relativism is the bye-product
of Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and Physical Scientist Einstein theories which
were applied to historical development. Therefore, at present history is not
looking man as an individual or social being but instead focusing on those aspects
of history which instigate, guide, and enlighten the desires and intentions of social
groups. Hence, today, the historian is able to explain and analyze the role of
ordinary people in the universal history of mankind.
Uses of History
Human history is not trust worthy. It is merely filled with imagination and
partial knowledge. It is practically of no use to know about the human beings
who lived in completely different conditions. By focusing on the collection of
facts related to the past the historian is neglecting the present. These are some of
the strongly expressed ideas of the pessimists.
Some philosophers, scholars, rulers, politicians supported the pessimists with

their severe critical definitions by lighting history with the fire and adding some
more fuel to it. German philosopher Hegel expressed that “what experience and
history teach is this – that people and governments never learnt anything from
history.” French philosopher Rousseau regards history as “the art of choosing
from among many lies that one which most resembles the truth.” An English
historian Edward Gibbon stated that “History is indeed little more than the register
of the crimes, follies and misfortunes of mankind.” British philosopher Herbert
Spencer asserted that “History can be studied as a past time entertainment but
not for gaining knowledge.”
These types of arguments were expressed even during the 18th century.
Some opined that the country without history can be very happy. Prussian ruler
Frederick the Great- II whenever felt like reading a history book would order
“bring me a liar.” French philosopher Voltaire remarked history as “an accepted
fiction.” English political thinker Robert Volpol and French Emperor Napoleon
also expressed more or less similar views. 19th Century businessman Henry
Ford stated history as incoherent and bunk. James Joyce, the author of Ulysses,
considered “history as a nightmare.”
However, from past hundred years there were unimaginable changes in
the nature and scope of history, in the method of colleting facts, in explanation,
synthesis and in every aspect of history. Many revolutionary changes occurred
that developed history as science. As a result the uses of studying history also
increased. The uses and uselessness of the study of history depends on how we
learn, understand and comprehend history.
For the question of what are the uses of history? The following answers can be
given.
1. It is only with the knowledge of history that any society can know itself.
Levi-Strauss says that “those who forget history should blame themselves
because only through history it is possible to enquire and decide the values
of the present aspects and their relations.”
2. History gives the man the wisdom to face problems cautiously and in a
right way and not with emotions and half knowledge.
3. 16th century French political thinker Bodin while speaking about the uses
of history comments that “the study of history is useful in proclaiming
Man’s behavior as dependent on the law of nature and know the rationality
of the principles of human history and human history as one of the important
aspect.
4. Lord Acton described history as “an arbiter of controversy, a guide of the
wonderer, the upholder of that moral standard which the powers of the
earth and of religion itself tend to constantly depress.” History has a value.
Its teachings are very useful for man’s life.
5. Burckhardt says History is “the record of what one age finds worthy of
note in another.” It is a continuous process of interaction between the
facts belonging to the past and historian of the present. History is better
understood only when seen in the light of the present. To understand the
present History is important. Every historian thinks about the past events
to draw comprehensions, differences and parallels between the past and
present. For those thoughts study of history is very useful.
6. History progressed as a dialogue between the past events and the events
that gradually emerged in the future. History teaches to see transformation
of historical events from new perspective.
7. If history is studied in a proper manner, it gives an invaluable mental training
related to ideas and values.
8. Historians receive a special training in the study of history. They investigate
historical facts critically. Hence, historian acquire skills in analyzing vast
source material to examine them in an unbiased way, to find where they
disagree, to find out the historicity of the facts their reliability by thorough
examination of facts.
9. To efficiently see a subject matter from its relation with the reality or priority
is called ‘Perspective’. History provides this perspective by explaining
the background of the present.
10. Historical study also develops sense of identity. For the question of ‘Why
History?’ Collignwood replied ‘it is for Man’s self-knowledge.’ For
questions like who we are? How we are like this? Why we are like this
only? History gives us an understanding.
11. In traditional learning, history’s main aim was to inform the present
generation children about their rich heritage. History plays an important
role in handling over the boundless wealth of knowledge that was
accumulated from generations.
12. Another important advantage of studying history is that it teaches lessons

learnt by experience, which can be applied to the present. British historian
Sir Louis Namier gave a meaningful reply to the question “does history
teaches lessons?” thus: ‘history gives all intuitive understanding of how
things do not happen.’
History and other Social Sciences:
Social scientists and historians viewed man and his environment and their
mutual impact from different perspectives. Their aim was to study the man’s
knowledge about his environment and then his increasing control over
environment. This often expounding knowledge was under one single science
during the historical period. An increasing knowledge in various spheres had in
course of time separated to form different branches of social sciences. For the
convenience of acquiring worldly knowledge, these sciences started their own
studies. Among them Natural Science earned self-status. Rest of the social
sciences remained as part of philosophical sciences for some time. Gradually,
social sciences got separated from philosophical sciences and framed their own
studies.
Social Sciences developed during the 19th century. As it is not possible to
research and examine the entire global society by any single science, there emerged
polity to study about the political system. History is one among the social sciences.
History and its relations with other Social Sciences
Sociology
Sociology as a discipline has developed only recently. But within a short
time it earned recognition as one of the most important disciplines (subject)
among Social Sciences. Both History and Sociology developed intimate
relationship. The main focus of study for both these disciplines is the study of
man as a social being. Sociology has to rely on history especially when it has to
study about society, its origin, transformation and such other considerations.
Similarly, it is important for the historian to have knowledge about Sociology to
observe the social life of man in the past. While History tries to look at the
subject matter from all angles, Sociology tells about the social impact. For
example, while History deals with the causes and consequences of the Second
World War, Sociology studies about its impact on the social life of the people.
Burness has explained the importance of Sociology to the historian thus:- “with
the knowledge of Sociology a historian can be accurate and objective with the
raw materials.” To separate History from Sociology is like separating root from
the plant.
While asserting the intimate relationship between History and Sociology,
E.H.Carr says that “if Sociology has to emerge as a fruitful study, like History it
should think about the relationship between generalizations and uniqueness.”
The writings and researches of French social scientist Durkhiem, Henry Berr
and Max Weber show the mutual influence of History and Sociology. Sociology
not only studies about the social changes, and development, but also studies
about the societal processes, causation from a new perspective thus bringing a
change in the method of History writing.
History and Geography
History and Geography has very close relationship. There is no History
without reference to place. It is the geographical conditions of a place that
determine its history. The shape of the surface of earth, geological features,
physical and political divisions, climatic conditions, sources, population etc.,
give a shape to the character of man and determines the destiny of history.
Rivers and hills played an important role in the progress of man. This is
evident from Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, Ganga and Himalayas. The physical
formation of Britain, Japan and Greece with broken coastline facilitated their
naval strength and contributed to empire-building activities through colonization.
Without the fundamental, geographical knowledge it is difficult to understand
diplomatic history, military history, and history of one’s own country. Michelet,
Lucien Fabvre, Marc Bloch, J.R.Green, Maitland and others explained the
importance of Geography in the study of History.
History and Political Science
The close relationship between Political Science and History can be
described in the words of Seeley as follows:- “History without Political Science
has no fruit and Political Science without History has no root.” Not only Seeley
but many other British scholars of the 19th century felt that “all History is Political
History.” Edward Freeman belonging to the second half of 19th century said that
“past politics are present history.” Similarly, another English historian Lord Acton
said that “Politics is like the grains of gold deposited by the stream of history in
the sands of time.”
For a long time Political Science did not have self-status. Till recently
Political Science was an integral part of History in British and American
Universities. In recent years, like Sociology it also achieved maturity. Political

Science describes various types of Governments, States and their administrative
principles. States and political conditions made steady progress from ancient
times. From the earliest times down to the present period, it is the political
activity through monarchy or oligarchy, or aristocracy, or tyranny or dictatorship
or democracy that has dominated the life of mankind. All these are related to
politics. History explains to us the political systems and its agencies that
underwent regular changes. Historical writings are like treasures for political
science. That is History is the foundation for Political Science. Without the help
of History, Political Science becomes a fictional science. What value will such
science has which is far from reality? Hence, it is inevitable for Political Science
to depend on History for its materials. Similarly, History is also indebted to
Political Science.
If political transformations were not evaluated in a proper way, then
historical knowledge becomes irrelevant. For example, if the historian does not
recognize the impact of the movements nationalism, imperialism, individualism
and socialism then his writings will remain incomplete. Similarly, if we do not
write about the birth of Indian National Congress, its sessions held so far,
proposals made, laws introduced and do not comment on political transformations
then the history of Indian National Congress becomes futile.
Constitutional history, Legal history, Diplomatic history are also related to
Political Science. Constitutional history deals with rules, regulations, rights and
duties, law and modes of justice, executive, legislative, judiciary, administrative
functions, nature of bureaucracy, their responsibilities and the relationship between
them is laid down in the Constitution. Similarly, while studying the Legal history,
it is necessary to understand the Laws of Manu, the Code of Hammurabi, the
Code of Justinian, the Code of Napoleon and the Indian Penal Code of Macaulay.
Diplomatic history is a specialized branch of Political Science. It deals with
international relations, peace, war, disarmament and so on. Another important
chapter in Political Science is military history. In this, wars, causes of wars,
conquests strategies and tactics in the war, mode of fighting, war weapons and
similar other topics are dealt in this history. Thus, though there are some
differences, yet both history and Political Science has close relationship which is
described in the words of Seeley as “Politics are vulgar when they are not
liberalized by history, and history fades into mere literature when it loses its sight
of its relation to practical politics.”
History and Economics

Today, Economics has become an integral part of history. Production of
goods, consumption, distribution, agriculture, industries, business, commerce,
land revenue, taxes and a host of other activities became part of economic
history. These activities and processes are all related to mankind. Since history
is the comprehensive description of man, it describes his economic activities
and the nature of society. History tells us how man has adapted himself to
different social conditions by following various professions in different periods
of time and space. Economic aspects played an important role in determining
the historical events. It is well known that the economic prosperity of India
attracted many foreign invaders, who changed the destiny of India. Consequently
the historian today is also observing various economic activities in his analysis.
If an economist notices all these aspects, then we can see the progress and
development of the nation and the State.
Economic history became popular in the time of Condorcet, Comte, Buckle,
Marx and Bury. There has been a new orientation in our historical outlook from
the time when Karl Marx proposed materialistic interpretation of history. As a
result, class struggle, man’s skill in earning his daily bread, means of transport
and communication, production, distribution, population growth, arts and crafts,
agriculture, land revenue and other economic activities occupied an important
position. According to Marxist thought all those changes seen in religious, political,
and legal spheres were the result of the changes in economic activities.
Indian historians like Hiren Mukherjee, Palme Dutt, D.D.Kosambi and
others were impressed by Marxist ideas and have tried to explain the institutions
of slavery, feudalism, imperialism, capitalism, socialism in Indian history in terms
of economic motives.
History and Literature
History and Literature are strongly associated with each other. They both
have several similarities. Every branch of literature, prose, poetry, drama, myths,
diaries, travelogues, religious texts were all evolved in the historical times.
“History emerged from the end of Literature” is a fact. Till the 19th century
Literature was in integral part of history. Trevelyan declared history as part of
Literature. But he was criticized by Ranke and Burness who considered facts
as history.
History is the record of the life of man. Literature is the records of man’s
experiences, emotions, thoughts and imaginations. While history is a reality –
literature is its reflection. How can historical narrative be separated from
literature? By bringing these two records close, by treating them equally, by
commenting on their experiences and activities, by narrating the emotions and
experiences by way of examples the historical study or literary readings can be
made possible. Literary luminaries like Tulsidas ‘Ramacharitamanas’, Chand
Bardai’s ‘PrithiviRajRaso’, Mythili Saran Gupta’s “Saket’ were masterpieces
in Hindi literature. They give lot of information about the social conditions during
that period. Similarly, literary luminaries like Sir Walter Scott, Victor Hugo,
Alexander Dumas, Leo Tolstoy, Charles Dickens, Bhagvan Das Gidwani (The
Sword of Tippu Sultan) and others have written historical novels in different
languages. A historical novel is the combination of reality and fiction. Hence, it
is necessary for literature to be close to truth, describing the conditions of the
period in which it was written, narrate the moral values, and describe the historical
personalities and their character.
Thus, as mentioned above history has a close relationship between various
other Social Sciences such as Sociology, Geography, Political Science,
Economics and Literature. These Social Sciences give accuracy and
comprehensiveness to history.
Influence of Geography on History
a. Geographical-features b. Influence
Indian subcontinent has been identified as a cultural entity. Geographically,
though India showed unity in diversity, it achieved several cultural transformations.
These cultural transformations did not happen in a short span of time. These
happened in different periods of time and geographical space. Till the formation
of an empire by the Mauryans in the 4th Century BCE, unveiling political formation
in India remained as a big question. Historians like B.D. Chattopadhyaya and
others viewed the political formations as an important milestone in Indian history.
Inherent in this is the question of what should we call the earlier society? In the
Vedas the term ‘rajan’ (It was first used by the foreign historians, which came to
be used in all other languages. But linguistically this is incorrect) was used for
‘janapada’ or the system of ‘jana’. Later it emerged as ‘mahajanapada.’ The
Buddhist sources tell that this was recognized during the 6th century BCE. The
transformation of janapada system to mahajanapadas and to the establishment
of an empire suggests political changes, but the root cause for these changes lies
in the life style of man. The change from nomadic life when hunting was the main
occupation to the settled agrarian lifestyle to the development of trade and
commerce emerged as the dominant activity of the past. Similarly, we can also
see the changes from the emergence to the gotra system to the development of
Varnasrama system. Nature worship which was popular in the earlier times,
gradually turned to the worship of forces / Gods which are beyond the scope of
reach, to an understanding of the importance of pure knowledge the progress of
these systems can be seen. All this is completely cultural development. American
social scientist Crober defined the term culture as the one which acts as an
ultimate aspect between nature and human life. Seen from this perspective, it is
clear that Indian culture is formed on the basis of the influence of nature on
material differentiation.The cultural efflorescence of India should not be seen as
mere change, but should be studied as an important subject to understand and
know about the personality of the nation.
The physical landscape of a place is not merely a description of
geographical aspects of its existence, mountains, rivers, plateaus and deserts.
Because, the unveiling of culture is based on the diversity of nature, and play an
important role in influencing the destiny of history. The way geographical features
have influenced the historical progress of a nation is the main feature of
geographical character. The features that influenced the geographical character
of a place are known as natural zones. In India, the mountain ranges, plains,
plateaus and the coastal plains played an important role in defining the character
of Indian history.
The Mountain Ranges
The Himalayan Mountains in northern India are natural barriers. Its influence
was great on Indian history. These ice-caped mountains were the birth place
for many rivers. Rivers like the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satlej,
Yamuna, Ganga, Sona, and Brahmaputra had their origins in the Himalayas. As
a result, vast northern plains with fertile soils, conducive for agriculture were
formed as Indus- Gangetic plains. It also expanded into the Brahmaputra valley.
In the east, this part is known as plane or surface land. Himalayas are the home
for several varieties of forests wild animals and herbs. Similarly, they acted as
barriers to the flow of cold waves coming from Siberia and thus protect the
extreme weather conditions. Himalayas acted as nucleus for attaining
philosophical and spiritual knowledge which brought fame to India. In the north-
western region of Himalayas lie the Hindukush, Sulaiman and Kirtar ranges.
They acted as natural boundaries to India. These mountain ranges have passes
such as Bolan, Khyber and Gomal. These passes played an important role in
establishing relationships between India, West Asia, Central Asia and European
countries, and in the assimilation of cultures. These passes were also the entry
points for conquests, wars, victories, commerce, business, migrations and foreign
invasions. Among the mountain ranges the Aravalli mountains are unique. As
these are of average height it could not stop the South-West monsoons resulting
in the rise in temperatures near the Tropic of Cancer. As a result the Thar
Desert was formed. Vindhya and Satpura ranges divided India into two halves
namely north India and south India. Vindhyan ranges also have philosophical
significance, particularly in the development of Tantric and Sakti cults.
Plains
The Indo-Gangetic plains are the most important one among the plains.
Spread from the present West- Bengal state to Hindukush Mountains, these
plains became the nuclei for the emergence of several cultures. The formation
of cultures, urbanization, Vedic and non-Vedic religious movements, all had their
origins on these plains. The Puranas state that who so ever rules the land along
the path of the Ganga up to Prayaga are considered as the winner of the whole
of northern India. Famous wars from Hydapses to the Buxar were also fought
on this land, to have control over it. In India, this region witnessed the rise of
many political forces. It also remained as the source of agrarian wealth. The
absence of mineral wealth, underground treasures, and forests, the instigated
kings of north India starting from Chandragupta Maurya to Aurangazeb invaded
South India for these treasures. It may be noticed that though the northern
plains moulded the political and cultural character of India, they could not
independently contribute to the economic development of India. Hence, it was
inevitable for north India to have relationship with south India. This gradually
laid foundation for the unity and integrity of India.
The Plateaus
The Plateaus of India are categorized as Malwa Plateau, Chotanagpur
Plateau and the Deccan Plateau. Though these Plateaus were separated by
Vindhya and Satpura Mountains, they are formed through single process of
earth’s transformation. Among them, especially, the Deccan Plateau which is in
triangular shape, bordered by sea on three sides became a nucleus for the
formation of Island in the sub-continent. The main rivers flowing in this region
are the Narmada, Tapti, Godavari and Krishna. As the peninsular region is
tilted towards the east, most of the rivers had their origins in the west which is an
upland region and flow towards the east which is a low lying plain region, before
they merge into the sea. The Western Ghats houses many hill forts. As the
Deccan Plateau region is rich in diamonds, gold and other treasures, many rulers
such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Cholas and the north Indian dynasties fought
with each other to have control over this region. As a result many wars and
battles were fought among the rulers. The diversity of nature in this region gave
rise to diverse customs and beliefs. Being one of the world’s oldest physical
formation, the Deccan Plateau served as the home for prehistoric animals like
Dinosaurs, and other such extinct animals, whose skeletal remains were
discovered in this region. But, when the region lost its continuity in some periods
of time, many religions, cultures, customs and languages became extinct. This
region became the birth place for many religious ideologies such as Sakta,
Kaumara, Ganapatiya, Siddha, Kapalika, Kalamukha and Pashanda. It is treated
as one cultural exhibition. In the modern period, the sea coasts of the region,
became entry points for Europeans, and first steps for their expansion. The
Ajanta, Ellora caves in which the religious ideologies led to cultural efflorescence
were also part of these regions. Buddhism, Jainism and Virasaivism sustained in
this Plateau region. In one word, while the Indo-Gangetic plains witnessed the
blossoming of Indian culture, its roots can been seen in the Plateau region.
Coastal Line
The region lying on the sea coasts of Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay
of Bengal in the east is called as the “Coast Line”. This coast line is separated
only in Bombay and Visakhapatnam, thus forming natural harbours. The western
coastal regions are narrow and congested and are densely populated. Malabar,
and Konkan coasts were part of this region. The impact of Western Ghats on
the coast can be easily seen in this region. The evergreen forests of Maharashtra
had their impact on Western Coastal Plains. On the contrary, the Eastern Coastal
Line is broad. Many towns and cultures flourished here. The 18 towns were
formed in this region during the time of Chalukyan rule. The British called this
region as the Coromandal Coast. The Eastern Ghats are formed as broken
chains through which many rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. Geographically,
this region is very fertile. Hence, this region became the nucleus for trade and
commerce. Some religions spread into foreign lands through these coasts. The
Cholas, Kalingas and the Telugus in the eastern coast, and the Cheras in the
western coast encouraged naval expeditions into South-East Asian countries
and were able to spread Indian culture to other countries. It was through this
coast that the South-East Asian countries known as ‘Suvarnabhoomi’ became
the nucleus of Indian culture. The emergence of trading community called as
‘Nanadesa Samastha pekkandru’ during the medieval period was mainly due to
the growth of trade and commerce in the eastern coastal plains. The Coast Line
was regarded as a natural defence, and hence the Indians did not pay much
attention for its protection. As a result, many Europeans entered into India
through sea way.
Along with its natural physical features, India also possesses certain other
features. Due to the existence of various tribes, religions, languages and different
communities, and geographically its separation from other Asian countries, the
historians called this as sub-continent. Though, this is not a continent, it has all
the features of a continent with several diversities and this region emerged as a
united entity. This type of unity in diversity was the result of the impact of
geography on history.
Unity in Diversity
In India, differences can be noticed in the ideological, linguistic, ritual and
religious cultures. The Gangetic basin which had been the home for the emergence
of vedic sacrifices and rituals, and the ideas of the existence of God, the same
Gangetic basin also witnessed dissent and gave rise to Upanishad culture and
heterodox religions like Jainism and Buddhism which discarded the Vedas, Karma
theory and existence of God. Brahmi script which is written from left to right
and Kharoshti written from right to left also were formed in this region. Apart
from Indo-Iranian linguistic group there were other languages in use that do not
have any similarities in Grammar, or production, also originated here and were
popular among the people. If the customs and traditions are taken, then the
societies of this land were highly respected. It was said that where women were
worshipped there Gods reside. However, the same society forcefully threw
women into fire after her husband’s death. Similarly, the land which said that
Brahma God has no name and form and feelings, the same land advocates the
worship of Gods with Shodasopachara or 16 rituals. Similarly, this was also the
land in which idol worship was discarded, but at the same time had given
importance to the worship of God in its manifested forms and encouraged idol
worship.
One has to question as to how did this diversity come? Snow-capped
Himalayas, Vindhya Mountains which appear like burning sun, Narmada and
Tapti rivers that flow from east to west, and other rivers flowing from west to
east are found here. Thar Desert which do not get a single drop of rain to
Chirapunjee which records the highest rainfall in the country are also present in
India. Along with geographical and cultural diversity, there is also racial diversity
in this land. For many races like the Dravidian, Australoids, Veddaoids,
Mongoloids, Mediterranean and many other races India is the homeland. This
was the reason for some historians commenting India as an exhibition of races.
This diversity is natural.
There is also unity in this land. In the Vishnu Purana it was stated thus:
“The land which is located to the north of the sea and south of the Himalayas,
that land is India (Bharat) and the inhabitants of their land are the Indians. In this
land, irrespective of belonging to any languages, ideas, beliefs, religious, races
are all treated as Indians as the slogan goes My India is Great (Hamaara Bharat
Mahaan). Respecting Sanskrit language, accepting Trimurthis Brahma, Vishnu
and Maheswara as the creator, preserver and destroyer worshipping river Ganga
and Pipal tree were commonly found from Kanyakumari to the Himalayas (asetu
himachalam). The very term asetu himachalam staunchly suggests that India
is one country. The people of this country always tried to maintain peace and
religious tolerance. The foreign invaders who came to India settled here and
accepted its religion and language as their own. But Muslims and Europeans
who came here did not give up their culture and traditions. They introduced
their own cultures in India.
As all rivers finally merge in the sea, similarly all the world cultures finally
got assimilated into India and this is a historical truth. This unity is also reflected
in the pages of history and in the cultural transformations. This is an unforgettable
truth. Though, there is diversity in language, region, cultures and traditions,
these were all only for the purpose of livelihood. But when it comes for collective
consciousness, the dharma, artha, kama, moksha, are purusharthas.
Ramayana and Mahabharata are the epics, the fourfold division of Yugas (time)
is the culturally accepted time, the opinions on death and life after death are
same for everyone. This unity is also reflected in efflorescence of knowledge in

India.
Historical Sources
History means ‘to search’, ‘explore’. Historical exploration is based on
historical facts. A historian tries to explain, analyze and comment on what, why
and how the events of the past had happened. This can be possible only with the
sources that are important for constructing history. Not all sources are historical
sources. Only those sources on which the historian depends for writing history
are known as historical sources. From the beginning of human life on the earth,
remnants of the activities of man involving his creativity, and the progress he
made in different fields, help the historian to explain the past. Historical
interpretation relies on the authenticity, accuracy and reliability. Hence, sources
occupy an important place in the writing of history.
The sources for the study of Indian history are classified into two types:
Primary sources and Secondary sources. Primary sources are those that are
based on the people who have direct relation with the past events or based on
the descriptions narrated by those people who are witness to the events. These
are not available in one single place. The historian collects them from different
places and analyzes them. If a historian has to emerge as an efficient historian
he/she has to have command over the primary sources. Secondary sources are
those that are based on the writings of historians who do not have direct
relationship with the past events. The secondary sources are based on primary
sources. Arthur Marvick described the difference between the primary and
secondary sources as follows: ‘Primary source is the raw material on which a
historian depends to write a meaningful past and this historical work or essay
becomes the secondary source’. ‘History’ is that which is produced with the
help of both the primary and secondary sources.
The primary sources include archaeological sources like the burials,
structures, pottery, tools, inscriptions, coins, literary or oral traditions like gathas,
itihasa-puranas, folk songs and stories, yakshaganas, terms, dialogues, written
documents such as legal decisions, official reports, records, biographies, dairies,
letters, documents, will, orders, witness records, official notifications, prohibitory
orders, registered documents, magazines, newspapers, , photographs, maps,
books, pamphlets, movies, research documents etc., come under primary
sources.
Among the secondary sources we have the works of J.S. Mill’s History of
India, 3 volumes, Orme’s Military Transactions, Dodwell’s Dupleix and Clive,
H.T. Princes’s History of the Political and Military Transactions in India
during the Administration of the Marquis Hastings, J.D. Cunning Holmes’s
History of the Sikhs, James Ferguson’s History of the Indian and Eastern
Architecture (1875), V.A. Smith’s Early History of India, Grant Duff’s History
of Marathas, Elphinstone’s History of India, Col.Tod’s Annals and Antiquities
of Rajasthan, R.G. Bhandarkar’s Early History of the Dekkan, J.F. Fleet’s
The Dynasties of the Canarese Districts, E.J. Rapson’s Indian Coins, Ancient
India, Sardesai’s A New History of the Marathas, J.N. Sarkar’s History of
Aurangazeb in 5 volumes, Studies in Mughal India; Mughal Administration.
All these works are considered as standard secondary sources. These writers
wrote Indian history on the basis of the primary sources that were available to
them and made significant contribution to Indian history. Thus, modern historians
use both the primary and secondary sources to write an accurate and objective
history.
The sources for writing ancient Indian history can be classified into
archaeological and literary sources. The science that deals with the study of
artefacts is known as ‘Archaeology’. Various types of burials, urban constructions,
inscriptions, coins, terracotta utensils, etc., are archaeological sources. For the
construction of ancient Indian history the discipline of Archaeology has contributed
immensely. Many new facts about the ancient past were brought to light. In fact,
an understanding of prehistory, which was the longest epoch in Indian history,
was made possible only with help of archeological discoveries in various parts
of the country.
Literary sources are the written records. They are classified into indigenous
literature and foreign accounts. Indigenous literature is further divided into religious
literature and secular literature.
 Under religious literature we have vedic literature, Buddhist literature and
Jain literature. Vedic literature includes the vedas, brahmanas, sastras,
itihasas and puranas. Buddhist tradition has Tripitakas, Nikayas, Buddha’s
biography, Jataka stories, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. etc. Jaina tradition
includes ‘Anga literature, Hemachandra’s Parisista parvanam.
 Under secular literature we have texts on grammar, biographies, dynastic
histories.
 The writings of the Greeks, Chinese, and Muslim writers are included
under the foreign literature.
Archaeological Sources:
Foremost among the archaeological sources are the artefacts. Various
stone tools, pottery, terracotta utensils, ruined monuments, sculptures, paintings
can be included under artefacts. Archaeological sources are the main sources
for understanding prehistory and early historical phase of Indian history.
Excavations conducted at places like Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Taxila, Lothal,
Sthaneswar, Nalanda, Sarnath, Pataliputra, Hastinapur, Nagarjunakonda and
other places brought to light many facets of ancient Indian history. While the
excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro for the first time revealed urban
features, excavtions at Taxila exhibited new aspects of Kushan’s rule. Excavations
at other places brought to light the contemporary socio-religious life style of
ancient people and their skill in art and architecture. Similarly, art and architecture
at Kanheri, Bedsa, Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati stupas,
Devagiri, Mahabalipuram, Tanjavur, Konark, Puri, Alampur temples are symbols
of the religious beliefs and convey the contemporary cultural efflorescence.
Inscriptions:The science that deals with the study of inscriptions is called
‘Epigraphy’. Inscriptions are classified into four types. 1. Rock edicts of Ashoka,
2. Dedicative inscriptions, 3. Donative inscriptions and 4. Commemorative
Inscriptions. Inscriptions are engraved on stone and metals. They contain
information about the geography of a place, economic, religious and cultural
conditions, genealogy of the ruling family along with their regnal years, wars and
battles, yajnas and yagas performed by the rulers, ministers, commanders in
chief, ordinary people and their achievements, details of the various donations
made, the names of the composer and writer of the inscription. It is difficult to
classify inscriptions though these have been classified as Edicts, dedicative,
donative and commemorative inscriptions. A systematic method is followed in
writing an inscription. Almost all the inscriptions begin with auspicious verses
invoking a particular deity. This is followed by eulogy of the royal family, then
comes the notification in the details of the grant are mentioned, blessings,
imprecatory verses (admonitions for violators of the donations) and the date of
the inscription. Among these the genealogy of the rulers, the details of the donation
and date are very important for the historian. Hence inscriptions have become
one of the main sources in the construction of ancient Indian history. These are
available in lakhs. Among the notable in India are the Ashokan edicts, Kharavela’s
Hathigumpha inscription, Gautami Balasri’s Nasik inscription, Rudradaman’s
Junagadh inscription, Samudragupta’s Allahabad Prasasti, Chandragupta II’s
Mehrauli inscription, Yasodharman’s Mandasor inscription, Pulakesi II’s Aihole
inscription, etc. In the context of south Indian history, the post Satavahana rule
especially under the Ikshvakus, Salankayanas, Vishnukundins, eastern Chalukyas
are known primarily because of their stone and copper plate inscriptions.
Inscriptions giving information about the social, economic, religious and cultural
developments were found in many places. Inscriptions also help us to know
about the evolution of regional scripts and languages such as Sanskrit, Prakrit
and other Dravidian languages. Though most of the inscriptions have
exaggerations yet their importance as a source in writing the ancient and medieval
histories cannot be undermined.
Numismatics: The science that
deals with the study of coins is known
as Numismatics. After inscriptions,
it is the coins that are important
sources to know about the ancient
and medieval Indian history. Coins
were minted in various metals such
Rock Edict of Ashoka as gold, silver copper, lead, potin etc.
in different periods of time under
different ruling dynasties. Coins are the main source to know about the history
of the Indo-Greek, Scythian, Kushan, and Saka Kshatrap dynasties. The history
of the Republican states such as the Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Malavas is also
known chiefly through coins. Coins tells us about the various dynasties and the
religious traditions followed by the kings. On the coins of Scythians are minted
Siva, Parvati, etc., indicating the Hinduization. Gupta emblems bear the images
of Garuda lanchana, goddess Lakshmi indicating their inclination towards
Vaishnavism. The economic conditions of the period can be known from the
availability of gold coins and the percentage of alloy present in it. In this way
coins help us to know about the political, economic and cultural aspects of a
particular period under a particular dynasty.
Gupta Coins
Literary Sources: The ancient Indian literary sources are classified into
religious and secular literature. The major part of the Vedic, Buddhist and
Jaina religious literature is considered as semi-historical.
Vedic literature comprising the Vedas, Samhitas, Brahmanas,
Aranyakas, Upanishads, Smriti literature, Upavedas, Itihasas such as the
Ramayana, Bharata, Bhagavata and Puranas provide us with important
information regarding the political, economic, social, religious and cultural history
of ancient India. Scholars are of the opinion that Vedic literature was composed
between 2000 BCE and 600 BCE. Rig veda was written during 1200 BCE,
Smriti literature between 8th and 3rd c. BCE, Sutra literature between 7th and 2nd
c. BCE. Epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata were written down during
500-200 BCE.
Rig veda is regarded as the oldest literary tradition of the world. It is the
source for all other Vedas. It gives the most valuable information about the
political, social, economic and religious belief systems of the earlyAryans. Other
vedas like the Sama, Yajur and Atharvana vedas explain the changes in the
Aryan culture. The Hindus believe that the Vedas are self-created. Sama veda
is the oldest poetical treatise on Indian musical tunes. Yajur veda reflects the
changes in the Aryan social life. Atharvana veda describes the popular beliefs
and superstitions of common folk. Brahmanas explain in detail the religious rituals.
Aitareya, Jaiminiya, Satapata, Gopatha Brahmanas describe various sacrifices,
their meanings, methods of performing them and other rituals. They also mention
the ways by which the non-aryans could be admitted into the Aryan society. The
Aranyakas deal with the philosophical doctrines and mysticism. The Upanishads
contain details about the Aryans religious and philosophical concepts of karma,
liberation from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Smriti and Sutra literature
describes the Hindu culture before the advent of Jaina and Buddhist religions.
Indian religious literature has close similarity with historical narratives found in
the itihasa-purana tradition such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
While the Ramayana depicts the struggle between the Aryans and non-aryans,
Aryan expansion into the south, and describes about statecraft, political system,
caste system, and social systems in the then contemporary period, Mahabharata
deals with political expertise, rules and regulations in the warfare and the struggle
among the ganasanghas of north India for political dominance.
The word ‘Purana’ means ‘old’ story. A.D. Pusalkar and other historians
opined that the Puranas were written down in the early historical period. Bhavishya
and Mastya Puranas are the oldest Puranas. They have dynastic history of old
kings which are very useful for the historians. Though, the early historians did
not give much importance to puranic sources, their importance as historical sources
grew after Pargiter’s publication of Ancient Indian Historical Traditions and
Dynasties of the Kali Age, in 1921. Later, the publication of R.C. Hajra’s
Puranic Records of Hindu Rites and Customs has further enhanced the
importance of Puranas as historical sources. The list of Kali age dynasties starting
from Sisunagas to the Guptas was known to us through the Puranas. V.A. Smith
considers the Vishnu Purana, which deals with the history of the Sisunagas and
Andhra kings and the Vayu Purana that deal with the Gupta dynasty as the most
trustworthy sources. Puranas also refer to the Saka, Yavana, Abhira, Tushara
and Huna tribes. A historian refering to the Puranic sources must be careful and
unbiased, because the Puranas were written in futuristic tense. Some descriptions
in the Puranas are mixture of real and imaginary and they are also self-
contradictory. Modern historians often corroborate the archaeological sources
with the information presented in the Puranas and Itihasas to write an authentic
history.
Buddhist Literature: Among the Buddhist canonical literature, the Tripitakas
namely Sutta, Vinaya and Abhiddhamma Pitaka are very important. These
were written in Pali language. Apart from these there are biographies on Buddha
such as Mahavatsa, Lalitavistara, Buddhacharita, Nidaskabha,
Abhiskaramaana sutra. The Buddha’s doctrines and philosophical premises
are explained in the Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara and Khuddaka
Nikayas. Buddhist Jataka stories provide useful information for the historian to
know about the 3rd century cultural aspects. Non-canonical texts like Milinda
Panha, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa provide information about the Maurya,
Sunga dynasties along with spread of Buddhism in south India. The changes in
Buddhism over a period of time are reflected in the works of Vasumitra,
Asvaghosha, and Acharya Nagarjuna.
Jaina Literature: Jaina religious texts are known as Angas and Upangas. In
the Jaina literature there are 12 Angas which throw light on the history of Mahavira
and his times. Bhadrabahu’s Kalpasutras, Avasyakasutras are very useful texts
to the historians for writing history. Avasyakasutras describe the Saka invasions.
Hemachandra’s Narisishta parvanam is another useful text for the historians.
Secular Literature: Dynastic histories, texts on polity, grammatical texts,
biographies, Sanskrit kavya literature, scientific literature, Tamil Sangam literature
come under secular literature. Among the dynastic histories, Kalhana’s
Rajatarangini written in Sanskrit language is the most valuable text for the
historian. Later texts like Somesvara’s Rasamala, Kirtikaumudi, Arasimha’s
Sukshita Sankirtana are also important texts useful for the historian. Arthasastra
written by Kautilya, the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya is the first
scientific work on polity and administration. It is the most important work on
Mauryan history. It throws light on the nature of Mauryan polity, administration,
social, economic aspects in a detailed way. Almost similar to Arthasastra is
Kamandaka’s Nitisastra. It is an important text that deal with the administrative
structure, the duties and responsibilities of the king and the people during the
Gupta period. The other important sources of history are the grammatical works
of Panini, Katyayana, Gargi Samhita, Mahabhashya, a commentary on Panini’s
work written by Patanjali who was a contemporary of Sungas. Mahabhashya
also provides valuable information about the Greek invasion on India during the
2nd century BCE.
Biographies: Bana’s Harsha Charita, Prithviraj Raso of Chand Bardai,
Gauda Vaha, Prakrit poetry written on Yasovarman, the ruler of Kanauj, Bilhana’s
Vikramankadeva Charita, Rama Charita, Hemachandra’s Kumarapala
Charita, Padmagupta’s Navasasanka Charita are very important.
Sanskrit Literature: The works of famous writers like Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti,
King Harsha, Bharavi and Bhatti are very useful for history writing. For example
Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram describes the conflict between the kingdoms
of Vidisa and Vidarbha during the Sunga’s rule. It also mentions the defeat of the
Greeks on the bank of river Indus. Similarly, Visakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
and Devichadraguptam provides information about the Mauryan and Gupta
history, respectively. Merutunga’s Chintamani and Rajasekhara’s

Prabandhakosam are important historical dramas. Dandi’s Dasakumara
Charitra, Subandhuni’s Vasavadatta, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra, Vishnu
Sharma’s Panchatantra, Hitopadesa offers very valuable information useful
for writing history.
Literature of other Languages: Gathasaptasati of Hala written in Prakrit
language, Gunadya’s Brihatkatha, Kutuhala’s Lilavati deals with the then
contemporary political, social, religious and cultural conditions. Tamil poetic
works like Silappadikaram, Manimekhalai, Tirukural, the works of Alvars
and Nayanars reflect the social, religious customs, south India’s naval expeditions
and commercial activities. Amoghavarsha’s Kavirajamarga, Pampa’s
Vikramarjunavijayam written in Kannada language are useful to study the
history and culture of the Deccan.
Scientific Literature: These texts tell about the new innovations in the fields of
astronomy, mathematics and medicine in ancient India. The most important among
these texts are Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita, Vagbhatta’s Ashtanga sangraha,
Brihat Samhita, Aryabhatta’s Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta and
Brahmagupta’s works etc.
Foreign Literature: The information found in the literary texts of Indian writers
are reinforced in the foreign account of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese and
Muslims. The foreigners have come to India as travellers, merchants and left
vivid accounts of what they saw and heard.
Greco-Roman Works: The foremost among the Greco-Roman writings are
the works of Heredotus, Scylax and Ctesias. The Histories written by Heredotus
explains the wars between Persia and Greek, Indo-Persian relationships and
the political conditions in the north-western India during the contemporary periods.
Persian ruler Darius had sent Scylax, a sailor to study the conditions around the
Indus region. Ctesias writings are full of imaginations and hence are not
trustworthy. Greek historians like Nearchus, Aristobulus, Onesicritus, Clitarcus
came to India along with Alexander. Megasthenese, Deimachus and Dionysices
were the prominent Greek ambassadors who visited the Magadhan court.
Megasthenese, the author of Indica was sent to India as an ambassador by
Selucas Nikator, the Greek king, Deimachus was a Syrian ambassador and
Dionysices was sent by Ptolemy, the Egyptian king. But the works of Deimachus
and Dionysices are not available today. Some of the aspects of their writings
were mentioned by later writers like Arrian, Strabo. Not only the above
mentioned writings but the works of Patrokes, Polydias, Pliny, Diodoru, Ptolemy
and the work of an unknown writer like ‘the Periplusof Erythrean Sea are
very useful in the construction of ancient India history. However, these Greco-
Roman writings were written from their own perspective based on what was
heard and hence should be used carefully. In history writing, only those sources
should be taken into account which were written with skill, and patience. These
should be corroborated with other contemporary sources and use only those
sources which are close to truth and reality.
Chinese Writings: Some Chinese who accepted Buddhism, came to India as
travellers with an aim to know about the origins of Buddhism and to study the
Buddhist literature. Prominent among them are Fa-hien and Huien Tsang. Among
the Chinese travelers, Fa-hien was the foremost. He visited India during 399-
414 CE. His experiences in India were described in Fo-Ko-Kui. Huien Tsang
who came after him in 629-645 CE, participated in the Fourth Buddhist Council
organized by king Harshavardhana. He visited Nalanda University. He travelled
widely in north and south India and recorded his experiences and feelings in his
work Si-Yu-Ki. After him came another Chinese traveller Itsing. He visited India
between 671 and 693 CE. He wrote about the Guptas, and the contemporary
economic, social systems and Buddhist universities. Since these Chinese travellers
documented the contemporary events, their writings assumed importance as
historical sources.
Muslim Writings: Several works written by Muslim writers available from
the 8th century CE are also useful in writing about the ancient Indian history.
Al-Masudi described about the ruler of Kanauj ‘Mihirabhoja’ and the condition
of the people during his time in 850 C.E. Similarly, the court poet of Mahmud
Ghazni, Al-Beruni gave a trustworthy information about the living conditions of
the Indians, their customs and culture in his work Kitab-ul-Hind. The early
victorious campaigns of Muslims on India was written in Tabakat-i-Nasiri written
by Minhaj-ud-din- Siraj. Al-ul-Bir, the secretary of Mahmud of Ghazni,
described the grandeur of Mathura temple. Firdausi who belongs to the same
period, gave some details about the Mauryans and Guptas in his work Shah
Namah.
Thus, there are several sources to write about the ancient Indian history
such as the archaeological and literary. But most of them are based on
imaginations, myths and traditions. Hence, the historians duty is to study all the
available sources, sift the facts and write with critical perspective to write a
comprehensive history of India in an analytical way.
Prehistory
The period before history is referred to as ‘Prehistory’. This history studies
about the changes in environment, along with the development in man’s behavior,
physiography, technology, etc., that took place in course of time. Prehistory
occupies a longest period in the study of history. It was in existence for more
than 10 million years. But the events related to the modern man happened in
different periods of time in different places. Prehistory does not have any written
sources. Archaeological sources are the only sources on the basis of which this
history is constructed. Among these we have stone tools, fossils, animal bones,
human skeletons, pottery pieces, monuments, sculptures, structures, cave
paintings, beads, metal tools, etc.
Since stone was used largely during this period, historians called it as
‘Stone Age’. Based on the size and technological developments in stone tools,
this period is classified as follows:
1. Paleolithic Age
2. Mesolithic Age
3. Neolithic Age
4. Chalcolithic Age
Paleolithic Age
The term Paleolithic is derived from the Greek terms ‘Paleo’ which means
‘Old’ and ‘Lithos’ meaning ‘Stone’. Hence it is also called as ‘Old Stone Age’.
During this period, the earth is covered with ice and hence is also known as ‘Ice
Age Pleistocene’ period. This period dates back from 10 million years ago to
10,000 BCE. The early man used stone tools during this period for the first
time. This period is further divided into
Paleolithic Age
Lower Paleolithic Age Middle Paleolithic Age Upper Paleolithic Age

Lower Paleolithic Period

This period extends from 10 million BCE to 1 million BCE. This was the
earliest period in stone age period. During this period the early man who was
called as ‘Homo Habilis’ transformed into ‘Homo Erectus’. He acquired control
over speed and dexterity of hand. He used large stone tools called as chopping
stones, hand axes and discoids.
These were used in hunting
animals and gathering food.
These tools have close
resemblance with the tools found
at Oldowan in Africa and
Acheulean tools. Hence these
tools are also called as Oldowan
Choppers and Acheulean Hand
Axes. The life style of the early Lower Paleolithic stone tools
man had similarities with that of animals. It was during this period that the early
man also discovered fire. But in the beginning fire was used for getting warmth
and to scare away animals.
In India, the archaologists have discovered lower Paleolithic sites at Riwat-
Soan Valley, Potwar Plateau in Punjab, Siwalik Hills in Himachal Pradesh,
Pahalgam in Kashmir, Hunsgi
valley in Karnataka,
Attirampakkam near Chennai,
Nevasa near Ahmadnagar,
Didwana in Rajasthan,
Mahboobnagar, Nalgonda
and other places in Telangana.
Middle Paleolithic Age
During this period, there
were some changes in the
physical structure of early
man. From Homo Erectus, he
transformed into Homo
Sapien Neanderthalensis.
Traces of this man were first Middle Paleolithic stone tools
noticed at Neanderthal in Germany. Hence, he is also known as ‘Neanderthal

Man’. They spread in different parts of the world. During this period man used,
hand axes, scrappers, choppers. Flake Blade technology was used to make
smaller and thinner tools by hitting two stones. Other tools include, plain tools,
dual edged blades, drills, borers with handles. There was not much change in
the life style of the people. But these people migrated to far off places carrying
these small tools for subsistence. Language has not yet developed, but the
humans during this period communicated their ideas and opinions through gestures
and sounds. In India, the traces of this period were noticed at Potwar Plateau,
Rohri Mountains, Nevasa and other places.
Upper Paleolithic Age
This age extended between 40,000 BCE and 10,000 BCE. Changes took
place in the anatomy of man. He acquired features of modern man like exhalation
of breath, made vocal sounds, whistles and gestures, was able to speak some
sort of language to communicate, increased memory, and was also able to transmit
skills. Hence, this man is also known as ‘Homo Sapien’ or the ‘Modern Man’.
During this period man lived in caves. He hunted and ate animals like deer,
antelope, boar, rabbits, etc. He drank water from the nearby rivers. Several
tools were used for hunting animals. The tools of this period were technologically
superior than the tools of the earlier period. Backed blades made from the
flakes, scrappers, drills & scalene triangles (arrows) were used. These tools
indicate the progress of man. Arrows were used to hunt animals from far. Stone
tools during this period were made from chertz, quartz, jasper, chalcedony.
Animal bones and ivory were used for making ornaments. At many places,
there were paintings in the cave dwellings.
The traces of Upper Paleolithic
period are noticed at several places
in India. This period flourished at
Yeleswaram in Telangana,
Renigunta in Chittoor- Andhra
Pradesh, Shorapur Doab in
Karnataka, Budha Pushkar in
Rajasthan, Baghor I and Belan
Valley in Central India.
Upper Paleolithic stone tools
Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

This period is associated with the use of microlithic tools. This age extends
from 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE. Though this period existed only for short
span of time, yet this period is marked with important changes in human history.
There was change in the life style of man which was effected with the changes in
climate and in the use of stone tool technology.
Geographically and climatically, this age witnessed inter-glacial periods along
with ice-age. This was the first phase of transition to Holocene phase of Neolithic
period. Several changes occurred in the nature too.
The Mesolithic man acquired skills in the making of microlithic tools. Round
stones were stuck with another
stone to make small pieces.
Rectangular blades, crescents,
needles, triangles, trapeze, and
arrow heads were the tools
made from the small pieces.
These tools were not more than
two inches long. Hence these
tools are very comfortable to
carry to any place. These were
Microlithis
made with quartz, chalcedony,
etc. Recently, grinding stones used by the Mesolithic people were also found.
These were used for crushing the grain into flour. This flour is used to make
bread or starch. This also suggests the beginnings of agriculture. At some places
there are evidences of animal bones suggesting that the people of this period
even tamed animals like cattle, goats, sheep. Another significant feature of this
period was that for the first time the Mesolithic people used red coloured painted
pottery.
Burying the dead body just adjacent to the kitchen is another significant
feature of this period. The Mesolithic people believed in life after death. Hence,
when they buried the dead, they also buried along with the body some tools,
food items and ornaments. In this way, they venerated the souls of the dead
people.
In India, Mesolithic sites are found at several places. Some important
sites are at Pandavulagutta, Sanganonipalli, Ramagundam in Telangana, Baghor
in Rajasthan, Langnauz in Gujarat, Adamgarh, Bhimbhetka, Ghaghariya in Central

India, etc.
Neolithic Age
The Neolithic age is different from the earlier periods. As this period
witnessed many changes in human life style, an eminent Archaeologist V. Gordon
Childe called this period as ‘Neolithic
Revolution’. This period was in
existence at several places between
8,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE. The people
during this period used chiselled and
polished stone tools such as hand axes,
stone sickles, hammer stones, stone
blades and celts. Along with these they Neolithic stone tools
also used bone implements and tools.
They even manufactured different varieties of pots.
Some important changes took place in climate. With the advent of Holocene
period, warm and pleasant climate prevailed. Seasons were formed. Before the
beginning of the Neolithic period, the early man led a life of hunter –gatherer
killing animals, birds and gathering fruits and tubers. This process of hunting and
collecting food is called as ‘Food-gathering’. But during the Neolithic period,
people cultivated land and started producing food. So, this period saw the
transition of man as a ‘food-gatherer’ to ‘food-producer’. Several reasons were
pointed out for these changes.
1. First and the most important was an increase in population. Compared to
the Mesolithic period, the population had grown remarkably during the Neolithic
period. As the food gathered was not sufficient to meet the growing needs of the
population, and to withstand the natural calamities, the Neolithic people adopted
food producing method. They identified edible crops, fruits and vegetables and
started producing them. Among them wheat, barley, paddy, jowar, maize, sweet
potato were some of the nutritious crops that were cultivated. Though cultivation
of these crops need less effort, it requires continuous supervision from the time
of seedling till the harvest of the crop. Hence, the people of this period, created
new settlements near the river valleys. A settled life in turn led to the formation of
a family, society and finally the villages came to be established.
2. Second, the children who were a burden till then, now became part of
food production. They played an important role in scaring away the birds and
removing weeds in the fields.
3. Third, to increase the production, they domesticated animals such as cows,
oxen, sheep, goats, and dogs, etc. The domestication of animals during this
period contributed to the progress of the society in many ways. Firstly, it enhanced
the crop production, as the dung of the cattle grazed on fields made its soil very
fertile. Secondly, cow milk was used as a second staple food for children. Thirdly,
animals were also used in transportation of goods from one place to another.
4. Since, the crops need to be stored in some vessels, it necessitated the
production of pots for the purpose of storing and cooking / stewing of food
grains. Consequently, the potter’s profession developed. The potter with his
dexterous hands created pots in different shapes. In the beginning, pots were
made with hand and then were burnt to make them strong. These pots were
used not only for preserving food grains but also for cooking. Gordon Childe
considered the potter’s craft as a great evidence of man’s creativity. The other
professions that developed during this period were carpentry, and weaving.
These professions were passed through apprenticeship from father to son and
hence hereditary. There existed the bartar of essential items between pastoralists
and cultivators and craft men.
5. Fifth, these developments led to warfare between nomads and agricultural
communities.
6. Sixth, during this period, the dead were buried with the head facing north
side.
The traces of the Neolithic period in India were first noticed at Mehrgarh.
Later, on the coasts of the Indus valley region, Burzahom and Swat Valley in
Kashmir, Chopani Mando, Mahagara, Koldihawa & Chirand in Gangetic basin;
and in South India at Utnur (Ashmounds), Kadambapur and other places.
Chalcolithic Age
The Chalcolithic period is the last phase among the stone age cultures.
Due to the changes that took place during the last phase of the Neolithic period,
the Chalcolithic period is considered as an intermediary phase between the
Neolithic and Bronze age periods. During this period along with stone for the
first time copper was used in making tools. This phase began around 4000 BCE
and extended up to 3000 BCE. This phase flourished along the banks of rivers
Sindhu, Mesopotamia and Nile and gradually spread to other parts of the world.
During this period many new discoveries were made and hence V. Gordon
Childe called it as ‘Second Revolution’. The following are the new discoveries:
1. The discovery of copper led to the invention of furnace, crucibles and
tongs to lift molten metal. The molten metal was then made into different shapes
like weapons, agricultural tools and implements. Copper tools were stronger
and durable than the stone tools. Another important characteristic feature of
metal was that it can be moulded in to any shape unlike the stone. While pottery
can be easily broken, the vessels made with metal are strong. The discovery of
copper created new professional groups like miners, metallurgists, smiths and
artisans in the society.
stone tools
Bronze age tools
2. Another important discovery was the wheel. Wheel revolutionized transport

and ceramic industries. Speedy transportation of goods was made possible with
wheeled carts. Potter’s wheel was used to make different varieties of pottery.
Pots were used for storage of grains, for cooking and as coffins. With this, the
importance of potter, in the society, has grown. To transport the potters goods
to different regions, traders and merchant communities came into existence.
3. The third important discovery was the wooden plough and boat. While
the plough revolutionized agriculture, boats were used in enabling the
transportation of heavy goods to far off regions. With this a new professional
group of carpenters emerged.
4. The fourth discovery was the bricks and seals. Bricks were used in the
construction of houses and fort walls. The availability of seals suggest the existence
of some political authority. The leaders worked for the welfare of the people
and provided protection from the enemies.
5. Above all the social groups was the priestly class. The priest decided
auspicious moments and performed various rites and rituals.
Thus the technological developments were responsible for the formation
of complex societies and division of labour in the society. Further, the tremendous
increase in the agricultural produce led to the rise of civilizations and urbanization
on the banks of river valleys like Mesopotamia, Indus, Nile and Yang Tse rivers.

01 Prehistoric History

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Chapter 1

Introduction - Stone Age Cultures

teaching by examples’. According to him, history offers us the essence of human

Some philosophers, scholars, rulers, politicians supported the pessimists with

12. Another important advantage of studying history is that it teaches lessons

Universities. In recent years, like Sociology it also achieved maturity. Political

History and Economics

same for everyone. This unity is also reflected in efflorescence of knowledge in

history, respectively. Merutunga’s Chintamani and Rajasekhara’s

Lower Paleolithic Age Middle Paleolithic Age Upper Paleolithic Age

Lower Paleolithic Period

noticed at Neanderthal in Germany. Hence, he is also known as ‘Neanderthal

Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

in Rajasthan, Langnauz in Gujarat, Adamgarh, Bhimbhetka, Ghaghariya in Central

2. Another important discovery was the wheel. Wheel revolutionized transport

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