UNIT I

WHAT IS HISTORY?

1. History is derived from the Greek word “ISTORIA” which means inquiry,
investigation, exploration and research in modern times.
2. Traditionally history has been defined as a systematic account of chronological events
of origin (genesis) and development of human beings. In modern times the term ‘origin’
is debatable and rather the term antecedents is used.
3. History - record of unique events & patterns of different times. (An attempt to recover
or retrieve though imperfectly a past which is lost forever)
4. It changes with time. (Changes in terms of periodisation)
5. In modern times - Research
6. Traditionally - history is defined as a systematic account of the origin and development
of the human beings.
7. History in the western understanding of time is seen in unilineal terms – one side
upward movement in a chronological manner
8. History - result of interplay between the humans and their surroundings.
9. Humans from the earliest times have shown a capacity to organise themselves in terms
of their basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, political, social and institutions for
transmission of knowledge to further generations. All these various activities together
constitute universal cultural patterns that define a particular period, eg - Bronze Age
civilisation existed everywhere. History - study of civilisation. Civilisation-highly
complex social economic and
10. political pattern and exerts wide control over nature. Common institutions, occupations
and cultural patterns are traced by historians in the study of civilisations.
11. History - also considered - living past of the humans - people of different centuries have
attempted to record, reconstruct and understand their past.
12. History - as a professional discipline - first time in modern times (Niebhur, Leopold
von Ranke, Burckhardt) . Argument for laying down definite set of rules for
identification of historical facts (corroborating from other source material)
13. Attempt to answer questions of the present from the past
14. Conclusion- reflection of historian’s time.

FACTS OF HISTORY
1. All the disciplines were keen to describe themselves as scientific in nature there was a focus
on rationality and objective history to come under the domain of science
2. Ranke in the 1830s argued for history as a science. Emphasised upon facts as science- facts
of history are self-evident (meanings are implicit in the facts). If a historian collected all
facts then there wasn’t any need for interpretation.
3. Positivist school in the 19th century also contributed to history’s claim as science. They
said that first identify the facts and then the facts speak for themselves.
4. In Britain, empiricist school also added weight to the importance of facts in history. Lock
& Bertrand Russell. For the empiricist- Facts are sacred & opinions are free. In their
perspective- facts as objective and independent of bias. Hence, the 19th century considered
facts as sacrosanct. Further link to the fetish for facts was for further documentation and
documents, i.e, there was an overarching importance given to the written history. Further
empiricists argued that there are certain basic facts, same for all historians called historical

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 facts and that constituted the backbone of history. For instance - the first battle of Panipat
- 1526, such facts were same for all historians and it is considered to
be raw material of a historian.
5. Criticism –
1. Facts are raw materials of history not history itself.
2. It is the historian who makes a priori decision - to select the fact Selection of facts itself
can be a bias of a historian as the basic facts selected by the historians aren’t dependent on
any quality in the facts but they’re decided by a historian.
3. A historian may select and arrange facts which he/she considers the most influencing
way of opinions.
4. It’s a fallacy to say that facts are independent and objective. The only reason of
interest in a particular, for instance- the battle of 1526 or 1757 is that the historians regard
them to be major events but the importance of these facts may change with the availability
of new research or due to the circumstances in the present times, for instance- many
contemporary historians based on the current reality and through interpretive analysis may
not consider 1526 or 1757 to be the most important facts.

PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY

1. In the 18th century, the French philosopher Voltaire was the first one to talk about the
philosophy of history as the facts found in the documents were processed by the historians.
Therefore, historian's ideology or an idea of history becomes important to understand. The
19th century in Europe was an age of comfort, technological advancements and prosperity.
Europe exuded optimism and confidence. They were not inclined to question anything
about society and the world. They were satisfied with the existing facts and they felt that
the meaning was self-explicit in the facts itself. However in the 20th century, Europe was
confronted with two major World Wars with human catastrophe. In the 1920s, an Italian
philosopher and historian Benedetto Croce wrote a book titled, "History as a Story of
Liberty" in which he argued that all history is contemporary history, i.e. history consists of
seeing the past through the eyes of present and in the light of all the problems that exist in
present times. Therefore, the main task of the historian is not to record facts but to evaluate
the facts. History can't be completely objective because it is with specific questions of the
present that we go back to the past.
2. After the Second World War an influential British philosopher and historian R. G.
Collingwood wrote a book in 1945, "The Idea of History". Collingwood’s views on the
philosophy of history are as follows -

A) The philosophy of history is not concerned with the past as it is, i.e. how it was at that time.
It is also not concerned with the historian's thoughts about the past. The philosophy of history
looks at both the things in mutual relations to each other, i.e. the enquiry conducted by the
historian of the past and the series of past events which the historian looks into.

B) The past which a historian studies is not a dead past but the past which in some sense is still
living in our present?

C) A past act is dead, i.e. it is meaningless to historians unless a historian can understand the
thought that lay behind the act. Therefore, all history is the history of thought.

D) The facts of history are not 'pure' since they don't exist in a pure form. They are always
refracted through the mind of a historian as well as the reader. The first concern should not be

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with the fact but the person writing the history. For example, G. M. Trevelyan is a British
historian writing "History of England" under the liberal tradition. The 19th century was
dominated by liberal thought in England and Europe and the most remarkable feature was
nationalism. Therefore in his book of history he said that it is good to kill for a nation but bad
to kill in the name of religion because wars of religion were part of mediaeval Europe.

E) Historians need an imaginative understanding of the past in order to understand the minds
of the people of the previous society. A historian needs to have an empathetic connection with
the people of the past. At the same time, a historian should be careful not to become
sympathetic towards past events as this would suggest implied agreement. History can't be
written unless a historian achieves some kind of contact with the mind of those about whom he
or she is writing. The function of the historian is not to love the past and not to emancipate
himself or herself. The task of a historian is to understand the past as a key to understanding
the present.

COLLINGWOOD’S UNDERSTANDING

1. All history is the history of thought according to Collingwood,

2. According to Collingwood, facts of history are not pure as they’re selected by the
Historians and the reader also interpret the facts in his/her understanding.
3. According to Collingwood it is the person or the author writing the history in the past
Should be the first concern of the historian today. In other words, more important than the
facts are the author's position, thoughts and bias about history.
4. In Collingwood’s view of history, a historian is required to have an imaginative
Understanding of the minds of the people and the time on which he/she is writing
History. A historian shouldn’t be writing a sympathetic account of history because it
Implies agreement yet a historian must have an empathy with the period he/she is
Writing about. In simple terms, a historian should be able to place himself/herself in
The period he/she is studying in order to understand a particular period or an
Individual (a historical character) in his/her time.
5. Writing history glorified nationalism, by the same logic wars for religion was condemned.
The historians of the nineteenth-century condemned crusades as the 19th century was
critical of religion in politics. In other words history cannot be written unless a historian
has some kind of contact with the mind of those about whom he or she is writing.
CRITICISM OF PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
Bias or Objectivity in History
1. In the 19th century there was a great debate on all the disciplines like humanities, social
sciences, history, and politics and also about science. This debate has a rise in Europe.

2. Europe had undergone scientific revolution and enlightenment in the 18th century of
the Common Era and it was argued that the modern age was the age of rational thinking
and reasoning.

3. History as a discipline could not remain unaffected from this discussion and many
historians in order to claim history as a rational subject asserted that history is science.

4. Ranke in the 1830s remarked that, "The task of a historian was simply to show how it
was", that is Ranke emphasized on the purity of facts. Ranke's ideas coincided with the
two important schools of thought - The Positivist School and The Empiricist School.

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 5. The Positivist School openly claims history to be science and they emphasized upon
the weight of facts in history. According to the Positivist, the role of the historian is
only to identify or ascertain or collect facts. In Great Britain (England), this point of
view complimented the opinion of the Empiricist School and the dominant English
philosophical thinkers such as John Locke, Bertrand Russell. For both positivists and
empiricists, facts are sacred, opinions are free. This led to a fetish of facts. This fetish
of facts was justified by a new fetish for documents. This fetish for documents led to
new precision for recording the documents. For example, in the Indian context year
1526 is associated with the First Battle of Panipat which was fought between Ibrahim
Lodhi vs Babur. These are so called basic facts. These facts will remain the same for
all historians. Further, the necessity to establish the basic facts does not rest on any
quality in the facts but is based on an a priori decision of the historian.

6. Historians like any journalist know that the most effective way to influence an opinion
is by the selection and arrangement of facts. That is why, the positivist historians argue
that facts speak for themselves and facts are objective or unbiased. However, it is untrue
that facts are objective. Facts only speak when historians arrange them in a particular
order. In other words, it is a historian who decides which facts are to be given
importance. The only reason for our interest in the Battle of Panipat, 1526 is that the
historians considered it to be a major historical event.

7. The historians are selective based on contemporary reality. The belief that historical
facts exist objectively and independently of their interpretations is a fallacy. "The dead
hand of vanished generations of historians, scribes and chroniclers has determined
beyond the possibility of appeal the battle of the past."
HISTORICAL METHOD
Historical method is the technique associated with looking at the historical sources or facts and
arriving at a conclusion. The technique of historical method has been evolving over a period
of time and in the modern times historians like Mark Bloch in his work, "The Historian's
Craft" mentioned the tools of understanding the past. These tools include the study of the sense
of the past which was there among the people of the past. There are differences in what we call
the historical sensibilities of the past. There have been differences in the nature and quality of
historical sources. Also, the quantity of historical literature varies in different societies and
among different people. These differences in the ages generally reflect the changes in the social
life, mode of production, religious beliefs, practices, and most importantly for a historian, the
presence and absence of historical sense. For instance, the main spirit that moved the Greek
and the Roman historians was different from the ideology that inspired the historians of the
Christian mediaeval age of Europe. Historical writings of the Italian Renaissance particularly
Machiavelli represented a strong reaction to the religious influence in the historical writing of
medieval Europe.
The reaction against religion reaches its climax in the historians of enlightenment such as
Voltaire, Gibbon, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Hume and Robertson. Any study of history has
to understand the historical thought of that period along with the theory and practice of history.
This will ensure a reconstruction of historical narrative in its context i.e. location and the time
period when the event actually occurred. Therefore historical methods have three aspects -
1. Collection of Records

2. Critical Analysis of Records

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3. A Historical Sense

Collection of Records
1. In history records are called sources. These records or sources are called the raw material of
history as they are of primary importance in the reconstruction of the past.

2. The records available to a historian are the remains that the people of the past have left
behind for us.

3. These records serve as an evidence for a fact that a historian wishes to establish.

4. There are a variety of records available to a historian. Earlier, in traditional history only
written records were considered to establish facts. In the 20th century, especially 'The Annales
School-1929' emphasized on other kinds of records besides the written records. The historical
records are rich in numbers, for instance buildings, medals, coins, inscriptions, edicts,
hieroglyphs, old maps, travelogues, chronicles, treaties, artefacts, official correspondence,
clothing, weapons, private journals, diaries, old letters, paintings and most recently
photographs. It is through these records that the historians gain knowledge of the history as an
event. History deals with evidence and hence there is a famous dictum, "no records, and no
history".

Critical Analysis of Records or Historical Interpretation

1. As a historian deals with evidence or the material remains left behind, they have to be dealt
with care.

2. The records available need to be carefully examined in order to ensure the authenticity of
the source.

3. Historians can't completely trust the source like a judge and similarly like a judge, a historian
works on a presumption that all data is doubtful unless proved otherwise.

4. We have instances in history of spurious documents and the most famous example is a
document called 'The Donation of Constantine'. This document was passed as an authentic
document for centuries till a historian discovered by sheer accident an official seal of
Constantine to be the forgery.

5. The main aim of historians is to present the story of the past which is as close to reality as
possible. In order to arrive at this reality, there are certain techniques used by historians and
those techniques are called Critical Analysis of Historical Method as this method is largely
analytical. Critical Interpretation consists of external and internal criticism.

6. External Criticism is also called critical scholarship. It is used to determine the authorship
of the document or the artwork, the place where the document was written or found and the
time of the document. Such information is important in determining the historical value of a
record.

7. Internal Criticism is also called interpretive or higher criticism. In internal criticism,

historians examine a document or a record. If it is a document, then historians examine its
contents to find the inconsistencies in the document.

Both external and internal criticism together helps a historian to arrive at the authenticity of a
record a document.

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HISTORICAL SENSE
Many civilizations of the past such as Egyptian, Chinese, Greeks and Romans have left
behind recorded histories and chronicles. There is a rich volume of information available
to us about ancient India too. Yet there are challenges for ancient Indian historians in
reconstructing the past like other civilizations.

Up to 1200 CE, there existed various categories of sources in ancient India written in
Sanskrit, Tamil and Pali. Brahmanas, Puranas, the Buddhist Pali and the Jain Pattavali in
Prakrit contain much historical material but unfortunately history of life and death is
covered in layers of religion and metaphysics. The first professional work of history is
considered to be Kalhana's Rajatarangini. Kalhana’s Rajatarangini it means the river of
kings its written in Sanskrit Its about the kings of Kashmir, his work is important from
historical point of view, as he writes about men and women of that time, what did they look
like, what they ate, what they believed in, the dresses they wore etc. He describes the public
monuments , buildings, temples, shrines and monasteries etc. He also mentions destruction
of temples and shrines.

He mentions many achievements of the kings and their ministers for instance the king
Avantivarman had a minister in his court called suyya, who was of chandala origin, he
carried out many engineering and irrigation works in Kashmir.
Another ruler Meghavarman tried to spread nonviolence by conquest, king Lalitaditya tried
to expand the Kashmir kingdom by wars of conquest.

Kalhana mentions famines, floods and fires which decimated the population, there are
instances of popular uprisings in Kashmir

In the 9th ce queen Sugandha ruled in Kashmir and in the 10th and 11th ce queen Didda
.There are instances of influence of Ekangas and Tantrins which were different warring
factions in the Kashmir court, Damaras were the feudal lords of Kashmir

Kalhana describes food prices, taxation and currency in Kashmir, he also writes about the
class difference when he mentions that the nobility enjoyed fried meat and light wine which
is delightfully cooled and perfumed. The common people ate boiled rice, interestingly he
mentions that the priests in Kashmir resorted to hunger strikes as a powerful political
weapon.

He talks about society in Kashmir, caste was not a bar or Barrier to holding any civil or
military office or post, the soldiers could be Brahman, as well as dombas caste, wealth
could lead to rise in status, intercaste marriages are mentioned, mother of the warrior king
Shankarvarman, belonged to the lower caste of Spirit distiller.
King Chakravarman married an untouchable domba woman by the name Hamsi, she
became his chief queen, entering the sacred vishnu ramaswami temple at srinagar. There
was no parda or seclusion of women, polygamy was practised. Women in Kashmir owned
immovable property and also administered their estates, some of them also commanded
troops.
Sati was not indigenous to Kashmir but it came to be gradually practised.

He talks about the exploitation and oppression by the rulers, which he condemned, his
condemnation is based on his belief in dharma, he condemned the king Shankarvarman for

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 looting temples, took back many grants and used forced labour. Kalhana denounces the
slave of mlecchas and he was sympathetic towards the poor and downtrodden.

KALHANA AS A HISTORIAN :

1st Historian of Ancient India

He used a large variety of sources available to him in the 12th ce for instance- Nilamata
Puranas by Nila who was a patron saint of Kashmir, compositions of Chavillakara and
Padmamihira, Writings by the class of writers called Mahatmyas and 11 other works.
Further he cross-checked his sources from other original records, such as orders of the
kings, land grants, edicts, coins, laudatory inscriptions, ancient buildings, religious texts
etc.There are precise details on facts and there is a focus on accuracy. He took trouble to
detect and remove discrepancies. He tried to rise above the superstitions and miracles,
though he couldn't succeed fully. He also made an attempt to understand the historical event
in their context i.e. his explanation did not rest on dharma or karma but takes into account,
natural occurrences.kalhana uses Kali, Laukika or saka era chronology .What distinguishes
kalhana from others is his honest independent and impartial outlook. At the very outset of
his work he lays down his ideals of his historian "that man of merit alone deserves praise
whose language like that of a judge in recounting the events of the past has discarded bias
as well as prejudice". In other words he didn't intend to write a panegyric of royal patrons,
he attempted to look at both the sides, good and bad of the rulers. Kalhan was a Shaivite
but it didn't prejudice him against the Buddhists. His work was didactic, i.e. its objective
was moral lessons for the future generations to learn. On occasions he reflected on
philosophical concepts like Dharma , karma, Paap,Punya, fate and rebirth. There he speaks
of divine retribution

ANCIENT INDIAN SENSE OF HISTORY

Drawback and challenges

There were certain factors which were a challenge to the historical sense of ancient Indians.
These are as follows-
A) The learned class was primarily the Brahmins and they were more interested in religion and
metaphysics.

B) There was no consciousness of Indians as one entity.

C) Ancient Indian religion and philosophy especially the doctrine of karma, nayati and
rebirth goes against the idea of historical sense, eyency of human beings and their actions.

D) Ancient Indian philosophy extensively mentions the idea that the preceding yuga was better
than the coming yuga.

E) The tendency in the dominant culture of ancient India was to prefer general to particular
events and also collective over an individual. In other words, there was a depreciation of
individual personality and opinions.

F) During the ancient period, there was rampant anonymity not only in literature but also in art
and philosophy. There is no focus on mentioning accurate details and exact knowledge. This
is a challenge for historians.

G) In the world view of ancient Indians, particularly metaphysics, human life is considered

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Maya i.e. deception. Therefore, the ancient Indians believed in the philosophy of life negation
i.e. actual life experiences were unimportant in front of the spiritual afterlife considerations.

H) The causes for the events taking place at that time in history were explained in terms of
divine and demonic interventions. Super magical powers were described as the cause of
bringing about change of events.

I) In ancient India, another challenge was chronology. The knowledge of events about the
ancient past without reference to the time of occurrence of events is not historical. In ancient
India there are two kinds of chronological problems-

a) Absence of dates and years.

b) There is a lack of a universal era like the one in Christian era or Islamic era. So in
Indian sources we have different eras like Vikram Samvat, Saka Samvat and Gupta Samvat.

J) There is an unclear chronology with regard to the Mauryan Age. The historians are not
certain about the date of accession of Chandragupta Maurya or even Ashoka. In the Ashokan
inscriptions, it is clearly stated that in the 8th regnal year, Ashoka attacked Kalinga. Historians
are doubtful about the date of his coronation. There is no clarity about the Kalinga war.

K) The Vedic Conception of time doesn't describe the events of the past in chronology. Time
is associated with daily domestic rites and rituals and hence there is a constant reference to four
yuga - Kreta, Treta, Dwapar and Kalyug.

L) The nature of historical records and history writing is also different in ancient India. In the
historical writings of the ancient past, one finds a logical development of themes but not the
historical sequence of events. For instance, Banabhatta's Harshacharita is a seventh century
work. This text is divided into 5 stages. It begins with Prarambha (Beginning) followed by
Prayatna (Efforts), Praptyasa (Hope of Success), Niyatapta (Certainty of Achievement) and
finally Phalagama (Achievement).

BANA BHATT
● Bana Bhatt’s work’s historical significance is that it describes men and women of different
castes and classes. The work also mentions the agriculture of that period. For instance- we get
the info that ploughing was known in the region. The evidence of ploughing and crops like rice
and wheat were known and there is a reference to sugarcane enclosures. He also refers to
Persian wheel – Arghatta. There was reference to heaps of corn ready for the threshing floor
and singing herdsmen (v imp) (Krishna era)
● Bana Bhatt also informs about sati by Prabhakar Vardhan’s widow but Harshvardhan
prevented her sister from committing sati.
● In the Vedic times, we do find historical information which is of importance. For instance-
in the Rig Vedic text, there is a reference to the oral tradition called Gathas and narashamsis.
These are hero lauds (to praise) praising some heroic deeds by men in that period.
● There is a wide range of literature available from the later Vedic age which are quasi
historical compositions. It includes- akhyanas, itivrittas, vamshas and vamshavailis (family
lineage- dynastic history), puranas and itihas.

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 ● Gathas and narashamsis constituted akhyanas (style of reciting) which meant a historical
narrative.
● Itivrattas mean an occurrence of an event and it is a traditional account of men and their
activities in the past
● Vamsh means royal genealogies and its importance lies in the fact that it gives the lines of
priestly succession to the royal family.
● Vamshavailis and vanshanucharitas include miscellaneous historical works systematically
collected together
● Puranas mean an ancient lore(story). They are mentioned for the first time in the atharva
Veda. They are important for the historians for constructing the political history which is
combined with a large mass of mythology, legends and divine powers. In fact, the early portion
of puranas has more pf mythical and divine descriptions. It is only from the time of Mauryas
that we get an idea of the chronology and political dynasties. And thus, puranas have a lineage
of time. In the later Vedic age, there was an important class of court officials called sutas also
called magadhas whose special role was to compose, collect and preserve the lineages of the
kings and the priests. It is from here that probably puranas and itihas emerged.
● Itihas means as it happened (past) but it categorically states that the primarily objective of
writing itihas is to instruct man in the attainment of the Purusharth- Dharma (conduct to
performs your duties of the caste and varna), Artha (job, earning livelihood), Kama(marriage)
and Moksha (sanyaas). Both itihas and purana are therefore not considered historical works as
they are not narratives of the deeds of the human beings or the purpose, or success or failure
but both of them are important as they contain useful historical material which helps in
reconstructing the history of the past
● Some of the puranas are rich in historical information. Bhavishya purana gives an account of
the dynasties of the kali age. The most important purana for the royal genealogy are Vayu
purana, Brahmand, Brahma, Matsya, Vishnu purana. The genealogy of Ram’s dynasty is
provided in Harivamsha which is part of puranas. Magadha and Brihadratha, Pradyot dynasties
of Ujjain. The truly historical path in the puranas begins with the sisunagas or saisungas of
Magadha. The dynastic list includes Sisunagas- Nandas- Mauryas- Sungas- KanvasAndhras
(Satvahanas). Puranas also mention local dynasties and tribes such as Abhiras, Sakas, Yavanas,
Nagas, Tusharas, Murundas.
● Up to the 4 th century CE, puranas mention almost all the political dynasties in northern India
and the dynastic list ends with the period of Chandra gupta I of the gupta dynasty. In this period
gupta dynasty was ruling over Prayag (Allahabad), Saket (Ayodhya) and Magadh which means
the territory before the time of his son and successor Samudra gupta who extended the gupta
empire Evaluation the puranas 1. The dynastic histories in puranas are an important historical
tradition of great antiquity. Without this dynastic list it would be impossible to reconstruct the
period of the Mahabharata till the age of Buddha and Mahavir i.e., 10 th to 6 th century CE. 2.
From 6 th century to 4 th century CE, the dynastic list in puranas is supplemented by the
Buddhist and Jain traditions which constitute an invaluable base for the reconstruction of the
political history of north India 3. Puranas also provide rich information on the cultural life in
ancient India 4. There is also an information on lawlessness in early part of 4 th century which

9
is corroborated by the Chinese travelers Fa Hsien and Hiuen Tsang Pali, Apadans, Prakrit
language and Tamil literature
1. A sense of history existed in ancient India in many records in a nebulous form in oral
tradition. For instance, Gatha narasamsi are hero lauds or praises of gods and men.
These are found in Rig Vedic Literature.
In the Later Vedic Age, historians find semi-historical compositions like Akhayanas,
Itivittas, Vamshavalis, Puranas and Itihas.

2. A sense of history existed in ancient India in many records in a nebulous form in oral
tradition. For instance, Gatha narasamsi are hero lauds or praises of gods and men.
These are found in Rig Vedic Literature.

3. In the Later Vedic Age, historians find semi-historical compositions like Akhayanas,
Itivittas, Vamshavalis, Puranas and Itihas.

4. Akhayanas means historical narratives. Itivittas means traditional account of men and
their achievements. Vamshavalis are genealogies. Puranas are partly political history as
it is combined with mythologies and legends, puranas are both theoretical and mythical.
Puranas are mentioned for the first time in Atharvaveda. Puranas literally means the
ancient tale.

5. Itihas is also mentioned in Atharvaveda and it categorically states that the objectives of
itihas is to instruct man in the attainment of Purusharthas and four purusharthas are
Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

EVALUATION OF PURANAS

Puranas are not strictly historical but the genealogical part contains rich historical material.
For example, Bhavishya Purana is the first purana to give a detailed account of political
dynasties of the Kali Age. The most important puranas for giving royal genealogies are Vayu
Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Vishnu Purana, Brahma Purana, Matsya Purana and Harivamsa
Purana.
The first four dynasties that are mentioned in the puranas are the Pauravas of Hastinapur, the
Aikshvakus of Ayodhya, the Brahadrathas of Magadha, and the Pradyotas of Ujjain.
However, the first political account begins with Sisunagas of Magadha. The chief dynastic
list are those of the Sisunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Kanvas, and the Andhras. There are
other local dynasties that are mentioned such as Abhiras, Sakas, Yavanas, Nagas, Tusharas,
Murundas, and Pulindas. The dynastic list goes up to the 4th Century of the Common Era and
it ends with the period of Guptas. The Guptas at that time were ruling in Prayag, Saket
(Ayodhya), and Magadha. This seems to be the territory ruled by Chandragupta Maurya 1st.
Later it was succeeded by his son Samudragupta.
Puranas are giving us important information for reconstructing reliable history between 10th
to 6th century BCE from the time of Mahabharata to Jainism and Buddhism. The Puranic
dynasties from 6th century onwards are supplemented by the Buddhist and Jain traditions and
also the foreign accounts. Puranas also mention or give information on lawlessness under
Gupta of the 4th century of the Common Era.
SHORT NOTE ON SOURCES ON BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

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BUDDHISM
● Pali was the language of Theravada Buddhism. Pali means a series or a line. From the
historical point of view jatakas are important as they provide substantial information on the
social and cultural life in the age of buddha. Jatakas mention buddha as Bodhisattvas i.e.,
former lives of Buddha
● Apadans are the holy legends describing the activities of the young monks and nuns and also
mentions the position of arhats. There is also an important Buddhist text called Thera Gathas
and Therigathas i.e., the songs composed by the monks and the nuns. Another important source
of Buddhist text is Ceylonese text, Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha.
JAINISM TRADITION
● In the Prakrit literature the most important source of information is a love story called
Karpurmanjara in 900 CE by Rajashekhar. Another one is Gathasaptasati by King Hala of
Satavahana dynasty, a poem of 700 songs which depicts different aspects of rural life in south
India. Another imp Jain text is Brihatkatha by Gunadhya and the stories from this text have
been found later in Arabian nights and the marvels of Sindbad the sailor.
OTHER TEXTS
There are three epics of Tamil literature. The first one is Silapadikkaran, a jeweled anklet. It is
very closely connected to the lives of common people. It is a story of a simple couple Kovalan
and Kannagi. The second epic is Manimegalai by Sattar. This is the story of the daughter of
Madhavi and Kovalan and she in the end became a Buddhist nun. The third epic is
Sivagasindamani or Jivaka. It tells the adventures of Jivaka was an expert in archery and he
knew the cure for snake bite. He finally becomes a Jain monk. The writer of the 3 rd epic is
Tiruttakkadevar.
Some of the secular Sanskrit texts were Chanakya’s Arthashastra, Katyayana’s Kamasutra,
Kamandaka’s Nitisara and the historical plays of Kalidasa i.e., Malvika Agnimitram,
viktamorvashi and Abhigyanashakutalam; Vishakha also wrote two important works i.e.,
mudra-rakshasa and Devichandraguptam; Kshudraka wrote Mricchakatikam, the little clay cart
(it talks about everyday life of common people). Another secular text was written by Pallava
king Mahendravarman III. He wrote a one man play Mattavilasa Prahavana, the sport of the
drunkards. In this play, a shy white ascetic monk loses the skull which he was as the begging
bowl. He accuses the Buddhist monk of stealing it which was ultimately found near a dog. (7
th century CE)
Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita -

It is a collection of stories which is just not about 10 princesses but also of thieves, prostitutes,
peasants and wild hillmen.

MEDIEAVEL INDIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

SULTANATE HISTORIOGRAPHY

1200-1526 CE

11
1. The sources are primarily written in Arabic
2. Most of the historical works begin with the life of prophet Muhammad
3. The first important work of delhi Sultanate is

Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj, he was a chief qazi in 1246 under sultan Nasiruddin,

he used - Personal evidence, testimonies, hearsay, unspecified chronicles and accounts. The
form of his work is called Politico-dynastic history. His work is important for the historians as
he mentions the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Muizzi,Shamsi Maliks and mongol invasions

(Mongols couldn't conquer India wholly due to iltutmish's diplomacy and negotiations. He
didn't go outside delhi at all and stayed in delhi and expanded the empire northern side and
even didn't give refuge to mongol's enemies, so that they don't have any reason to attack India)

Minhaj also mentions that at times divine will and predestination, for instance accession of
Iltutmish, and victory of Gori in second battle of Tarain as per him is the god's

4. Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi by Yahya bin Sihindi, 1428-34

Patron of Sayyid Dynasty dynasty, he gave political narratives from the time of Mohammad
Gori till the sayyid, he is more consistent and detailed from the time of Tughlaqs. His accounts
are simple and most importantly he explains the reason for the failure of Mohammad-bin-
Tughlaq.

5. Tarikh I Muhammadi by Bihamad Khan, the work is important as it gives information

on Timur, the struggles of sultan of Kalpi and most importantly, his account carries forward
from where Minhaj left.

6. Amir Khusrau 1253-1325

His works describe particular historical events, limited to a short period (episodic) for eg his
work Qirain-us-Saddain (1285) describes the meeting between Sultan Kaiqubad with his father
Bughra Khan, a reunion between father and son. In 1291 he wrote Miftah-us-Futuh which
celebrates the Victories of Jallaluddin Khilji, then he wrote a tragic love story Ashiqa of Dewal
Rani daughter of Raja Karan of Nahrwala with Khizr Khan son of Allauddin Khilji. In 1318
Nuh Siphir, it gives information about different languages of people and flora and fauna of
Hindustan. Tughlaqnama - describes enthronement of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, after defeating
Khusrau Khan, 1311 Khazain-us-Futuh- he mentions military campaigns of Allauddin Khilji,
his works are important for social and cultural history of that period, his works mentions the
seasons of north india, the buildings constructed by various Sultans, different entertainment of
the Sultans especially their fondness of chaughan(polo), different indian languages, custom of
sati and the religious beliefs of Hindu

7. Futuh us Salatin by Isami, 1350

It is the history of conquest of North India by Mahmud of ghazni, Mohammad Gori and
beginning of Delhi Sultanate, sources of his works are anecdotes, legends, and common reports
available from friends and associates.
The arrangement of the work is regnal, but there are defects in chronology, he mentions the

12
accession of rulers, rebellions and wars.
He was very hostile to Mohammad bin Tughlaq, almost categorising him as a sadist verging
on madness. Isami's account has a streak of miracle events, for instance Mohammad Ghazni
was led out of the Rann of Kutch by a divine light coming from kaaba. In his treatment of
History, the human agency becomes decisive for eg- assassination of Jallaluddin Khilji by
Allauddin Khilji, then different measures of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, he also mentions some
political events which have not been described elsewhere for eg- the execution of all the
soldiers by Mohammad bin Tughlaq , who returned from the failed Qarachil.

8. Siraj Afif wrote Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi in 1399

He was an old coutier of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, he began his work with Timur's invasion. He
mentions in detail the administrative and welfare activities of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, he also
mentions the power of nobility and Ulema (Islamic clergy), corruption in various state
departments and Sultan's encouragement of nepotism.
In fact Afif attributed the weakness of the Tughlaq state to the mildness of Firoz shah Tughlaq,
the inefficiency in his army as he did not call for the regular muster of soldiers, offices were
made hereditary, serious offences like embezzlement and rebellion were forgiven by the Sultan,
there was lax control and the disciple of the authorities was mocked at. At the same time for
the first time total annual revenue of the state was mentioned and there are references to low
prices.
He mentions the details of buildings and the construction of dams, canals and gardens. The
Sultan was interested in astronomy, and he installed an astronomical clock, inventing the gong.
He established the department of charity and constructed hospitals.
The two Ashokan pillars from Topra and Meerut were removed and set up at Firozabad.

9. Ziauddin Barani wrote Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi in 1357, another work is Fatwa-i- Jahandari,

which explains the duty of a muslim sovereign and it is didactic in nature, Barani was a close
friend of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and after the dead of
Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1352, he lost eminence in the Tughlaq court. For Barani History
was not a matter of investigation but of received knowledge of the past, which was based on
personal testimony and memory.
Barani's chief source of information was his past knowledge and his prodigious memory. He
also had information from the governors and other government officials but the criticism of his
sources is absent, his work reflects the didactic Nature of History that is history had certain
lessons to teach and these lessons can be intelligible even if the events described are disordered
chronologically, Barani is condemned for Linking theology and chronology. He was pragmatic
and aristocratic, he analysed the past in order to rectify the present, society for him consisted
of royalty and the upper classes. Merit was important for him.
Barani's works are significant for giving graphic accounts Of the Tughlaq King

MUGHAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

For the first time under the Mughals a new type of History writing started, i.e. the official
History called Namahs, this was the persian influence on the mughals, it was Akbar who started
the practice of commissioning his officers to write the history of his empire by giving access
to state archives. Ain-i-Akbari is the best example of this. Aurangzeb discontinued this practice

13
in his 11th year, the Mughal also started the practice of writing autobiographies e.g. Babur
Nama and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.

1. Babur Nama

Babur describes the geography and chronology of his various military campaigns and he comes
across as outspoken. He has a minute eye for details. He describes the Indian Peasants to be
poor with descriptions of their clothes.

2. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
Jahangir in his autobiography mentions 22 years of his rule, he mentions about his relationship
with son Khusrau,He also mentions how he got Abul Fazal (Akbar’s best friend) murdered. He
is silent about his marriage to Nur jahan.

In Akbar's time a pattern of official history writing started and two of them are Ain-i-akbari
and Akbarnama and Tabaqat-i-Akbari by Nizamuddin Ahmad
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh by Badauni (critique of Akbar for having non-Muslim in his court)

In Shahjahan's time the most famous work was Padshah Nama by Abdul Hamid Lahori. Lahori
mentions Famine in 1630-32 in Gujarat and Deccan causing much suffering to the peasants.
Lahori's work was completed by waris who added a list of shaikhs, scholars and poets of the
period. In Aurangzeb's time Mohammad Kazim wrote Alamgir Namah which describes his
rule till 11th year. But the more important work was Maathir-i-Alamgiri by Mustard Khan. The
work is free from flattery and is an eyewitness account of Aurangzeb's period.

3. Aurangzeb period
Muntakhab-ul-Lubab by Khafi Khan, it mentions about the breakdown of law and order, court
intrigues and conspiracies, his account is important immediately after Aurangzeb's death. Khafi
khan was a diwan of Farrukhsiyar, he maintained a minute register of all the happenings of the
period and he wrote history based on personal observations and verbal accounts. He believed
in history as the truth i.e a true catalogue of events presented in a chronology. His works
narrates the history from the time of Babur till the 14th year of the period of Mohammad Shah
who is also called Rangeela
Nadir Shah invaded in his time. His major portion of work describes the period between 1605-
1733
He mentions the reforms in the Mansabdari. Central administration under the Mughals,
Marathas affairs and condition of Jagirdars. Khafi khan was himself a Amil (revenue officer)
and there he had an authentic knowledge of revenue administration. He was critical of the
Amils, considered them to be cruel and corrupt, he accused them of plundering helpless
cultivators. Khafi khan refers to Ijaredari System

Criticism:
He wasn't completely objective in writing history, he was shia and therefore he was partial
towards the shia nobles of the mughals. He is also critical of Shivaji and also of the sunni
nobels. He blamed the sunnis for assassinating Farrukhsiyar, he justified the influence of
Sayyid brothers just because they were shias.

14
MODERN INDIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

Orientalists- the modern is frozen and hence they romanticised the past and customs and culture
for the sake of governance.

Utilitarian - keep what is required, lord William Bentick got rid of sati and brought in window
remarriage, contemptuous of India being superstitious.

Imperialist- defenders of the 200 years of rule in India. They said the empire rule of British
was good for India as they brought in modernity. Also called Cambridge school.

Both orientalists and imperialists agreed on the point that the present of India is degeneration
and they agreed on a good past. They had this strong convention that British rule was good for
India.

Nationalist approach
Marxist approach focus on class
Nationalist marxist approach in JNU and DU
SubAltern - criticises Nationalist, orientalists
Communalist - religious approach

1. In modern times there are multiple historiographical perspectives, available since the 19th
century
2. The modern writing of Indian history began with the colonial perception of the past, from.the
middle of the 18th ce

IMPERIAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

Two major schools emerged almost simultaneously, before the coming of what came to be
called imperial historiography in post independence period

These two schools are the

1. ORIENTALISTS / INDOLOGIST
2. UTILITARIAN

ORIENTALISTS / INDOLOGIST SCHOOL

1. The orientalists were actively involved with the task of recovering India's past in particular
ancient india
2. The orientalists were primarily English officials and administrators of the East India
Company because they needed the knowledge about Indian customs, norms and practices for
the purposes of administration
3. They were primarily interested in studying classical languages like Sanskrit, Persian and
Tamil. Grammars were written in English to study different languages.

15
4. The orientalists focused largely on translating legal codes such as Dharma shastras, Dharma
shastras are not code of law but norms relating to social obligations and ritual requirements.
5. The English officials were very interested to investigate what they came to call Hinduism,
they were baffled by a religion which was not monotheistic like Christianity and Islam. In India
we have multiple and diverse religious practices and our royal patrons promoting many
religions or sects.
6. This retrieval of the past came to be known as orientalists and the main scholars were
William Jones, Henry Colbrooke, Nathaniel Halhead, Charles Wilkins and H.H. Wilson. In
1776 Nathaniel wrote Gentoo Laws which translated Manusmriti, later he also wrote a
grammar of Bengali language.
7. In 1784 sir William Jones founded the Asiatic society of Bengal, to promote Asiatic research.
William Jones tried to establish the scientific research methodology in Europe to India
8. In the same year for the first time, "Bhagavad Gita" was translated into English by Charles
wilkins
9. In 1789 sir William Jones translated kalidas's Shakuntala, later he translated Manusmriti
under the title the "Institutes of Hindu law"
10. William Jones also did comparative linguistic study (philology) trying to find the common
origin of Indo-European family of languages for instance daughter in european language is
sanskrit language is duhitr and pater in greek language is pitra in sanskrit.
11. He proposed a common race theory, his biggest contribution was to identify some rulers of
the mauryan dynasty, for instance in the greek classical sources there is a constant reference to
Sandrocottus who was identified as Chandra Gupta of the Mauryan era through philology.
Similarly Palibothra in greek was identified as Patliputra
12. The Focus of the orientalists was on reconstructing languages, their origin, religion and
customs of the Indians but no Indians were included in it. There was no attempt to understand
the Indian worldview, the European preconceptions restructured their reading of India and the
traditional Indian point of view became marginal.
13. Romanticism emerged at the same time as a critique of Industrialism, Romantics idealized
orients as it was pre industrialist but even in that they focused on metaphysics and religion this
led to the genesis of the idea of spiritual east as opposed to the materialistic west. However for
both the Orientalists and Romantics the notion of India was that of another to the west. Both
the Orientalists and colonial administrators in India constructed a selective understanding of
India which was projected to the world and indian history was seen in a specific way.

UTILITARIAN SCHOOL

Opposite of orientalists
1.The main proponents of this school were James Mill, Thomas Macaulay and Bentham
James Mill never came to India but he was a historian.
2. Utilitarians were critical of Indian culture and in this regard they had the support of the
Christian Evangelicals.
3. In the 19th ce James Mill wrote history of British India in which Indian history was divided
into Hindu Civilization, muslim civilization and the British India. This depiction of Indian
history Played an important role in giving a communal understanding of India's past with over

16
emphasis on religion. This communal reading of history will colour the politics of South-Asia.
4. This distorted understanding of India's past along religious lines is problematic.
5. Utilitarians viewed Indian culture as stagnant, lacking rational thinking and individuality.
6. Lord Macaulay had contempt for indian tradition, education and learning.
7. The utilitarians categorised the governance in india prior to them to be based on the concept
of Oriental despotism. Acc. To the utilitarians India in the past was ruled by despotic rulers
with absolute powers, characterising all Asian society. The oriental despot owned all land and
irrigation and the administration was controlled by autocratic bureaucracy.
8. Henry Maine(legal historian) talked about self-sufficient and isolated village communities
in India which continued to exist Independently of the rise and fall of political dynasties but
the surplus was taken by the king.
9. There was an extensive debate among the English officials on the nature of ownership of
land in India, ownership of land was important for the purpose of revenue collection.
10. The British justified their rule by arguing that india is backward but under the trusteeship
of the British, India can be made modern through appropriate legislations
11. Caste system was studied in great detail which was also considered to be part of India's
backwardness.

IMPERIALIST SCHOOL

1. The imperialist viewpoint can be seen in the official pronouncements of Viceroys Dufferin,
Lytton and Curzon
2. The imperialist approach was first put forward by Valentine Chirol, Verney Lovatt etc. It
was theorised for the first time by an American Scholar Bruce T McGully in 1940. The liberal
version of the Imperialist school was written by
Reginald Coupland and after 1947 by Percival Spear.
3. The conservative version of the Imperialist school was developed by Anil Seal and J.A.
Gallagher at Cambridge University after 1968.

Features of Imperialist school

1. The Imperialist school of Historian also known as Cambridge didn't accept the existence of
colonialism as an economic,political, social and cultural structure of India.
2. They argued that the economic, social, cultural development of India happened because of
the British in india.
3. They did not see colonialism as foreign rule and hence they refused to see the basic
contradiction between the interest of the British colonialists and those of the indian people.
4. Acc. To the imperialist approach, Indian nationalist movement was not a nationalist
movement, it was a mimic warfare.
5. The imperialist school did not see India becoming a nation as it consisted of many religions,
castes, communities and interests. The people in India saw themselves as Hindus or Muslims,
Brahmans and Non-Brahmins, Aryans and others and many similar identities. The imperialists
considered caste and religious groups to be the real basis of political organisation in India.
Nationalism didn't exist, it was just a cover up.
6. For the imperialist school indian national movement was nothing but a product of vested
interests and narrow needs of certain elite groups to serve their own interests or the interests of

17
their respective caste groups and religions. In other words the leaders had selfish interests in
opposing the British rule.
7. For the Imperialists Nationalist Movement was an instrument used by the Indian Elite groups
to mobilise masses for their vested interests
8. Viceroys like Curzon and Dufferin talked of the frustrated western educated Middle Class
which was hungry for power and privileges and used nationalism to fight the Benevolent Raj.
9. Lewis Namier argued that the Indian Elite groups operated on the basis of patron client
relationship. local potentates organised politics at level of locality and provinces and they
became agents or subordinates of all India level brokers.
10. To develop this argument further the Imperial scholars did not consider Indian National
movement to be a people's movement. It was only a cloak for the vested elites interests.
11. To conclude, the Imperialist school denies any intelligent role to the people of India, the
workers, the peasantry, women, and the lower middle class were simply led by selfish leaders.

SUBALTERN SCHOOL
1.Subalterns literally means the lowest rank in the army and the school's objective was to focus
on the people's history. The main proponents of this school are Ranajit Guha, Shahid
Amin,Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,Rudrangshu Mukherjee, Dipesh Chakravarty,Partha
Chatterje etc.
2. The subalterns dismissed all previous history writings, including the marxist as elite
historiography.
3. Subalterns want to replace the old blinkered history with a new people's or subaltern history.
In other words they proposed to write a history based on people's consciousness to understand
the popular perceptions.
4. The sourced for the subalterns were also different, they included oral records, memory and
testimonies
5. For the subalterns the contradiction in understanding the Indian history was that in the
colonial period. The fight was between two sets of elites - Indian and Foreigners, it was not
between colonialism and the Indian people.
6. The subaltern groups were fighting both the elites. They believed that the Indian people were
not united in the freedom struggle and argued that there were two strands in the freedom
struggle, one - the real anti-imperialist struggle of the subalterns and the bogus nationalist
movement of the elites.
7. The subaltern seems to have a disturbing resemblance to the imperialist school when they
argue that the leaders of the Indian National Movement were elites fighting for power along
themselves.
8. A criticism of the subaltern school is that it glorifies all forms of people's movement
including militancy and it shows contempt for the Activities of the intellectuals and middle
classes.
NATIONALIST HISTORIOGRAPHY

1.The nationalist historiography is divided into two periods- colonial and post colonial India.
In the British period it was represented by Political activists Lala Lajpat Rai, Pattabhi
Sitaramayya,A.C. Majumdar, C.F. Andrews, Girija Mukherji, R.G. Pradhan etc. Immediately
after independence the nationalist historians were B.R. Nanda, Bisheshwar Prasad, Amles
Tripathi.

18
2. The Nationalist Historians were the first to point to the exploitative character of colonialism,
Dadabahi Naoroji criticised the colonial government with his drain of wealth theory. He was
the first one to point out the connection between poverty and colonial rule. He drew attention
towards the impoverished of indian people.
3. The Nationalist accepted that the Indian National movement was a result of the idea of
nationalism and liberty which came from the west.
4. The Indian nationalist recognised that India was a nation in the making.
5. The Nationalist Historians considered indian national movement as a people's movement
6. A major weakness of the nationalist school is it tends to ignore the inner contradictions in
the Indian society in terms of caste and class. Further the Nationalist school ignored the fact
that while the national movement represented the interest of the nations as whole but it only
did so from a particular class perspective which was predominantly middle class and at times
right wing
7. The nationalist historians do not pay attention to the strategic and ideological
aspects/dimensions of the Indian national movement.

MARXIST HISTORIOGRAPHY

1.The foundation of Marxist Historiography in India was laid by Rajni Palme Dutt and A R
Desai.
2. The Marxist could identify the primary and the secondary contradiction within colonialism
i.e. they took note of inner contradictions in the indian society. They also identified the process
of India in the state of nation making.
3. The Marxist school unfortunately could not Integrate the primary (the interests of Indians
and the colonial state could never be the same)and the secondary contradictions are the caste
and class differences in the indian society.
4. They were unable to integrate both the contradictions as they look at India's freedom struggle
exclusively from the class point of view. The marxistl historians ignored the all class character
of the National movement. They criticised indian National movement as a Bourgeois
movement and a capitalist movement.
5. The marxist interpret the indian National movement as a compromise because of its non-
violent character
6. The marxists are also critical of the close association between the capitalists and Gandhi
Which according to them influenced the Indian National Movement.
7. Many marxists historians have not looked into the ideological component of the Indian
National movement and the strategies adopted by the nationalist leaders for mass mobilisation.

NATIONALIST MARXIST HISTORIOGRAPHY

1.The Nationalist Marxist historians have a divergent opinion from the Marxist school
especially with regard to the Indian national movement. Under this school we include Bipan
Chandra, Aditya Mukherjee, Mridula Mukherjee etc.
2. The important points of this school are as follows-

a. The Indian freedom struggle is the result of fundamental contradictions between the Indian
people and the British interest in india.

19
b. National movement is seen in two ways, one as a part of "nation in the making" and second
it is an "active agent of that process".

c. This school sees the emergence of national identities and narrow identities to compliment
each other.

d. The pre-nationalist resistance to colonial rule failed to understand the twin phenomenon of
colonialism and nation building. (Till 1857 we never saw the struggle as part of India's freedom
struggle as none of them had the national consciousness element and that they needed to fight
together for the cause to make it as a National movement however we didn't have the concept
of nation-state at that time. Even in 1857 they were seeking for the revival of mughal rule and
the contention was religious as in beef and pork cartridges. Though resistance to British rule
was present but without understanding the exploitative nature of the colonial rule. )

e. From 1918 the nationalist struggle was based on the strategy of a hegemonic struggle i.e. to
undermine the British position by countering the propaganda of the British that it was good or
Benevolent for Indians. The British claimed that they were ruling in India's interest and that
they were impartial. After 1857 the British created the fear among the Indians that the British
were invincible i.e. they were incapable of being overthrown.

f. Gandhi built a counter argument to the British hegemony and in this strategy his objective
was not only to remove fear from indians but also to unite indians without or overcoming caste,
religion and regional differences to counter the British policy of divide and rule.

g. The nationalist marxist school saw non-violence as an instrument to mobilise people across
lines.

h. The Marxist historians do not differentiate between the Indian national congress and Indian
national movement, they see Indian national congress as a movement and not a party.

COMMUNAL HISTORIOGRAPHY OR RELIGIOUS NATIONAL

HISTORIOGRAPHY

1. V.D. Savarkar wrote a book "first war of independence" in which was primarily about the
1857 revolt. Acc. To savarkar the rise of the sepoys in meerut was the beginning of India's
independence movement.
2. Before 1937 the religious nationalism was peer headed by lala lajpat rai, Madan Moha
Malviya, N.C. Kelkar, Ali Brothers and Jinnah.
3. The hindu mahasabha and the Muslim league also read Indian history in communal terms.
In pre 1937 period these leaders and organisations were what came to be termed as liberal
communalists, that is they believed hindu and muslims were different communities but the
different communal interests could be accommodated and brought into harmony once India
became an independent Nation State.
4. After 1937, communal Historiography moved towards the language of violence and hatred;

20
it was the language of enmity. The leaders talked of Muslim and hindu culture to be distinct
and separate. A lot was written about religion being in danger and of being eliminated.
5. In this period all the right wing organisation the Muslim league and the hindu mahasabha
and Rashtriya Swayamsevak sangh became intensely communal. The writings put forward in
this period by the Hindus and muslims in this period argued for separate nations as their
interests were antagonistic and irresoluble.
6.The communal Historiography started in 1880s by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan who posited a
counterpoint to the Indian National movement. At the same time, a section of Hindu zamindars,
money lenders and middle classes talked of the tyrannical Muslim rule. In 1890, Anti cow
slaughter propaganda started. In 1909, the Punjab Hindu Mahasabha was founded by U.N.
Mukerji and Lal Chand. Lal Chand in his book- "Self-abnegation in Politics'' described the
Congress as "the self inflicted misfortune of the Hindus'' .
7. In April 1950 the first session of Hindu mahasabha was held under the maharaja of kasim
bazar. In the 1930s muslim communalist like Agha Khan, Shafi Khan and Jinnah wrote extreme
communal terms.
8. In the same period of the 1930s the hindu mahasabha also took a fascist turn under V.D.
Savarkar, RSS also became Fascist at this time, the head of RSS at that time is M.S. Golwalkar
wrote a book "WE" he wrote that "we Hindus are at war at once with the Muslims and British"
he praised the ancient race spirit that has re risen in Italy and Germany.

UNIT-2

POLITY IN VEDIC AGE

1. Early vedic Polity or Rigvedic age 1500 to 1000 BCE

2.1000 to 600 BCE later vedic age

21
RIGVEDIC POLITY

1. The early aryans seemed to have settled in the land of five rivers as there is a constant
reference to Shutudri Sutlej, Vipasa Beas,Parushni Ravi,Askini Chenab and Vitasta -Jhelum
(greek and sanskrit words) in all the Rigvedic Aryans mentioned 99 rivers.
2. The Aryans were divided into 0a no. of tribes and acc. to Rigveda a tribe of bharata's was
settled between saraswati and Yamuna. Puru on one side of river Parushini
kurus were settled in early vedic times between Saraswati and Drishadwati.
3. One important feature of early aryan polity was constant warfare among the tribes, an
important battle mentioning the rigveda is the Dasarajanya battle or the Battle Of The Ten
Kings. The main opponents were king Sudas of the Bharata clan and king Purukutsa of the
Puru clan. Sudas defeated Purukutsa on the bank of river Ravi or Parukshini.
4. In the Rigvedic times polity was tribal with a strong military element in it.
5. Polity was also largely egalitarian, there are references to raja or rajan but it was equally
clear that he was a tribal chief and not an imperial monarch. Rigveda also mentions Rajanya
who seem to be the warring group and hence considered to be of senior lineage, rest of the
clans' people called vish (common people) were of a junior lineage.
6. In the Rigvedic polity the tribal chief was in centre because of his leadership involved, his
primary duties were protection of the tribe, protection of cattle, fighting war and offering
prayers. In other words he was both a military and a religious leader.
7. In the Rigvedic age kingship was generally hereditary based on the principle of
primogeniture, but there are instances of elections to the throne.
8. During the Rigvedic time there are evidences of non-monarchical forms of govs. Like
oligarchies and republics. In the oligarchies several members of the royal family ruled together
e.g. Yaudheya, Arjunayas, Malavas. In the Republics all the people of a particular tribe
participated. Eg. Athens. The republic is known as gana. Some of the famous republicans are
Lichhavis, Sakyas. In the Rigveda gana is mentioned 46 times, which means a tribal clan. And
the gana was headed by Ganapati or Jyeshtha.
9. In the early vedic polity there was no civil system or territorial administration as the aryans
were constantly moving as nomads, from one place to another.
10. There was no army with the tribal chief. What existed was a tribal militia (irregular army,
not a regular standing army). This included a family called Kula, Vrajapati – the head of the
pastures, Kulapas – head of the family, Gramanis – village headmen. All these categories
constituted both social and political units in early Vedic polity. In some records, it is also
mentioned that Vrata, Gana, Grama and Sardha were different tribal groups who performed
military functions. The militia included foot soldiers and charioteers and the weapons were
made of wood, stone, bone and metal. The king had no resources to maintain a regular army
and hence he was dependent on his people for the militia.
11. The territorial hold or he political boundaries in the early Vedic age were tentative as people
were constantly migrating from one area to another. It seems that people were more attached
to their tribes and kins and not to the territory.
12. The king was the upholder of the established order and the moral rule Dhritavrata- the one
who maintains the cosmic order. Along with the king at a very elementary level, there are
references to a few functionaries like Purohita, Senani and Mahishi- chief queen.
13. The power of the king in the early Vedic polity was checked by limited resources and the
active political presence of the tribal assemblies. There were four clan based tribal assemblies

22
– Sabha, Samitis, Vidhata and Gana. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata. Sabha and Samiti
were the most powerful political assemblies as the king was eager to win their approval.
14. The tribal assemblies played an important political role in the Rigvedic age, they were
centred for settling disputes and there were places of redistribution of goods collected during
war, the tribal assemblies also provided for performing sacrifices. The people who came would
indulge in feasting, singing and dancing with redistribution and sharing of food. It was
Imperative for the raja or tribal chief to participate in such tribal assemblies. Emphasis with
regards to decision making was given for establishing concord.

VIDHATA TRIBE ASSEMBLY

a. The term is derived from the root 'Vid' which means to have knowledge or to consider to
exist. b.Vidhata was associated with civil, military and religious function.
c. Most likely it was a religious assembly and a family Council with some historians claiming
it to be the first folk assembly.
d. Vidhata was a deliberative body which made laws and ordinances for regulating tribal
affairs.
e. People who participated in the assembly brought food with them and distributed it in the
assembly.
f. Both men and women participated
g. Vidhata did not play any active role in administrative matters.

SABHA TRIBAL ASSEMBLY

a. Sabha predominantly consisted of priests and aristocrats
b. It functioned mainly as a court of justice.
c. It was presided by a sabhapati
d. The meetings of sabha were conducted through debates and discussions. And the subject
matters were both political and non-political.
e. The king attended all it's meetings and on important occasions sought their advice
f. The decision of the sabha were binding on all and they were unanimous
g. As the power of the king increases, in subsequent periods sabha would become the private
council of the king.

SAMITI TRIBAL ASSEMBLY

a. Samiti included common people, the Brahmans and the rich patrons
b. The most important political function of the samiti was electing the king
c. Samiti is headed by a pati or an ishan
d. The Samiti met on all important occasions, like royal coronations, wars etc.
e. A great emphasis was laid on between the king and the Samiti.

In conclusion the evolution of the early vedic polity was as follow in ascending order
1. Kulapa
2. Kula
3. Grama
4. Vish’ common people
5. Jana Gana

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6. Rashtra headed by king (top)

LATER VEDIC POLITY 1000 BCE-600 BCE

1.Political extent of the later vedic aryans in the region of upper ganga valley, Middle ganga,
western UP, Haryana and parts of Ganga, Yamuna and Doab. Some of the important early
developments of towns like Atranjikhera, Hastinapur and Kurukshetra
2. In the later vedic times some of the major tribes became politically distinct with clear
territorial boundaries. The clan of Bharata and Puru combined to form Kuru (matrimonial
alliance) and from their original location on Saraswati and Drishadwati they moved to Delhi
and the upper portion of Doab called kurukshetra.
3. Another tribe which is mentioned and which becomes politically important in later vedic
times is Panchala, Panchalas in the later vedic times occupied the middle portion of the Ganga
Yamuna Doab,Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad.
4. Kuru and Panchala came together with the capital at Hastinapur. One can see early traces of
town life at Hastinapur.
5. In the later vedic age the Aryans were at the threshold of state formation, which was made
possible by the emergence of permanent agricultural settlement. Aryan tribes of the early vedic
age were settling down into permanent villages, gradually it will make possible for the king to
consolidate his power by extracting revenue from the cultivators or peasantry and this will lead
to emergence of administrative machinery to collect taxes and also a permanent capital.
6. In the later vedic age with the discovery of iron, there was an improvement in the material
or economical condition of the later vedic society. The Aryans came to acquire the private
property and hence there was an increasing concern for the protection of the property, this led
to the origin of state. With the use of iron plough the peasantry could produce more and it was
in a position to give a portion of produce to the state. The kings also established a machinery
for taking taxes from the people.
7. In the later vedic times, polity became territorial in nature, that is one can see the beginning
of territorial kingdoms, and for the first time wars were fought over territory. The tribes of the
early vedic age came to be associated with territories. In other words tribal names became
territorial names, for eg Panchala in the early vedic age was the name of the people but in the
later vedic age it became synonymous with territory or a region. The term rashtra indicating
territory was used in this period. Early kingdoms were not large territorial units as the king did
not have a regular system of taxation and hence it was not possible to have a standing army.
8. In the later vedic age pastoralists were transformed into peasantry making possible for the
king to maintain himself and to establish a small administrative machinery. The king received
tributes which were both voluntary and involuntary i.e. Bali and bhaga.
9. In the later vedic polity the position of the king becomes prominent and in this the large scale
vedic sacrifices play an important role. With the performance of large scale sacrifice the king
was invested with divinity and the influence was strengthened by the performance of rituals for
instance Rajasuya Yagya conferred supreme power to the king. Another sacrifice is the
Ashvamedha sacrifice. By performing this sacrifice the king received unquestionable control
over the area or territory where the royal horse ran uninterrupted. Another important sacrifice
is Vajapeya, in this sacrifice the royal chariot must win against the other chariots. This sacrifice
was performed by an ageing king to increase his regional power. The king through the
performances of these large scale sacrifices claimed absolute control over his people and for

24
the first time it is mentioned that the king had the power to oppress at will the Vaishyas and to
kill the Shudras. The theory of kingship also emerges with the king emerging as the visible
emblem of Prajapati i.e. while being one he rules over many.
10. With the rise of the king a new aristocracy also emerged which was based on duty on birth.
There is a reference to Ratnins the counselor of the king and for the first time a no of officials
are mentioned, first is Purohita, Senani, Sutta Charioteer, Mahishi Chief Queen, taksan
carpenter, govikartana Chief huntsman, rathakara Chariot maker, palagala messenger,
bhagadugha tax collector, Smagahitri treasurer, for the first time an official class can be seen
the later vedic polity a few important posts were made hereditary and the gave them large
Presents. The collection of taxes and tributes became common in the later vedic polity, the
popular assembly of the early vedic times disappeared and the royal power increased at the
expense of these assemblies, Vidhata and Gana disappeared, sabha and samiti became
aristocratic, wars came to be fought not for cattles but for territory.
• Punishment and Justice
The king was active in the justice system. The main crimes were, killing of an embryo, which
were serious offences, homicide, murder of a brahmin, stealing gold and drinking sura or
alcohol. Treason was a capital offence. But, with regard to the legal procedure, not much is
known. In civil matters, women were denied the right to property and inheritance.
• The concept of dharma
• The political and legal ideas of the later vedic age are collected in the Dharmasutras.
Dharmasutras are earlier to Dharmashastra and Arthashastra. They do not contain any
systematic exposition of legal principles and political doctrines that are found in
Dharmashastras and Arthashastra. Dharmashstra views politics as an organic whole in which
different elements i.e the king and the people play their part according to Dharma (like a code
of conduct). According to Dharmasutra, dharma was imposed or sanctioned by the divine will.
In the Dharmasutra, there is no distinction between public and private sphere, individual or
collective will. In fact, the collective dominated over the individual. In other words, the
individual had duties and responsibilities, not rights and privileges. These duties were assigned
by law and custom and even the king was bound by them.
• Institution of Parishad
In the later vedic polity, Parishad emerged as an influential council of the king. The Parishad
included Brahmins and the members of the royal family/ruling class. The main function of the
Parishad was to advise the king on legal issues involving complicated disputes. Parishad was
also a general body of advisors on judicial, political and religious matters. The influence of
parishad could be understood by Panini’s Ashtadhyayi (1st sanskrit grammar) where the power
of king is said to lie with the parishad and that is why the term for it is parishad bala. The
parishad 10 brahmins- 4 were the experts in 4 veda, 3 belonged to the 3 orders - Brahmacharya,
Grhastha, Sanyasa (Student, householder and ascetic) an expert in the school of Mimamsa
(school of inquiry), 1 expert in vedanga (the end of vedas) and 1 who was an expert in sacred
law. All these men must be well instructed and skilled in reasoning and most importantly, they
should be free from covetousness (greed, temptation). It has been stated that the king of the
karu panchala, Pravahana Jaivali, daily attended the Panchal Parishad.

• In the later vedic polity, the king was not all powerful. His power was limited by the weight
of tradition, the force of public opinion and the influence of his counsellors- the Purohit,
Rajanya, Pravahana Jaivali, Mahishi, gramani,khsattra, Chamberlain, Samgahitri.

25
• This becomes evident from the Ratnanimshi ceremony (part of Rajasuya sacrifice)
• In this ceremony, the king was required to visit the house of each of these counsellors, they
were called ratnins and offered prayers to their ruling deity (kuldevta). These counsellors
played an important role in the king's consecration.
To conclude,
1. Aryan tribes consolidated into little kingdoms but they did not lose their tribal character
completely.
2. In the later vedic polity, there emerged a permanent capital and a rudimentary administrative
system.
3. King's authority was limited and he was not an absolute autocrat.
4. The political divisions based on kingship, gave place to those based on geography and loyalty
to the king.
5. Large scale vedic sacrifices increased the power and prestige of the king and ensured the
loyalty of the officials.
6. For the first time, the concept of the king as a powerful ruler emerges. For instance, there is
a mention of universal kings - Rajya-vishwa-janani, Sarva Bhaumi- the lord of earth and
Ekarat- the sole ruler from land to sea. Different titles if the kings are used. For instance, in the
north, he's called Virat, in the west, Suwarat, in the South, Bhoja, in the east, Samrat.
7. Wars came to be fought for territorial expansion (best example- Mahabharat)
8. The pastoralists were transformed into peasantry in the later vedic age, who could maintain
their chiefs by paying frequent tributes. Bali and Bhaga were the regular tributes.
The king could not establish a state system, as, a state needs a regular system of taxes and a
standing army, both did not exist in this period.

THE THEORY OF KINGSHIP IN ANCIENT INDIA

VEDIC AGE

• The earliest story about the origin of kingship is mentioned in Aitareya Brahmanas. In the
later vedic text of the 8th and 7th century BCE.
• In the story, it is mentioned that in a battle between gods and demons, the Gods realised that
they had no leader and they elected Soma (later- Indra) the king of gods and the battle turned
in their favour.
• The story indicates that kingship was based on certain human needs and military necessity.
The primary duty of a king was to lead his subjects in war.
• Another story mentioned in Taittareya Upanishads is similar to the previous story with some
differences. In this story the king was not elected, god's offered sacrifice to Prajapati who sent
Indra to lead the gods, "they who have no king cannot fight" it tells that the king's primary
function was war since the king was given divine sanction and is immortal.
• The large scale sacrifices exalted above the ordinary people through the magical power of the
great royal sacrifices, for instance in the Rajasuiya sacrifice the king is compared to Indra and
Prajapati. His three steps on the tiger skin, his three steps covered heaven, earth and
Netherworld. Rajasuiya was later replaced by Abhishek. In the elevation of the king to the
divine the priestly class worked alongside the king. It is the Brahmans who provided the divine
sanction by performing the large scale sacrifices, they emerged as mediators between the king
and the gods by the way of Agni, since the Brahmin provided the legitimacy or right to rule.

26
They were given precedents in the Varna hierarchy. In the text it is mentioned that the
preference was given to kshatriya to become kings but practically kings from a castes have
ruled.

BUDDHIST THEORY

• In Buddhism the kingship is less exalted, there is no heavenly origin of kingship it was
somewhat similar to a primitive social contract. The jains too shared a similar view. According
to the Buddhist version in the early days of the cosmic cycle Human beings lived in the fairy
land. And hence there was no need for food, clothing, private property, family, government or
law. Gradually there was a cosmic decay and human beings became earthbound. And the need
for food and shelter emerged. After this the distinction of class emerging and alongside the
institution of private property and family emerged, this led to beginning of crimes like
murder,stealing, adultery, etc.
• people had to decide on appointing a king from among themselves, to maintain law and order
in return the people gave him a share of grain,food and cattle. In the Buddhist theory the king
was called the great chosen one Mahasammata , he was also called raja the one who pleased
the people

ARTHASHASTRA

1. In theory Arthashastra talks about the divine origin of kingship, but Arthashastra have no
illusion about king's human nature, the texts simply recognises the utility of divine origin
2.The story in Arthashastra is as follows that at the dawn of civilization, men elected Manu
Vaivasvata to kingship. According to the theory of kingship the king was to fulfill the functions
of gods Indra and Yama. And any slight on the king's power would be published by heaven.
3.Historians usually considered maurya's to be contemporary of Chanakya and it seems that in
practice mauryan didn't use/ascribed divinity directly to themselves. For instance ashoka uses
the title Devanamapiyadasi which is not entirely divine.

MAHABHARATA

1. In Mahabharata there is a reference to Matsya nyay the stronger fish eats the weaker one.
Shanti parva.
2. Between the period of Maurya's and Gupta's there is frequent anarchy.
3. Another story of kingship is mentioned in Mahabharata in this story. It is mentioned that on
earth there was greed, wrath and untold misery, distrust and there is no respect for property.
People then approach Brahma who appointed Manu a God as the first king on earth in another
version, Virajas the son of Vishnu was appointed as the first king of earth.
4. What is common in both the version is the divine origin of kingship.
5. Chakravartin- these are successful rulers who claim the rank of universal king or
rajavishwajanena, Maurya's realised this concept of Chakravartin and they were the first one
to be called Universal emperors. In the Buddhist texts universal kings appear to conquer the
Jumbudipa and ruled prosperously and righteously, jains also recognised this concept.
6. In Ramayana and Mahabharata the concept of digvijayins is used instead of Chakravartin,
which means conqueror of the world.

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MAURYAN POLITY

1. Chronology
A. Chandragupta Maurya 324 to 300 BC
B. Bindusara 300 to 269-70 BC
C. Ashoka 269-70 to 232 BC
D.Brihadratha 232 to 184 BC

2. Geographical extent of the Mauryan empire

In the northWest part of India Manshera, Shahbazgarh, Lamghan. The western most extremity
of the Mauryan empire was Qandahar. The neighbours of Mauryan's in the west were
Gandhara,Kamboja,Yonas (Ionians). The Mauryan Empire jad borders with Antiochus II of
Syria. In the south the exact frontier was not defined, but it is certain that Mysore was part of
Mauryan Empire as Chandragupta Maurya after leaving the throne became a jain monk living
in Mysore and most rightly the Mauryan empire was up to Raichur. The neighbours in the south
Cholas, Pandyas,Satyputras, Keralaputras. In the east the mauryan empire extended till the
ganga delta and till the Tamluk empire.

3.Saptang Theory of Arthashastra

The seven components of the state which can be seen in the Mauryan Empire. Swamy or the
king is at the centre and the other six components are Amatya Minister, Janapada territory,
Durg fort, Kosha treasury, Danda army, Mitra Friend

4. Position Of King
The king's authority was exalted, he was an autocrat and concentrated all power in his hand.
Arthashastra emphasised on the king's control in every aspect of the empire. This becomes
evident from the fact that the Mauryan king asserted not only the usage of customary laws for
administration but also the king's laws. If there was a conflict between traditional law and
shastra and the king's law (Dharma Nyaya), the king's law shall prevail. Mauryan state seems
to be a totalitarian state in which the king was not remote from his people but believed in
controlling each and every aspect of his people be it social, political or economical, the king's
influence is all pervasive there is no distinction between public or private sphere. This comes
out from the Ashokan edicts and Arthashastra where the Mauryan king is primarily concerned
with the welfare of people by personal tours.

The king continuously sought moral approval, the chief function of the king was to maintain a
social order that is four varnas, and four orders of society must adhere to their respective duties
and occupations. In this context the king was assisted by purohita, or a Brahmana
acc. To Megasthenes the Mauryan king was available even while being massaged. Acc. To
Kautilya there were three practices a successful king must adopt
A. Give equal attention to all matters
B. Must remain active and ready to take action
C. He must never be lazy in discharge of his duties. He must be accessible to all and at all
times.

28
To conclude a king is advised to take into consideration the opinion of his Council but the final
decision rests with the king.

5. Mantri Parishad
Acc. To the Girnar inscription the mantri Parishad came into play if the public opinion was
against the king on its own the Mantri Parishad ahd no position within the Mauryan polity.
Ashoka refers to the Mantri Parishad in two of his inscriptions in the first one Mantri Parishad
seems to be a subordinate body which was simply expected to order the Yuktas which is the
secretariat staff to register the new administrative measures of the Mauryan king. In other
words the council was responsible for the execution of the policy decided by the king.
The second mention of the mantri Parishad is when it is stated that in the absence of the king
the Mantri Parishad could discuss his policy and suggest amendments or the Mantri Parishad
may consider any emergent matter which may have been left by the king for discussion in the
council.
Acc. To Kautilya the Mantri Parishad worked by majority decision called bhuvyist,
Arthashastra also lists out the issues on which the ministers were to be consulted
A. How to start the work of public utility undertaken by the state
B. Determine the manpower and finances involved in carrying out these works
C. To determine the areas requiring the works of public utility
D. Finding solutions to calamities

All the ministers of the Mantri Parishad must possess the following qualities
A. Noble Birth
B. Integrity
C. Intelligence
sarvopadhashuddha - the purest of all
The larger mantri Parishad was selected by the king and it had no fixed number of members,
hence the no. May vary.
The king had an inner Council called the Mantrin for urgent matters and it included only three
to four members.

ORGANIZED BUREAUCRACY

The mauryans had a highly organized bureaucratic administration completely unknown in

ancient times. The records refer to 18 departments of the central government called
tirthas(document referred here is ardhshastra). 27 supredientents or adhyakshas were appointed
to regulate the various activities of the Mauryan state. There were a large no. of activities that
were regulated by the state such as agriculture,trade and commerce. Weights and measures.
Crafts like weaving and spinning and minting and metallurgy. We find coins first under
Mauryan times but they don’t mention the portrait of the king, just a symbol. The coins were
punch marked(embossed), coins were called pannas. They supervise these various activities of
the Mauryan state for instance karmantikas looked after industrial activities. Antarvamshika
looked after the personal bodyguards of the king, incharge of the king's security. Sannidhata
was the treasurer i.e he supervised the storage of royal treasures in cash and kind. Samharta
was like a modern accountant general and his main responsibility was collection of revenue i.e.
sources of revenue from land, mines, cities,manufacturing , merchandise of various kinds,

29
precious stones etc. samharta was assisted by a body of clerks called karmikas. Samharta was
responsible for both income and expenditure. The ministers under the Mauryan polity held the
joint responsibility to present the reports of their departments jointly, together but in the cases
of embezzlement, individuals were held accountable.

MAHAMATYAS/MAHAMATTAS

They were senior officers or ministers appointed by the king or the viceroy. They were a highly
responsible and distinct cadre of officials because Megasthenes mentions them as a separate
category of counsellors and assessors. They were primarily concerned with general
administration, judicial matters some from its rank became advisors of the king, treasurers,
arbitrators to settle disputes and it could be any level(central or local), commanders of army,
chief magistrates, inspection officers and in charge of the women's quarters in the royal
households(ithijakha mahamattas). The mahamattyas at the local level sent regular reports to
the king about the working of administration and also informed the king about the public
opinion. It seems mahamattyas were an important link between the king and the local
administration.

PAYMENT OF SALARIES IN CASH

The Mauryan bureaucracy were among the highest paid officials in ancient times.Salaries were
paid in cash from the royal treasury.
The highest paid officials were the purohit,the military commander and the minister (at central
govt), they received 48 thousand pannas(silver coins) per month.
The chief collector and treasurer were paid 24 thousand pannas per month.
The members of the ministerial council were paid 12 thousand pannas per month and staff of
accountants and writers were paid 5 thousand pannsas per month.
Military administration
The Mauryan state had a well maintained standing army. 3 categories of troops are mentioned
– A. hereditary
B. hired soldiers
C. soldiers belonging to shrenies
Hereditary soldiers constituted a major part of the army,they were well trained and were paid
well.
The maintenance of the army was the concern of the military commander.
● The head of the army supervised the military, cavalry, infantry, elephant corps. Infantry
was directly under military commander/ head of the army while other three wings were
under responsible officers. Hereditary soldiers were from kshatriya varna. According
to Greek history Pliny, Chandragupta Maurya forces were 9000 elephants, 30,000
cavalry, 6 lakh infantry. According to Plutarch, Mauryan army had 80,000 horses, 2
lakh foot soldiers, 8,000 war chariots and 6,000 fighting animals. Probably fig. includes
both regular and irregular forces. Megasthenes, speaks of 6 committees with 5 members
each, first committee was concerned with navy , it was headed by admiral and it seems
that the naval warfare included ships and boats where there was a possibility of river
warfare Or a riverine attack. Navy was however was not well developed under Mauryas.

30
● The 2nd committee from the description seems to be similar to the modern
commiserate. . The commiserate transported military equipment, food and other and
other necessities which were carried in a pack of Bullock carts, they also cleared the
path to facilitate the movement of the army. The commiserate included servants or
regular soldiers and grooms and attendants.
● 4 other committees were infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants…5 members in total,
all looked after their needs of respective wings
● According to Megasthenes, soldiers were to return their arms to the state after war.
Horses and elephants were property of the king and no pvt. Ownership of them was not
permitted. Soldiers were paid in cash and not land land grants. The head of the army
must be skilled in all the four branches of the army.
1. The Mauryans had a well developed spy network and throughout the empire, the
Mauryan spies were posted, Mauryan state collected info about foreign enemies and
also kept an eye on numerous officers. This indicates that Mauryan rulers followed the
policy of checks and balances.
2. There are different kinds of spies under mauryas and they were send in disguise as
ordinary citizens all over the empire
3. Spies were not treated as a separate class, they were Normal part of statecraft, they were
an important group with in the administration of system and were recruited from various
strata of society, i.e. orphan children to brahmin widow s, shudra women, a variety of
state employees, prostitutes were important part of spies network. Spies worked in
disguise of fraudulent disciples, recluse , house holders, merchants, students, mendicant
women and prostitutes.
4. Different Types Of Spies

1. Pulisani.
He was the king's agent, similar in position to the yuktas, they were well informed on
the public opinion, and regularly reported to the king about the people's opinions. He
knew the pulse of the people and was used by the king to spread awareness about his
policies to the people.
Pulisanis were located in the remotest corners of the empire. Some of the pulisanis were
close to the king, belonging to a senior class and may have had a say in decision making

2. Pativedakas
They were special reporters working in close associations with the pulisanis, they had
direct access to the king and the king trusted their opinion on people's sentiments. Both
Pulisanis and Pativedakas were part of a larger spying network which included Gudha
Purush and chara. The spies were an important link between the different levels of the
Mauryan administration. The Mauryan state as a policy instructed their officials to
travel continuously on inspection tours to different parts of the empire meeting people,
inspecting the government organisations and giving reports to the king.

The frequent inspections and the existence of spies characterised the Mauryan state as

31
a totalitarian one, these two things were an important means of eliciting the public
opinion, Ashok also used them as a vast propaganda machinery. Pulisanis in particular
had to read out the Ashokan edicts to the local population

JUSTICE AND LEGAL SYSTEM UNDER THE MAURYAS

1. The main responsibility of the king were to maintain social order, smooth functioning
of the administrative system and an easy flow of revenues, all this require a well
regulated legal system which was established by the Mauryas
2. There seems to be codes for various punishments and offenses such as violation of
marriage laws, divorce, murder, using of wrong weights and measures, adulteration etc.
3. There were various kinds of courts to try the offenders of law or settle disputes among
the parties.The two kinds of courts were- Dharmasthiya and Kantakashodhana.
Dharmasthiya- decided civil matters, specially personal disputes such as Stri-dhana,
marriage issues
Kantakashodhana- decided upon matters relating to individual and the state, dealing
with murder, wages to worker etc.
At the village level Gramika or the village headmen enjoyed the judicial powers there
seems to be courts at every level of administration
4. The courts functioned under certain regulations and procedures, it seems cases were
properly registered and sufficient opportunity was given to the defendant to produce
witnesses and plead the case.
5. The sources of law under the Mauryas were A.Dharma
B. Vyavhara- prevalent legal code
C. charitra- customs
D. Rajasasana- royal decrees of the king
6. Emphasis was laid on evidence and the witnesses by the court. Cases were decided
by a body of arbitrators with a final appeal to the king
7. There were different punishments for the same offenses for Brahmanas and Shudras.
8. Judicial Mahamattas they were specially appointed by the king to safeguard against
the injustices, the king regularly sent Judicial Mahamattas to inspect judiciary in the
city, they were concerned with the problems arising from the administration of the cities
such as problems of artisans, merchants and other people living in the city, civil matters
like marriage and inheritance were also brought before them.
9. Ashoka insisted on following the policy of Samata, that a uniform legal procedure
was to be adopted throughout the empire and uniform penal code was to be used.
10. Punishments - There were different punishments which were awarded depending
on the severity of the act, it could be payment of fines, slavery, mutilation,
imprisonment and death sentence, those who could not pay the fine were permitted to
sell themselves into bondage. The punishment of mutilation could be changed to that
of payment of fine. Capital punishment was known and practised. A three day trial was
given before a death sentence was carried out, it was possible to make a final appeal to
the judges or the king.

REVENUE ADMINISTRATION UNDER MAURYAS

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Inflow Of Revenue

1. The state derived revenue from a no. Of sources which was looked after by the
treasurer sannidhata, the Mauryan State Collected revenue from Cities or Durg, Road
and Traffic Vanik path, Pastures vraja, Plantations setu, Forests vana, Mines khans,
rural areas rashtra.
2. Cities - Durg collected the revenue in form of Sales tax called shulka, excise duty on
the sale of liquor, income tax on the rich, total there were 21 such taxes which were
imposed in the city. From the Rural areas the income came from sita land or crown
land, land revenue called bhag which was 1/6th shadbhag to 1/4th , taxes of the
orchards, ferry charges.
3. All mines were under the state control and the mineral wealth was a source of income
for the state, the merchants using roads and waterways were also taxed.
4. There were export and import charges too
5. The gamblers had to pay 5% of their winnings to the state, merchants had to pay for
certifying their ways.
6. The state controlled the armament and salt industry.
7. During an emergency the state could impose additional taxes.

Outflow of Revenue

1. Mauryan state spent the revenue mostly on

A.Kings expenditure
B. Maintenance of army and war
C. Gifts
D. Salary of officials, salary of officials were one-fourth of total revenue
E. Religious donations
F. Public works and construction -:

1.The Mauryan state spent a certain amount of revenue on public work like irrigation,
which included dams, canal and ponds, e.g. Sudarshan Dam under Chandragupta in
Gujarat.
2. Medical treatment and medicines
3.Looking after destitute women, old people and unattended people.
4. Repair of roads and opening of rest houses

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

1. The Mauryan Empire was divided into a no. of provinces and each province was
headed by either a king or a kumar or a member of the royal family Aryaputra.
2. Under Ashoka the empire was divided into four major province, the Northern
Province had its capital at Taxila, western province- Ujjain, eastern province- Tosali,
southern province- Suvarnagiri
3. The princes were appointed as viceroys of provinces for the practical purpose of
training them as administrators but there was also a danger if the relationship between

33
the king and the prince was good, then it was an advantage that the prince would
implement the policy of the king but of the relationship was bad then there was always
a danger of insurrection.
4. The king maintained a check on the position of viceroys by appointing Mahamatyas
and other senior officers who were in direct contact with the king, for eg. Ashoka
ordered blinding of kunal on the information received by his officers
5. Smaller areas within the province were administered by governors, these were
autonomous units and the governor was selected from among the local people for
instance at Girnar a person of Greek origin called Tushapa was appointed as the
governor. In tribal areas which were usually at the border of the empire, local chiefs
were appointed as head of administration, so that there would be less disruption on the
borders.
6. The Mahamatyas under Ashoka performed various activities beyond the central
government for instance Amtamahamattas looked after border areas,
Dhammamahamattas propagated the policy of dhamma, Nagalaviholakamahamattas
can be called modern magistrate who worked alongside the Nagaraka- City Mayor, for
general administration of cities, this Mahamattas advised the Nagrakata
On which prisoners were to be released on certain occasions

DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

1.Districts consisted of a no. of villages.

2. There were three important officials at the level of district Pradeshika or Pradeshta,
Rajuka or Rajjugahaka, Yuktas

Pradeshika or Pradeshta
A. He was an overall in-charge of the district or province
B. He regularly toured both district and villages to inspect the lower administration and
sending report to the samaharta
C. The three Pradeshika constituted a judicial bench for conducting trials
D. Pradeshikas supervised the collection of revenue and maintenance of law and order

Rajuka or Rajjugahaka
Rajuka literally means a rope holding Officer
A. Measured the land of tax paying cultivators, that is assessment and inspection of
lands
B. Tours and inspections
C. They were to work for the welfare of the people
D. They were judicial officials and ashoka instructed that all judicial decisions were to
be made by Rajukas regarding agricultural and land disputes, the rajukas could make
further appeals in matter of death sentence

Yuktas
Secretariat staff giving assistance to other officials, there were checks and balances on
the powers of each category of officials

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VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION

1. Each village has its own administrative unit, it is headed by a village headmen who is
selected from among the village elders
2. The village headmen supervises the collection of taxes, the defense of the village and law
and order, the villages also appoint local officials called Shramikas who primarily performed
the duties of accountant and scribes
3. At times the king appointed his officials with regard to the land revenue and to oversee land
grants, these land grants were given to a few Brahmans and monks and it included only a share
of the produce they couldn't sell and mortgage the land
4. The village administration had a certain degree of autonomy in administering their affairs.
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL OF ADMINISTRATION

1.Between village and district or a semi urban area.

2. Two important officials Gopa and Sthanika

Gopas- census officer

kept a census of population of each village according to their tax paying capacity, occupation
and their age

Sthanika - assistant tax collector

working directly under the Pradeshika,
A. maintained land records
B. Demarcating village boundaries
C. Recording income and expenditure in the form of taxes, revenues and fines

CITY ADMINISTRATION OF PATLIPUTRA

1. The head of the city administration was Nagaraka, his duty involved maintenance of law and
order, prevention of crimes and bringing the transgressors of law to justice. He was accountable
to make good the laws if unable to catch the offender.
2. In Patliputra there was curfew at night forbidding those who had special permissions, the
Nagaraka maintained cleanliness of city, distribution of grains during famines and supervising
fire precautions, ensuring black smith were in one corner of the city
3. The Nagaraka was assisted by two officials Gopa and Sthanika

Gopa kept accounts of 10-20 households, with detailed knowledge of income and expenditure
of each household, for this purpose they kept a register with name of each person, residence,
occupation, gotra and caste

Sthanika kept accounts of the various sections of the city presumably collected general taxes
where due.

4. Megasthenes gives a vivid description of the administration of Patliputra, according to him

there was a city council which was divided into 6 sub councils or committees with five
members each, the functions of 6 Committees are as follows:

35
A. The first committee looked after industry and craft, that is inspection of such centres, fixing
the wages etc.
B. Second committee took care of foreigners, that is arranging the food and shelter for them,
ensuring their comfort and security
C. Third committee dealt with registration of births and deaths primarily work of Gopa
D. Fourth committee looked after trade and commerce i.e. inspection of weights and measures
and regulating the market, the weights and measures were inspected by the Panyadhyaksha,
E. Fifth committee inspected manufactured goods providing for their sale and ensuring that
there was no mixing of old and new goods, this was done by Lohadhyaksha or Sauvarnika.
F. Sixth committee collected taxes on the goods sold, this was the responsibility of
shulkadhyaksha, it was usually 1/10th of the price of the product.

5. Arthashastra also refers to the variety of activities relating to city administration along with
the rules, regulations and penalties, some of these activities of sanitation and purity of water,
checking adulteration, keeping watch over rest houses etc.
6. The laws enforcers were not above the law. Police called Rakshi was held accountable under
the law, for instance if a policeman mistreated a women he had to face severe punishments, if
citizens moved out in curfew hours, without a sufficient explanation then the police had to pay
a heavy fine, if there was a theft then the police was held responsible for either catching the
thief or compensate the laws.

In conclusion the Mauryan Administration seems to be elaborate and well planned

POSITION OF WOMEN IN ANCIENT INDIA

1. The position of women in ancient India was not constant

2. In the Rigvedic period the relationship between men and women was based on reciprocity
and autonomy in their respective sphere of activity, and that is why husband and wife together
were called Dampati, both had equal parts in sacrificial rites, women also participated in
vidhata and Samiti. And out of 12 ratnins of the king three were women mahisi chief queen,
Vavata favourite queen and parivrikiti discarded queen. They had 1/4th voice in the selection
of king.
3. In the later vedic age according to Satapatha Brahmana there was a slight decline in the status
of women, according to the text women were regarded to have an equal share with man in
discharging responsibilities at home. But women were initiated into vedic studies after the
performance of upanayana ceremony. For instance Sita was well versed with vedic mantras as
it is mentioned that she regularly mentioned Sandhya prayers i.e. ritual prayers or mantras
offered in the morning, noon and evening. In this period women were not seen as an obstacle
in pursuit of religion by men; on the contrary her presence and cooperation was absolutely
necessary in religious rites and ceremonies. This was confined to married women only
unmarried girl was not competent to offer ritual prayers and sacrifices, the duty of singing
mantras at the performance of sacrifices was done by the wife, wife also performed special
Upanayana ceremony in some sacrifices, it seems that wife was accorded a high religious status
and her presence was considered indispensable for religious and spiritual development. In this

36
period the term Patni (the wife of a Brahmana) indicated that she had an equal share in the
socio religious aspect of her husband’s life.
4. By 500 BCE, there was a gradual loss of women's position, priests replaced women to chant
mantras in vedic sacrifices, Upanayana came to discouraged for girls lowering her dignity as
the ceremony was essential for acquiring vedic knowledge and higher status, it is stated in a
text that women now regarded equal to Shudras, there are constant references for desiring a
male child.
5. By 300 BCE there was deterioration or further decline in position of women and they came
to characterised as fickle mind who could be easily be won over by a handsome man who could
dance and sing, according to Mahabharata, women were root of all evils, they were temptress,
they had weak will to resist temptation and therefore they needed the protection of man,
however in the same text the virtues of women are extolled and it is mentioned that where
women were treated with honour gods were happy, where women were mistreated or neglected
it was futile to look for prosperity. It seems that the society in ancient India had an ambivalent
position towards women, if they were seen as evil on one side then they were also idealised on
the other hand as symbols of purity, virtue and self-righteousness and spirituality. Five ideal
women that are mentioned are Sita, Draupadi, Mandodri, Ahalya and Tara.
6. Buddha didn't have a good opinion of women, on his last night at his palace, he was repelled
by the unseemly sight of sleeping women and he felt the deceptiveness of things outwardly
beautiful. In the Buddhist records it is said that Buddha told his favourite disciple that if women
were not admitted into the monasteries Buddhism would have continued for a thousand of years
but because of admission was granted Buddhism would continue only for 500 years. He had
an ambivalent position over women, his prejudice is reflected in the monastic order established
by him, a novice nun had more respect and power than an old nun. According to Buddha
women had many negative characteristics of enviousness, stupidity and jealousy, they had too
much anger which made them unfit for public assemblies, or they were unfit for making a
living for a profession.
7. Manu considered women as a source of leading man astray, and her punishment for doing
this was equivalent to that of a shudra irrespective of her caste.
8. Varahamihira a law giver in the Gupta period gives a different point of view than Manu, he
objects to women being seen as seductresses and instead he blames men for driving them
towards misdeeds.
9. In conclusion according to most authorities women is a minor throughout life, as a girl she
is tutelage under the father , as an adult of her husband and as a widow of her son.

EDUCATION OF WOMEN

Rigvedic Age

1. In Rigvedic age women's education was as important as that of a man

2. Both were given similar education, both were to undertake the Upanayana ceremony and
learn vedic theology and philosophy in the stage of brahmacharya.
3. Education in vedic learning was important for a girl to be successful in marriage as both men
and wife were involved in vedic sacrifices.
4. Some of the authors of Rigvedic hymns were women, 20 such authors are mentioned, some
of them had eminence as philosophers and these are Visvavara a brahmavadin, she composed

37
a vedic hymn, Lopamudra, Sikata. Nivavarani and Ghosha, she was the daughter of Rishi
Kakshwin.

Later Vedic age and Upanishads

1. There are references to women of high intellectual caliber, Brihadaryanka Upanishad

mentioned the story of Gargi and Rishi Yagnavalkya, the story mentions the discussion that
takes place between Gargi and the Rishi, the rishi was nonplussed by many questions raised by
her finally he had to stop her by saying that her head with pop off by asking so many questions.
His other wife Maitreyi was also a learned woman who entered into philosophical discussions
on the questions of paramatma, universal soul and its relation to jivatma individual souls.
2. However in the later texts there are only occasional mentions of girls attending the lectures
of the gurus or mastering the vedas, two classes of women teachers are mentioned in the vedas
Brahmavadini, they don't marry and they devote their life studying vedas, Sadyodvaha these
women teachers studied till marriage, and as the wives of Brahmanas they take up teaching as
a profession they are called Upadhyanins
3. Puranas and Bhagvata also refers to female teachers, Draupadi was termed as Pandita, she
was a learned and educated lady and she participated in all discussions and included the
political ones with her husbands.
4. Women in ancient India composed literary works of high standards, Hala was a satavahana
king, wrote Gathasaptasati which mentions 7 poetesses of great merit. In tamil literature
Avaiyyar has left behind literary work of great merit, a potter's wife has left behind a martial
ode describing the great victory of Chola King Karikalan at the battle of Venniwas.
5. Buddhist nuns were probably involved in spreading education an important Buddhists source
Therigatha records the stories of Buddhist nuns and some of them composed poems of great
literary merit, Amrapali of Vaishali is one of them, the other nuns that are mentioned are Subha,
Anupama and Sumedha
6. The Jain records mentioned that the daughter of the king of Kausambi called Jayanti took
ordination from Mahavira, she excelled in her knowledge of religion and philosophy entering
into deep questions of philosophy Such educated women are now confined to, either
monasteries or ruling families. The education of girls receded into the background. They were
trained to become good wives and hence domestic and vocational education teaching them
household chores was provided
7. Women from royal families were trained inyo music, dancing and painting i.e. fine arts
which were considered feminine accomplishments. The queen of the Vikramaditya II, of
Chalukyan Dynasty by the name Lokamahadevi was accomplished in fine arts, Vatsyayana the
writer of kama sutra prescribed music and dance to be cultivated in the noble families royal
women were trained in military and administration, princess Akkadevi the elder sister of the
chalukya king Jayasimha II was actively engaged in military sieges, Umadevi queen of King
Ballala II of the Hoysala dynasty accompanied him in his expedition to north india,on occasions
queens like Prabhavatigupta On occasions, queens like Prabhavati Gupta were married into the
Vakataka dynasty. She acted as a reagent. Akkadevi was the governor of the province and
administered many kingdoms. Some women bodyguards are also mentioned.

38
8. Courtesans were also well read and accomplished in various art forms. They were patronised
by the rulers, and in south India, they were prominent in the social lives. They were honoured
by village assemblies and some of them had temples in their name.
9. Towards the end of ancient period the practice of devadasi started and girls were donated to
the temple in their infancy, Devadasi were attached to the temples as the wives of deities,
slowly there is a loss of status and prestige of the devadasi with increasing exploitation by
wealthy people.

10. In conclusion by the time of Guptas and post Guptas the position of women had declined
their status was equal to that of shudras, they were prohibited from learning vedas and they
were allowed only to listen to epics and puranas and they were advised to worship lord Krishna.

ECONOMIC STATUS AND PROPERTY

Husband and wife in theory were the joint owners of the household and property, in reality the
husband was the sole owner of the property and no legal remedy was available to the women
to claim any right in case of unjust circumstances .

STREEDHANA

The ancient indian law givers recognised the claims of wives to streedhana i.e. women's special
property, some law givers mentioned to include gifts of jewelry and other ornaments, garments
and other presents given to her at the time of marriage. The Gupta and the post Gupta law
books, enlarged the scope of streedhana to include presents from parents and parents in-law
not only at the time of marriage but on all other occasions, given to the wife or daughter in-law
formed a part of her streedhana.

land-

The law books are divided on the issue of immovable property as part of streedhana,
the question raised was whether a woman had an absolute right over land, Katyayana a
law giver of 6th Ce held a woman could sell or mortgage her immovable property, along
with her streedhana. According to him women had a right to receive share in the land
and property however Narada another law giver of same period permits only movables
to part of her absolute property, based on this the later law givers, divided streedhana
into two parts, the first one is sandhayika that is absolute right of woman over the gifts
from her parents and in-laws including her husband, Asandhayika meant that a woman
would enjoy the gifts in her lifetime and they could not be alienated from their family,

39
 The law of inheritance of the streedhan deferred from region to region, if a wife died
childless and the marriage was not one of the approved ones, then her streedhana will
go to her parents or brothers, if she had children then to her children, early law givers
favoured passing of streedhana to the daughters, Manu suggests equal share to sons and
daughters.

Inheritance of property-

•According to arthashastra, women could own money, up to 2000 silver panas. The
amount above this was managed by her husband in trust on her behalf.
•The husband had certain rights over his wife’s property such as selling of his wife’s
property in case of dire emergency. Also, he might restrict his wife from giving it away
thoughtlessly but for all practical purposes, it was her property and, on her death, it may
be passed to her daughters and not her husband or son. In this regard, it seems that
women in ancient India enjoyed greater rights than many other early civilizations.
•Women possessed sometimes inheritance beyond stree-dhana. According to Jain
tradition, a potter woman of Shravasto owned a pottery workshop with 100 potter’s
wheels. She was probably a widow and some legal texts allowed a widow to inherit her
husband’s property on his death.
•Some later Vedic literature and some Smritikaras denied the right of inheritance to
women. For instance, there is a mention of a brotherless daughter inheriting the property
of her father and not the widowed wife and the reasoning was that a widow could
remarry and get a son by niyoga (only till 400 BCE). In the Therigatha text of
Buddhism, a mother tries to discourage her daughter from renouncing the world and
becoming a nun as she is an heiress to her father’s vast property. In easter India,
brotherless daughters were entitled to patrimony.
•By 300 BCE, sisters with brothers were denied share in patrimony and this is
mentioned in the arthashastra and Smritis. Only Shukra recommends a small share to
daughters with brothers in patrimony. Vishnu and Narada also permit enjoyment of
property by girls before marriage.
•The theory of joint ownership denied a wife right to demand partition even if she was
separated. There were different views on the joint ownership of property. Yajnavalkya
and Mitaskhara allowed some rights to women. Yajnavalkya recognized that a small
share to be given to the women if separated. Mitaskhara school assigned a full share to
the widowed mother.
MARRIAGE
• The Brahminic text gives a lot of importance to marriage as it is the very source
of Purushartha i.e., Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. In other words, it was both a
social and religious duty.

40
 • Forms of marriage
•There were 8 forms of marriage according to smritis
a) Brahma – in this marriage, a girl with dowry was married to the man of the same
caste by the performance of Vedic ceremonies and rites.
b) Daiva – the householder gives away his daughter to the family priest performing
the ceremony as daan or fee.
c) Arsa – in this marriage, in place of dowry the boy’s family gave a token bride
price which was mostly a cow and a bull.
d) Prajapatya – in this form of marriage, father gives away the girl without a dowry
or a bride price.
e) Gandharva – this is a marriage by the consent of the boy and the girl. It is usually
done by running away i.e. elopement or in a clandestine (secretly) manner. One
respectable form of Gandharava marriage is Swyamwara or self choice. The law books
lay down that if a girl is not married by puberty then she may choose her husband and
evidently the marriage by the choice of girl took place. There are more than one form
of swayamvara married in the ancient text. For eg – Savitri travelled throughout the
kingdom in search of her suitable mate till she found Satyavan, Damyanti chose Nala
in a swyamwara held at the palace where she crossed the ranks of assembled suitors to
garland Nala, Ram won Sita by lifting the bow of Parashuram. Swyamwaras concluded
with the performance of the marriage through Vedic rites and rituals. Legal
commentators maintained that no form of marriage was complete without religious
ceremony even if modified.
f) Asura – marriage by purchase
g) Rakshasa – marriage by capture
h) Paishacha – it is not even considered a marriage as it involves a seduction of a
girl while asleep or drunk or mentally deranged.
In conclusion, the first 4 marriages were approved and permissible and they were
usually indissoluble. Others were not approved by the religion.

Age of marriage
1. In the vedic times it was usual for glass to be mature, before marriage, Ghosha
is an example of getting married in her adulthood. In Mahabharata there are
references to Kunti, Draupadi, Devayani, Utara getting married in their
adulthood.
2. By 2nd century BCE, Manusmriti recommends that while a husband is at least
20, the girl should be married before the onset of puberty. Manusmriti and other
smriti recommends that the ideal marriage was the one in which the bride was
1/3rd the age of the groom i.e. a man of 24 should marry a girl of 8. Education
is ruled out for her. Around 200 CE, child marriages became a common practice

41
 and girls were being married at the age of 8-9, this was done with a great
emphasis on chastity of a woman and to mould a young girl.
3. Marriages between the couples of the same caste and varna were approved,
Sagotra marriages were not permitted. Sutras permitted anuloma marriage, i.e.
marrying a female of lower status and the caste of children will be same as that
of father. Upper caste women marrying a lower caste men was condemned
Polygamy/Polyandry
1. Among the common people, monogamy was the rule from the rigvedic time but there
are instances of polygamy too, king's and ruling class were invariably polygamous. The
early legal literature didn't encourage polygamy, infact Apastamba Dharma Sutra
forbida a man from taking another wife if the first wife was of good character and had
sons. Narada states that a polygamist is unfit to testify in a court of law.
2. Arthashastra lays down various rules to discourage polygyny by stating that the man
must pay compensation to his first wife.
3. However by the Gupta period memebera of higher caste came to acquire more and more
land and polygyny became a norm, women came to be treated as property. The legal
texts of this period advised the husband to treat his wives alike.
4. Polyandry was also known but the legal texts do not mention the working of the
matrimonial arrangement, we have the famous case of Draupadi. In Kerala the Nayars
groups had a matrilineal family system, in this system the children of the union took
the mother's name and the inheritance passed through her lines. The husband had no
rights over his wife's properties.
5. Here are some references to practice of levirate or niyoga (widow can cohabit with
brother of her dead husband to get a son)
Divorce
1. According to the sacred literature marriage could not be dissolved once the 7 steps were
taken together. It was further stated that even if the marriage is unconsummated it would
not be annulled and divorce was impossible.
2. An errant wife could use many of her rights as a wife but her husband was still
responsible bare maintenance, if asked by the wife and she was not entitled to re marry.
3. The law books have different views on the adulterous wife. If the wife had willful
intercourse with the man of lower caste her punishment was harshest, Manu lays down
that she should be torn apart by dogs. But if adultery was committed with a man of
higher caste or same caste then she could perform penance. That is to wear dirty clothes,
sleep on the floor and fast after which she was restored to the position of wife.
4. The religious texts do not provide scope for divorce but Arthashastra mentions that it
was possible in cases of marriages not solemnised by religious ceremonies, divorce was
allowed by mutual consent on the ground of incompatibility. Divorce may also be given
the consent of the other party if there was an apprehension of actual physical danger
from his or her partner/spouse.
5. In religious marriages too that are performed according to religious rights, divorce was
allowed if a woman was deserted by her husband, after waiting for 12 years, this varied
according to circumstances and caste, if either party was infertile or sterile then divorce
may be granted and the waiting period was varied. Manu was unsympathetic to women

42
 while Narada and Parashar allowed women to marry again if husband was impotent or
the husband went missing, after 6 months women can think to remarry or the husband
has become an ascetic, by the Gupta or the post gupta period divorce divorce is not
mentioned and it becomes impossible for the upper caste women, in the lower caste it
continued as practice by custom.
Prostitution
1. In ancient India there were a class of women who were not bound by the rules and
regulations of marriage which limited the freedom of the wife, these women were
traditionally called Ganikas, Veshyas. The Ganikas were highly accomplished women
with expertise in different art forms, generally they were beautiful and talented,
accomplished, wealthy enjoying both fame and honour. According to Kamasutra which
is wrongly called a book of erotic and other similar texts like Natya Shastra, Ganikas
were educated and well trained in 64 art forms, these were -: music, dancing, singing,
acting, composing poetry, flower arrangement, garments making, preparation of
perfumes and cosmetics, cooking, dress making and embroidery, sorcery, Sleight of
hand, making riddles, tongue twisters and other puzzles, fencing with swords, Archery,
Gymnastics, carpentry, architecture, logic, chemistry and mineralogy, gardening, cock-
fighting, partridge, rams, teaching parrots and mynahs to speak, writing in cipher,
making artificial flowers and clay modelling, knowing many languages,
2. According to Kamasutra a Courtesan with pleasant disposition, beautiful and who had
mastered all the 64 art forms was worthy of owner and respect by the king and the
society. Amrapali is an example of an accomplished Courtesan, on his last journey
Buddha accepted her invitation for dining, refusing the invitation of the elder of
vaishali. Later she became a Buddhist nun composing a poem in pali.
3. In South India, Ganikas played a prominent political role for instance the Chalukyan
king vijayaditya was under the influence of the courtesan Vinapotigal, large donations
were made to the temples where devadasis or courtesans resided, Devadasis were
usually attached to the temples and they were provided with houses and other properties
in the early days of Devadasi system there was no moral degradation or exploitation of
Devadasis.
4. Under the mauryans there was institutionalisation of courtesan culture, in following
ways
A. She was protected and supervised by the state
B. Arthashastra suggests appointment of a superintendent of prostitutes responsible for the
care and supervision inspection of their residence and collection of two days earning
from each courtesan each month as tax to the gov.
C. Teachers and trainers of courtesans were supported by the state with the salary of 1000
panas per annum.
D. The Ganikas or courtesans played an important role in the Mauryan state craft i.e. they
were enlisted in the secret service and the state officials kept a watch on them.
Megasthenes mentions that the spies did most of their work with the help of the
courtesans.
E. In the post Mauryan and the post Mauryan period it was possible for the courtesans to
marry according to religious rights, Mrichchakatika by Kshudraka a little clay cant.

43
 Mentions the marriage of Vasaantsena to Charudutta. However till the Gupta period the
position of the courtesan was reduced to a concubine or mistress.
F. There seems to be existence of temple prostitution, though it is not mentioned in the
earliest ancient indian records. Some historians feel that Mohenjodaro dancing girl in
the Harappan period was part of devadasi culture. The first documentary evidence
available on Devadasis is the 2 century BCE where it is mentioned in a cave at Ramgarh
in the Vindhyas, in this inscription a painter devadinna dedicates his work to the
devadasi Sutanuka. In south India there are many inscriptions and charters of land
donations to the temples associated with devadasi for example, a military general of the
Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VI by the name of Mahadev constructed a temple in the
memory of his mother and he ensured that the most beautiful devadasi lived in the
temples.
In conclusion: there are different opinions on the devadasis available to us in ancient India,
one point of view is of secular literature and the other is of religious texts.
Religious Texts:
Especially the smriti literature disapproved of prostitution, they warned about the evils of
prostitution. Manu associates them with harlots, gamblers, thieves and blackmailers. Manu
further instructs that Brahmans should never associate with prostitutes and if they do so then
they have to perform penance. According to Gautamsmriti there is no sin of killing a prostitute
and hence no punishment was prescribed for murdering a prostitute.
Secular Literature:
Like Arthashastra and Kamasutra are more liberal in their views and it seems that despite
disapproval by the religious literature prostitution prevailed and flourished in ancient India.

SATI AND WIDOW

1. There is very little evidence that in the Rigvedic times about the position of widows,
probably the position of widow was a little better one of the Rigvedic hymns suggests
that a widow was asked to get down from the funeral pyre of her husband, if sati was
practised it was probably confined to the ruling class not to everybody, Rigveda
mentions that a childless widow could get a son by levirate or niyog but only with her
brother in-law. Even in the later vedic text too there are references to widow remarriage
and upholding the rights of a widow in her husband's property, these references indicate
that sati was not prevalent in vedic period.
2. Buddhist and the Mauryan Period: in both the periods the practise of sati was not
prevalent as there are no references in the Buddhist literature or Arthashastra, even
dharmashastras and dharmasutras do not mention sati.
3. In Mahabharata there are references to Sati for example, four wives of vasudeva
performed sati and five wives of krishna performed sati. Krishna's favourite wife
Satyabhama did not commit sati and she preferred to go to forest, Pandu's wife Madri
committed sati, Kunti did not.
4. In the Gupta period the position of women declined radically and women became
property of men and they were expected to follow their husbands to the next world, the

44
 first example of widow immolation is found under 510 CE, Iran Inscriptions under the
Guptas but even then it was not a general rule for example in many royal families
women did not commit sati prabhavati gupta who was married into the vakataka
dynasty did not commit sati. Banabhatta under Harsh also condemned sati.
5. However the post gupta law book allowed a women to remarry if her husband was dead,
destroyed, impotent, or have become an ascetic or excommunicated but the later smritis
considered remarriage as lower in status, they refer to a remarried women as punarbu
that is a seeker of pleasure, and her status was equal to that of a mistress she could
participate in all social functions with her husband but she could not attend rites.
6. According to Smritis widows were allowed to remarry in two conditions first if a
woman was kidnapped and forced to remarry and second if a husband dies without
consummating the marriage. There was importance given to chastity in this period,
however by 1000 CE the widow remarriage disappeared completely and even child
widows were prohibited from remarriage.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

Common stratification was seen in varna system
VARNA ASHRAM
1. The common term used in the vedic text is Varnashramadharma i.e. a general norm of
conduct which all must follow equally and there is a dharma appropriate to each varna
and to each stage in the life of an individual. There was a recognition in ancient India
that the society was not the same, there was social stratification or hierarchy of social
levels with separate duties and separate ways of life.
2. When the Aryans first came to india they came to three social classes, the warriors or
the aristocracy or the Rajanya, the priests and the common people. In the Rigvedic age
professions were not hereditary nor there were any rules limiting marriages or the
taboos on eating.
3. The first step towards caste was taken when the Aryans treated the Dasas as beyond the
social pale, outside the aryan society. There was fear of assimilation with the dasas.
4. In the religious texts which is found in 10th mandala of rigveda there is a hymn of
creation called Purusukta which talks about the origin of caste system which mentions
Brahmans emerged from the mouth or head of Brahma, Kshtriya from arma, Vaishyas
from Thighs and Shudras from feet. Theoretically, all Aryans belonged to one of the
four varnas and the exceptions were children ascetics and widows were outside the
varna system, there was a sharp distinction between the first three varnas and shudras.
The Dvija: at the time of the natural birth and second birth when they were initiated
into the varna system by the performance of the sacred thread ceremony upanayana
after this they become part of aryan society. Shudras were degraded and were not
integrated into the Aryan society.
5. The four fold social division gradually became final in ancient India and according to
manu the duties of the four varna were as follows, Brahmans to study and teach, to
offer sacrifices, give and receive gifts, second Kshatriyas protect the people offer
sacrifices and study, Vaishyas sacrifice and study but the main duty is to breed cattle,

45
 lend money, pursue trade and big landholders (Gahapatis), Shudras, their main duty is
to serve the first three varnas.
Brahmans
1. Brahmans were considered divine in human form, second - great privileges were given
to Brahmans such as social precedence, honour and worship. Third- according to
Buddhist sources there were two types of Brahmans, learned Brahmans and Village
Brahmans. The village Brahmans were more into fortune telling and magic.
2. The learned Brahmans were of various types, such as the earliest rishis who composed
the vedic hymns, in the later vedic times specialist priests performing specific tasks,
during the large scale sacrifice, these priests were called Ritvik. They also had
individual roles- The Hotri priest was the invoker, he recited the vedic hymns, Udgatri
priest recited the samveda, Adhvaryu performed the manual operations of the sacrifice
of the ceremony, Brahmana means the one possessed of Brahman i.e. a mysterious
magical force and he supervised the entire vedic ceremony, later the term came to be
used for the entire priestly class, Yajurveda uttered the prose formula.
3. In the later vedic period, Brahmans were divided into exogamous gotras, there was a
further division or shakha or branch which was based on the recension of the vedic text
which was accepted as authoritative by the concerned family of brahmans.
4. Brahmans were usually under the patronage of a king or chief, later they were given tax
free land grants and many of them became land owning brahmans, religious or learned
brahamns held high post at the court and the Purohit was one the most important state
functionary, Brahmans were also teacher of vedas and other branches of learning.
5. The smriti literature devotes a separate section on the duties when in distress, apad-
dharma, in times of calamities or disasters brahmans could perform duties or take up
livelihood beyond their immediate vocation of teaching and learning, these activities
included - taking up of government jobs and even becoming kings/Rulers. Brahmans
were forbidden to trade in certain commodities like cattles and other animals, slaves,
weapons, liquor, alcohol and lending money on interest, with regard to the last
occupation, Manu allowed Brahmans to lend money on low interest to "wicked" people,
probably those who did not follow aryan rites. Agriculture was looked down upon for
the brahmans.
6. There were special privileges for only those brahmans who lived by sacrifice and
teaching.
7. In the Sanskrit literature, at times brahmans were butt of satire ridicule, this character
was Vidushaka who was a comical brahman, by the time of Buddha the claims of
brahmans to a superior position was challenged by the Kshatriyas,
Kshatriyas
1. The Rajanjya was vedic period later became the kshatriyas
2. Their primary duty was protection of people and land, fighting in war and governance
in peace.
3. In Pali texts Kshatriyas claim precedence over brahmans and they are mentioned pads,
it is mentioned that a strong king, checked the powers of a Brahman, in the pre
Buddhists period there was Fierce fight between the Brahmans and Kshatriyas, but after

46
 the Mauryan period brahmans theoretical position was established but kshatriyas were
considered equal.
4. Kshatriyas were recruited from all races, According to Manu, the Greeks or the
Yavanas, Scyths or Sakas and Parthians, Pahalvas were included in the category of
Kshatriyas but once they stopped performing their duties, according to their Aryan way
of lives, they were considered to be fallen kshatriyas, it was possible for them to regain
their position if they followed their sacres law and adopted the Aryan way of life by
performing vedic sacrifices and other rituals, the rajputs acquired their status by
performing such ceremonies.
5. Certain privileges by custom were given legal status to the kshatriyas, for example
Marriage by capture was permitted to the kshatriyas and also Gandharva vivah and
swayamvara were permitted to kshatriyas. Due to the time of crisis, Apad dharma the
kshatriyas could take up the profession of merchants and craftsmen.
vaishyas
1. In vedic times the Vaishyas though entitled to priesthood and sacred thread ceremony
but socially they were behind the first two varnas in status. Second to Aitereya
Brahmana the Vaishyas duty was to pay tribute to another, to be lived by another, and
to be oppressed by the will. Their condition was at times Wretched and oppressed.
2. According to Manu the special duty of Vaishyas was to keep cattles particularly in
Rigvedic age. But Vaishyas were also engaged in other forms of activities such as
experts in gems, traded in metal, cloth, thread, spices, perfumes, all kinds of mercantile
which can be sold. Unlike the Brahmanical text in Buddhism and Jainism texts
Vaishyas were provided a few benefits, such as the wealthy merchants were given
social recognition and they organised as a powerful guild (shrenis), similar a merchant
selling perfume would have a perfume selling guild.
3. In the Buddhism and Jain text there is a mention of ashitikotivibhava, a man possessing
8 million panas.
4. Wealthy Vaishyas were respected by the king with favour and bestowing confidence in
them.
5. In the Shunga period Vaishyas made great donations to religious causes, especially
Buddhism and the Vaishyas were seen as prosperous and influential.
Shudras
1. According to Smriti texts were servants of another to be exploited at will, to be expelled
at will and slain at will.
2. There was no initiation ceremony for shudras and hence they were not fully integrated
into the Aryan society, they were generally considered non-aryans and they were more
like second rate citizens on the fringes of the aryan society.
3. Illegitimate children even though of high caste were placed in the category of shudras.
4. Within the Shudras there were two kinds, according to customs and professions, the
first kind was called pure anirvasita shudras i.e. those who are not excluded from aryan
society. And the second kind were Nirvasita those who were excluded from the aryan
society, according to the Brahmanical law books, the duty of the pure shudras was to
wait on others and they should not earn wealth from the distressed brahmans.

47
 5. For the shudras there were few rights and there was little value for his life, according
to the legal text of a time. There was either no punishment prescribed for killing a
shudra or it is mentioned that a brahman killing a shudra could perform penance, as was
done for killing a cat or dog.
6. The shudras despite miserable conditions mentioned in the text were not always
humble, in the Mauryan Period there is a reference to shudras in commerce and
manufacturing and also the shudras as free peasants and similarly many of the peasants
groups belonged to the shudras.
7. Shudras were not allowed to repeat or hear vedas but they could hear epics and puranas
and they were included in the devotional religion that came from the time of post
Mauryas.
8. In the Bhagavad Gita, lord Krishna gives full salvation to the shudras who turned to
him, theoretically Buddhism and Jainism also made no distinctions in religious affairs.
VARNA AND JATI
1. Varna is a fourfold division of the vedic society, this is a broad division of the vedic
society, jati literally means the birth and it is a vast network of sub castes, which came
to have more relevance than varnas, because the functioning of the society was
depended on jati relationships and mutual adjustments, Jatis were hereditary based on
specialisation of work and economic interdependence. Manu mentions four varnas and
fifty jatis.
2. The four varnas remain stable but Jatis rise and fall at times they go down in the social
ladder and also there are instances of old jatis dieing and new jatis appearing. The
Brahman gotras are not caste as gotras are exogamous i.e. they marry outside the clan,
community and tribe. And the members of the same gotras are found in many castes.
3. In the vedic age, one can find traces of jatis in a no. of trades and professions that
emerged in that period, for example the silk weavers of Mandasor were one distinct jati
which emerged slowly, as they maintained a strong cooperative identity.
4. As jati slowly became hereditary with a close connection between occupation and jati,
this increased the rigidity in the caste system as the mobility of the jatis was restricted,
it became an obstruction for an individual to move up in the hierarchy of caste.
5. Vertical was possible to a Jati as a whole, and it depended upon the entire Jati acting as
one and changing its location and occupation for example a group of silk weavers
migrated to Lata to Mandasor and there in the location they take up the new occupation
of soldiery and astrology in an attempt to improve their social status.
6. Many Jatis were produced by -:
a. inter-varna marriages eg. The Mahishya jati has emerged from the union of
vaishyas and kshatriyas.
b. Many jatis were created from degradation from the original varnas on account
of non-observance of the sacred rites, these are called degraded jatis or vratyas.
e.g. of the Vratyas brahmans are Bhrijjakantaka, Avantya and Vatadhana. Many
of the post mauryan ruling groups Yavanas, shakas who were considered
kshatriyas were degraded to a lower social status due to non-performance of
their duties
c. At times an entire tribe will enroll itself in the brahmanical order and these were
Rajabanshis of North Bengal, Bhauinij of West Bengal and the Gonds of central

48
 India. Some of the occupational groups also became distinct jatis, for eg.
Sadgopas which is basically the category of milk men.
d. Also evolved out of religious sects- Lingayats and Sikhs
e. By migration of a small group to another place, eg. Gour Brahmins
f. By changes in customs for eg. The Ayodhya Kurmis of Bihar and the Kannaujia
kurmis prohibited widow remarriage in order to improve their social status.
7. According to Suvira Jaiswal varna and jati are part of the same social system in which
the term jati applies to all levels of the caste system which begins with varna.
8. D.D. Kosambi observed that with the decline of tribal egalitarianism differentiation
within the tribe led to the expansion of a class society with proliferation of occupations
and other activities Indian society developed a very complex social structure, coming
out of partly tribal affiliations and professional associations, which was continuously
developed by the introduction of new groups in the society and the development of new
crafts.
9. Megasthenes mentions seven endogamous and craft exclusive groups, these seven
endogamous groups are philosophers, peasants, craftsmen and traders, herdsmen,
government officials, soldiers, councillors. This is the misunderstanding in the society
in Mauryan times but it shows by this period the caste barriers were hardening and
becoming distinct.
10. In the Gupta period there is a recognition of Anulom marriages and rules of craft
exclusiveness was also ignored/circumvented during the period of crisis. In the post of
Harsha period 7th CE the rigidities were strict, exogamy was strictly followed and
commensality was impossible for the upper caste, the food to be received and eaten in
presence of the members of same or higher groups. These customs along with widow
remarriage were termed as Kalivarjya i.e. customs once permitted in the past were
prohibited in the age of kali or kalyuga as people in kalyug by character were not moral
or righteous.
11. Towards the end of ancient period there is an increase in the no of jatis or subdivisions
for instance brahmans were subdivided into many endogamous groups based on locality
and race with many local practises, Rajputs were divided into clans with various jatis
or sub caste and the no of jatis increased greatly in the Vaishyas,shudras and
untouchables.
12. Caste were governed by local committees of elders usually hereditary with the powers
to expel members, regulate caste rules and from the time of maurya, their decision was
given authority of law, due to this loss of caste was considered a catastrophe as being
the member of a caste offered social security.
13. In south India the social divisions were a little different, the social distinctions of
kshatriyas and vaishyas are very rare, the primary divisions were of brahmans and
shudras or untouchables. Shudras were divided into right and left groups, the right
group included trading class, musicians, potters, barbers, cultivators and labourers. The
left group included barbers, cultivators, craftsmen, weavers, leather workers and cow
herds.
14. The institution of caste existing independently of the political system and with the
instrument of social ostracism was a powerful factor in the survival of Brahmanical
order and caste system.

49
GOTRA AND PRAVARA
1. The institution of Gotra appeared for the first time in the later vedic age
2. Gotra means cow pen, a place where cattle belonging to the entire tribe or clan was
kept, later it came to signify descent from a common ancestor. Gradually, Gotra
exogamy came to be practised or became the norm, under the gotra rules no marriage
was possible between the persons of the same gotra or having the same lineage.
3. The religious texts mention seven or eight gotras which were as follows - Kashyap
Vashishta, Bhrigu, Bhardwaj, Gautama, Atri, Vishwamitra and Agastya.
4. In the institution of Gotra fundamental importance was given to brahman as an
indication of social and ritual identity.
5. Gotra was essentially a brahmanic institution, later it spread to other twice born varnas.
6. Gotra is important in marriage and property. Members of the same gotra are not
permitted to marry but with regard to property they claimed rights by virtues of being
related to each other specially in the absence of an heir
7. Pravara literally means remote ancestors of the rishis family belonging to the same
gotra, in ancient times the Brahmans in their daily worship began by mentioning the
names of their ancestors who belonged to their family.
8. Pravara (list of ancestors) was important for marriage alliances if a particular brahman
family enters into Marriage negotiations with another family they would ensure that
they did not have common ancestors which should be at least two, if there were two or
more common ancestors between the two families, then the Marriage would not take
place. Some books say Marriage was impossible where there was one common pravara
name, other law books say when two pravara names are there the marriage is not
possible. Between the 7-9 century CE, the rules became more rigid.
9. In the other varnas, there were gotras which were not from the family of rishis but from
the family of brahmans who performed their domestic rituals, this is an acquired gotra.
10. The real gotras of kshatriyas and vaishyas were secular or laukika which was founded
by their legendary ancestors. They are not mentioned in the religious literature, but
inscriptions have been found which show that they were used in the sense of sept or
clans.
11. Any breaking of the rule of the Gotra resulted in serious punishments. A man marrying
the woman of the same gotra must perform chandrayana penance which involved a
severe fast of a month's duration and after the completion of the fast, the husband would
maintain his wife as his sister but no stigma would be attached to the child of such
marriage.
12. The gotra system was important to incorporate new brahmans into the varna and also
to Maintain distinction between old and new brahmans.
UNTOUCHABLES / PANCHAMAS
1. Untouchables were outside the varna ashram and in dharmasutras and Buddhists
literature they served the aryan society in very Minimal and dirty tasks at times they
were called Panchamas or the fifth varna.
2. The institution of untouchability assumed definite shape in the early centuries of the
common era. It seems chandalas mentions since the early times were probably a non
aryan aboriginal tribe which came to be subjugated by the aryans. Another early tribe

50
 to be mentioned is Nishada. They were non-aryans living in their own villages and
practicing their customs and rules. They were numerically small in no.
3. From around 3 CE, the practice of untouchability intensified and the number of
untouchables increased. Katyayana a writer of Dharmasutra in the Gupta period is the
first one to use the term asprashya i.e. untouchable or cannot be touched.
4. In the Gupta and the post Gupta period many new castes came to be included under the
untouchables. These are Kaivarta fishing caste, Karavara leather workers, Pukkusa
sweeper he later became untouchable due to making and selling of liquor.
5. Kalidas, Varahamihira, Fa-Hsien and Banabhatta had given vivid accounts of the
disabilities imposed upon the untouchables, it is mentioned that the chandals were not
allowed to live in aryan towns and villages. They lived in broken houses outside the
city boundary, the main task of carrying and cremating corpses and execution of
criminals was done by chandalas. According to the law books chandalas were
prohibited from wearing new clothes and they could only wear the garments of the
cremated corpses, eat food from broken vessels and wear only iron ornaments. By the
Gupta period the chandalas had to clap wodden clapper while entering the town to warn
of their polluting approach to the aryans.
6. During the Gupta and post Gupta period, several groups of artisans and craftsmen lost
their social status and came to he regarded as untouchables, these were Svarnakara
goldsmith, malakar garland maker, chitrakara painter , napita barber, rathakara chariot
makers. vena basket makers etc.
7. Within the untouchables too a caste hierarchy developed, for instance a caste of
Antyavasayin which was created out of union between the chandalas and Nishas was
despised by the chandalas.
8. The only hope for redemption was to die saving Brahmans or a cow or a woman and
children, Buddhists allowed preaching and instructions to the untouchables, foreigners
called Mlecchas could improve their social status by adopting orthodox practices and
following the rules of smriti.
FAMILY
1. The ancient family was usually a joint family, i.e. it included parents, children,
grandchildrens, uncle, aunts, male descendents and collaterals on the male side. It could
also include adopted children and depending on the social status servants, slaves and
clients. A Brahman family in edition will include a no. Of students as members of
family. Polygamy increased the family no.
2. Family was the basic unit of the social system in ancient india.
3. Family was bound together by Shradha rites to commemorate the ancestors, dead in
which the balls of rice called pinda were offered to the ancestors. In the ceremony, the
son, grandsons and great grandson of the deceased participated. The living and the dead
were linked together in this rite.
4. In the ancient Indian social system collective identity was more important than the
individual one.
5. Father was usually the head of the family known as grihapati, the law book instructs
that a father must be kind and good but he had absolute control over his children, the
religious and legal text upheld implicit and unquestioned obedience to the father as the
highest ideal and the best example is Bhishma. At the same time a deep bond of love

51
 between father and son was also important. Eg. Dashrath and Rama, in general a great
regard for elders, was underlined. Kautilya considered the killing of the son as one of
the most heinous crimes.
6. The law of partition permitted the partition of the large joint family after three
generations, usually partition took place after the death of the head of the family. After
which the property could be divided among the sons, there is no reference for any
preference to the eldest male child but a small consideration upto 120th of the share
was permitted. Occasionally partitions could take place during fathers life lifetime.
7. Individual possession of family members was not included in joint property, but the
property of wife, son or slave according to Manu belonged to the head of the family but
it was constantly challenged and not accepted.

How Gupta was different from Mauryan

1. In the Gupta administration we found despotic administration, and it's not totalitarian
and not absolute control and they were divided among members unlike Mauryan.
2. Gupta took high sounding titles however mauryan didn't.
3. Samudragupta gave homage, they gave the defeated rajas internal autonomy.
4. In Guptas administration, No clear distinction between civil and military system,
taxation system not elaborate and not extensive spy system but local and provincial
administration system was elaborate unlike Mauryan.

Mauryan Guptas

1 Centralised Decentralised

2 Kings power absolute Kings powers checked by smritis,

Brahmins and the guilds

3 No independent political units Independent or autonomous political

units under the feudatories ( rajas,
nripa, parthiva, Nripa pati)

4 No feudalism Beginning of feudalism in the form of

tributes, daughters in marriage and
attending court

5 Salaries paid in cash Beginning of land grants

52
6 Elaborate bureaucracy and large Less elaborate bureaucracy and army
standing army

7 Well developed spies network Doesn't have a well developed spies

network

8 Donations to the different religious Special Agrahara grants to the

sects Brahmins with fiscal and magisterial
powers

9 Lesser village functionaries Well developed village administration

and many village functionaries

10 Officers at the all level appointed by the hereditary officers and the king
king merely sent representatives

11 Strict division between civil and No clear division between army and
military positions with one person civil officers with one person holding
having one post several posts.

12 No high sounding titles and no direct High sounding titles with exaggerated
claim to divinity claims to divinity

13 There are two new officers, Kumara Matyas

Mahamatyas

GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

1. The founder of the Guptadynasty was Chandragupta the first. He was succeeded by
his son, Samudragupta, and after him for a brief period by Ramagupta, and then
Chandragupta II. He was successful by Skandagupta under whom the Huns first came
to India creating disturbances
2. The Gupta kings adopted High sounding titles such as Maharajah Rajadhiraj,
Paramount rajadhiraj, Parama Bhattaraka, etc. Along with the titles, the kings
appropriated exaggerated claims of divinity, very unlike the Mauryans. They claimed
attributes of God's like kubera, yuma, Varuna and Indra.

53
 3. The reasons for taking high sounding titles was due to the nature of the Gupta polity
which was different from that of Mauryans. King was not an absolute authority under
guptas unlike the Mauryas. He was not a lawmaker but an administrator of law. The
king observed the rules of Smriti, the guidance of Brahmins and did not interfere in
the merchant and craft guilds which had a legal status under guptas.
4. The Gupta policy of expanding the empire has been explained in the Allahabad
Prashasti by Harisena in honour of samudragupta conquest. According to Allahabad
pillar inscription, samudragupta was a digvijay (world conqueror) who followed the
policy of grahan (capturing) and then he would liberate the kingdom (moksh) after
granting favours (Anugraha). This policy indicates that there were many smaller rajas
and chiefs under the Gupta kings and it indicates a decentralised nature of Gupta
polity. The Gupta left a number of conquered states in a position of subordinate
independence. The Gupta only exercised direct control in the heart of the empire that
is north Bengal, Vihar and Uttar Pradesh.
5. The decentralised nature of the empire is evident from the fact that the rest of the
empire was held by feudatories (Parivrajaka, Ucchakalpa) who were princesses of
smaller kingdoms. They had the obligations to offer homage, pay tributes and present
daughters in marriage to the king. In fact the troops provided by the feudatories
accounted for a substantial portion of Gupta army.
6. The decentralised nature was due to the following reasons:
a. Grants of lands to the Brahmins in new areas in central India and Deccan
b. Existence of numerous dynasties throughout the country with petty ruling
houses which made it necessary for the Gupta ruler to evolve a mechanism for
relationship with them.
7. The Gupta administration and bureaucracy was less organised and elaborate. Several
offices were combined in one person and some of the ministerial posts became
hereditary. Again, this reduced the direct royal control over appointments of the
officials and also over the administrative machinery. For instance the PM called
mantri mukhya and Mantri parishad became hereditary as mentioned in Kamandaka's
Nitisara. There was no clear cut distinction maintained between civil and military
officers and one person can be given two or three offices. For instance, Harisena was
a sandhivigrahika and maha dandanayaka.

Important administrative officers: Kumaramatya (Mahamatya of the Mauryas)

54
 1. He was a link between central and provincial
2. He was a high functionary under the Gupta. Above him was a yuvaraja who was the
prince, and was directly under the king.

Army

1. The army was not very large as a substantial number of troops were provided by the
feudatories. The rulers did not enjoy the monopoly of horses and elephants.
2. The commander in chief of the army was called Mahabaladhikrita. The superintendent
of the army with the duties of supervision and control was called mahabali adhyaksha.
An ordinary army officer was called baladhikarana.
3. There were different divisions of the army with their own head. The elephant corps
was headed by Mahapilupati. The horse cavalry was under the command of
Mahashvapati.
4. The war finances were under the control of mahabhnadaraka. The chief of the palace
guard was called Mahapratihara. The general of the army was called Maha
Dandanayaka. Sandhivigrahika is a new post to emerge under the guptas for
cementing the relations between the Gupta kings and the petty Rajas. Along with this
post, another officer called Ayukta was entrusted with the task of restoring the wealth
of the defeated rajas conquered by the Gupta ruler. Sometimes, Ayukta was placed in
charge of districts or towns.
5. There was no elaborate taxation system under the Guptas. Land was the major source
of revenue (Bhaga). They took 1/6th to 1/3rd of the produce as revenue. There was a
separate revenue on the crown land called bhaga bhoga. Merchants, artisans were
also taxed.
6. They had a well developed local administration. It was systematic with proper
collection of revenue and maintenance of law and order.

Central administration: Provincial->Buktis->vishaya->Vithis->Villages

PROVINCIAL

1. buktis desh, rashtra

2. Governed by Pradeshikas, Uparikas (princess of royal family) Examples of important
provinces Nagrabhukti, Therabhukti, Pundravardhana Bhukti

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3. Divided into districts called vishayas, ruled by kumar amatya, ayuktas or Vishayapati
who are nominated by the provincial governor. Some of the impression districts were
Tripuri, Chata, Gaya and lata.
4. In the district administration, there were separate divisions for various departments
called vishay adikarana. There was a separate officer for tolls and customs called
Shaulika. The land grants were supervised by a district level officer called agarharika.
There was a separated officer for forest and wood called Gaulmika. The other officers
were district treasurer and tax collectors.
5. Vithis was an intermediate administrative unit, the administration of which was run
by a committee of local board. It primarily consisted of four members namely
Nagarsheshrethin (chief banker), sarthavaha (caravan chief), Pratham Kulika (chief
artisan), Pratham Kayastha (chief of superintendent and clerical staff).
6. A similar kind of a board existed in city parishads. Their primary function was
improvement of vivid amenities and the overall charge of the Vithis was under
Purapala Uparika who was a representative of the central government. In the cities,
under the guptas, as the internal trade flourished, a prominent role was played by
guilds and commercial interests. They frame their own rules and they are independent
of the government. Unlike the mauryas in which the central govt appointed them
7. Very similar to Vithis were the military settlements called Gulams which came into
the province under the guptas. These could be seen as small autonomous units,
primarily for the purpose of the army.
8. Villages or grams: there were various categories of villages called gram or palli or a
hamlet or a theraka. A traditional village was usually headed by a gramika and was
hereditary. There are other officers mentioned in the Gupta records such as watchmen
called talavatkas, village accountants called akshapatalika, officer to maintain village
boundaries called sima karmakar, keeper of records called karanika and an officer to
collect market dues called pattika. Several hamlets were under the rural board or the
kutumbs or gram adhyaksha. It is usually headed by a Mahattara and includes the
house holder or the kutumbins. It is similar to the city boards.
9. In conclusion, an important feature was association of popular representatives at the
level of district towns and villages administration.

56
UNIT 3

MEDIAEVAL INDIAN HISTORY

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION/POLITY
850 to 1200 CE
1. The founder of the chola dynasty is supposed to be Vijayalaya, feudtary of pallavas.
Around 850 Vijayalaya chola captured tanjore from its ally Pandayas. However it is
Adityachola who overthrew the pallavas. After Aditya the next important ruler was
Parantaka who was attacked by Rashtrakuta towards the end of his rule. He was
succeeded by Parantaka II who was able to regain the territories lost to the Rashtrakutas.
2. Rajarajan I came to the throne of the cholas in 985 CE to 1014, the cholas greatness is
associated with the Rajaraja I, he defeated pandayas, Cheras, Ceylonese, capturing the
Anuradhapur , he attacked the Gagas annexing mysore, also annexed Maldives, a great
temple builder and the famous Rajrajeshwar temple at tanjore was built by him,
Sailendra of SriVijaya dynasty built a Buddhist vihara in Negapatnam,
he(Rajrajeshwara) was succeeded by his son Rajendra I 1014 to 1044. He is famous for
his campaign to the ganga valley after which he took the title of
Gangaikondacholapuram, he also undertook a naval expedition to SriVijaya as there
was obstruction of chola trade to china he sent two embassies to china. One of the later
chola ruler was Kulottonga I 1070 to 1118, he United the Vengi kingdom with the chola
empire, the later cholas are among the greater cholas
3. The most striking feature of the chola polity was the autonomous working of village
and town administration.
4. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION OF CHOLAS
a. King was at the apex head of administration
b. He took advice from ministers on matters of state administration.
c. An important feature of chola polity was worship of deceased ruler and
construction of temple as tribute to the dead ruler
5. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

57
a. The chola empire was divided into principalities under the vassal chiefs and
manadalam, the mandalam were under the viceroy- a prince or kumar.
b. There was a further division below the provinces which was as follows - valanadus,
below them are Nadus or districts then Kurrams - villages, towns were known as Tan-
kurram, the administration in towns and villages was similar.
6. VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION
a. A distinct feature of the chola polity is the existence of prominent village
administrations which remained stable despite political wars and disturbances. It seems
from the records that there was a degree of autonomy given to the chola village
administration. Royal officials were present in the village administration simply as
advisors and observers and not as administrators.
b. There were three types of villages under the cholas, the first one were normal villages
called kurrams and they had a mixed population, as in the inter caste population, they
paid taxes to the king in the form of land revenues. The second type of villages are
Brahmadeya/Agrahara they were given to the Brahmans and were totally inhabited by
them, they were exempted from taxes. Third type of villages is Devadana given to god
and the revenue was received by the temple not the cholas state, under the pallavas the
first two types of villages are prominent but under the cholas Devadana villages are
important.
c. A distinctive of chola village system was the functioning of the village assemblies by
the villages themselves, a village in general had one general assembly but a larger
village may have two assemblies, a village was divided into several wards and each
ward had an association of members belonging to different professions and
occupations, there were three types of village assemblies. They are called Ur, Sabha,
Nagaram. Ur consisted of tax paying residents of an ordinary village, sabha was
exclusive to Brahmadeya villages and the membership was restricted to brahmans only,
the third assembly Nagaram was found in trade centres such as cities and towns.
d. Constitution of village assemblies
❖ Ur was open to tax paying male adults of the village in the running of the village
assembly the older members played a prominent role forming a small executive.
❖ At a place called Uttaramerur an inscription of 10th CE of king Parantaka I has
been found which describes the working of the village assembly in the
Brahmadeya villages. A no. Inscriptions have been found throwing light on the
local politics of that period.
❖ According to Uttaramerur inscriptions the village was divided into 30 wards or
sections, each ward had a representative on the mahasabha chosen annually by
a draw of lots, the mahasabha was divided into 5 sub committees, the first three
sub committees were responsible for supervising gardens and orchard, tank
irrigation and the settlements of disputes. It is not clear from the inscriptions
what the functions of the last two committees were.
❖ Members were unpaid and they could be removed from the office for
misconduct like corruption, lunacy, riding on ass, forgery.
❖ The members of Council could only be those who had property, a house and a
small plot of land. Which is 3/4th veli about an acre and half.

58
 ❖ Membership was confined only to men within the ages of 35-70, those who had
served for a year on the council were eligible for reappointment for next 3 year.
❖ The meeting place of the assemblies was usually the precincts of the temple.
❖ Educational qualification. Must have proficiency in one veda or commentary on
it.
❖ Elections were conducted by the presiding officer called madhyastha mediated
by a chola king.
❖ Voting was done by secret ballots and votes were put in a sealed box called
Kudovalai. A child picked up the names.
❖ For 30 wards 30 members were elected, 12 formed an outer committee which
was known as Samvat Saravariyam, 12 members constituted the garden
committee Tottavariyam, 6 members constituted the tank committee
erivariyam.
❖ Each ward further appointed 30 officers for various other activities, for instance
there were two sub committees. The first sub committee supervised gold called
Ponvariyam, it included 6 members. The second sub committee was for the
purposes of judiciary and general elections, it was called Panchavara-variyam,
it also included 6 members.
❖ Functions of Assemblies
a. Assessment of land revenues
b. Imposing additional tax for constructing water tanks.
c. Arbitration in disputes such as conflicts over land tenures and irrigation rights
d. Maintenance of land records and taxes
e. Assessment of individual land revenues and negotiations with the village and also
negotiations collectively with the king's representatives
f. Virtual ownership of village wasteland with the right of sale was with the village
assemblies.
g. The village assemblies were active in irrigation and road building and other public
work.
h. Large assemblies kept a small staff of paid officials but in the smaller village assemblie
the work was done voluntarily

POLITY, STATE AND ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE

1206-1526
1. Ilbari Turks- Qutbuddin aibak (founder of delhi sultanate)
2. Khiljis/Khaljis
3. Tughlaqs
4. Sayyids
5. Lodis
Theory Of Kingship Under Sultanate

59
1. Towards the end of 12th ce, a powerful and a highly centralised state was
developed/emerged which extended till Madurai it was called Delhi sultanate.
2. The Delhi sultanate was headed by the Sultan who in theory was an unlimited despot
(absolute dictator) bound by no law, subject to no control, and guided by his own will.
People had no rights, but only obligations and they lived to carry out his command.
3. In reality the position of sultan under the delhi sultanate varied from sultan to sultan, if
a sultan was strong he could control the Sultanate, if he was weak his nobility, his
military commanders, and ulema (muslim clergy) can overpower him and make him a
puppet.
4. Under Itutmish, the position of Sultan was not higher than an exalted nobel.
5. Balban realised the dangers of sharing powers with his nobility, as he has witnessed the
destruction of Itutmish's family, and therefore he decided to place the Sultan on a higher
level. Balban therefore profounded a theory of kingship seeking legitimacy both
spiritual(from Caliph of Baghdad) and temporal(he comes from a powerful Iranian
ruler).
6. Many Turkish sultans in india declared themselves as the lieutenant of the faithful i.e.
the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. And included the name of the caliph in Khutba.
This didn't mean that Caliph became the legal sovereign in India, he only had a moral
and nominal position. It was the sultan of delhi who needed the support of the caliph.
To strengthen their position among the nobels and the Ulemas. The sultan by showing
their allegiance were only proclaiming their association to the islamic world. The
Abbasid Caliphate also ascertained that the delhi sultans were divinely ordained
monarchs who were accountable only to god.
7. Basically Balban wanted to ensure that no noble will have the power to forcibly remove
a sultan by accusing him of the violation of sharia.
8. Balban developed the theory of kingship along the lines of Firdausi’s Shah Nama,
which actually provides the reasoning for the institution of kingship in Islam,
Traditional Islam doesn't believe in the concept of a sole sovereign or a single
sovereign, as in religion they propound the concept of brotherhood and equality. Shah
Nama on the other hand was important in giving the reason why the ruler was important,
according to Firdausi monarchs were instruments in execution of god's will and hence
their commands were inviolate. The god granted farr, Divine effulgence( a light shining
brightly behind gods (hallow) ) to the king and this provided the divine theory of
kingship in Islam.
9. Balban was the first sultan to propound the theory of kingship by declaring himself as
Niyabat-i-khudai i.e. representative of god on earth and zille-ilahi i.e. shadow of god
on earth. He endowed himself with farr by claiming descent from the legendary Iranian
Monarch Afrasiyab.
10. He also imitated the the Iranian customs of sijdah and paibos in courts, sijdah means
stretching out on ground in front of the sultan with one's forehead touching the ground
to acknowledge the power of sultan and paibos is kissing of Sultanas kiss the feet or
hem of his gown, he introduced to emphasise that the nobles were not his equal and he
maintained at his court both class and racial distinction.
11. Balban knew that in order to strengthen the position of sultan he must destroy the power
of the Turkish nobility Turkan-i-Chihalgani, this group of Turkish nobles had become
powerful under the weak successors of Iltutmish. Balban knew that he had to destroy

60
 these powerful Turkish nobles if his dynasty was to survive. Under Iltutmish the
Turkish nobles were equal partners in the expansion of the Sultanate and they came to
consider it as a collective enterprise. Many of them were loyal to Iltutmish and they did
not accept, the principle of hereditary succession as they were equal to the sultan they
wanted merit and capability to be the ground for succession in edition the Turkish
nobility had emerged as a well knit group conscious of safeguarding their rights and
privileges, they were actively involved in conspiracies, court intrigues and Cold-
blooded murders. For instance after Rajiya Sultan Bahram was the sultan but the real
power was with his noble Malik Aitgin, later Bahram khan was murdered by his noble
Nizam ul Mulk. Balban himself was a powerful Turkish noble who married his daughter
to Nasiruddin Mahmud, the grandson of Iltutmish. In the colorful language of Barani
he was a mere namoona in the hands of Balban. Finally in 1266 Balban poisoned him
and became the Sultan. Balban unlike Iltutmish crushed the power of nobility severely,
he did not consider them his equals and he ensured that a strict decorum was maintained
at the court, all nobility was expected to perform Sajdah and Paibos and Balban did not
tolerate cracking of jokes and humour in his court, all nobles were kept under the strict
watch of the sultan, they could not involve in matrimonial alliances with one another
without the permission of the crown. Any misuse of power by a noble was meted out
strict punishment. Many powerful nobles whom Balban considered a threat to his throne
were sent to the north-west Frontier to tackle the Mongols and removed from the centre.
12. To consolidate the institution of sultan he strictly maintained the principles of purity of
blood, he only appointed in his court nobles of pure Turkish origin and who were high
born. In other words he maintained strict distinctions in his court taking it forward to
an exaggerated extent. For instance he refused to meet a rich merchant from Arabia
because his origin was not high born.
13. Another measure that Balban undertook was to ensure the strict implementations of
justice, he did not make any distinction between the ordinary or the powerful in the
dispensation of justice. He even executed in public an old father of a governor for
misusing his position.
14. Another measure he took was to establish for the first time under the Sultanate the
military department called Diwan-i-Ariz as a separate department. He kept his army
alert and active by taking them on frequent hunting expeditions involving long marches
through dense forest to keep them war ready.
15. Balban followed the policy of checks and balances keeping all his nobles under
surveillance. He even got some of his nobles murdered, if he considered them to be
conspiring against him.
16. Balban instituted an inquiry into the Iqta assignments (land grants in lieu of salaries),
which were given under Iltutmish to the various officers of the state, the no. of grants
was around 20 thousands. Balban withdrew many of these land grants by insisting that
these assignments were given by the state in lieu of active service to the state, they were
not hereditary grants and the state could withdraw these grants if the officer was no
longer performing his duties. He appointed a Khwaja(accountant) to assess the actual
collection from the Iqtas.
17. Allauddin Khalji further increased the power of the Sultan by declaring himself to be
the khalifa or the caliph. His son Mubarak shah even issued the coins in his name as the
caliph.

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 18. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq in his initial year did not accept the sovereignty of the caliph
but when faced with rebellion he issued coins in the name of the caliph, who no longer
lived in Baghdad but had moved to Egypt. Mohammad bin Tughlaq took this step in
order to legitimise his position and his rule.
19. Similarly his cousin and successor firoz shah Tughlaq received the letter of investiture
from the Caliph. 20. Similarly, his cousin and successor Firoz Shah Tughlaq received
a letter of investiture from the caliph, with the title of ‘Sayiddus Salatin’ i.e., chief
among the sultans.
Nature of state under Delhi Sultanate
1. The Turkish state was militaristic and aristocratic, the Turkish nobility under the delhi
sultanate were military commanders who were partners with the sultans in the territorial
expansion of the sultanate, the Delhi Sultanate initially promoted the turkish nobility of
high birth to the important offices of the state denying any share in the political power
to the other non-turkish immigrants like Tajiks, Afghans and also the Indian muslims.
It was only under the tughlaqs that nobility acquired a broader base but the criteria for
selection to important positions still remained a noble birth.
2. The vast majority of hindus and muslims had little opportunity for occupying the high
offices of the state, muslims in towns had a better chance in enrolling armies and getting
state employments.
3. The Hindus dominated trade, and constituted the rural aristocracy, they also dominated
the lower administrative wing without whose cooperation the state machinery could not
work.
4. They was a tacit understanding of power between the rural hindu aristocracy and the
city based administrators under the delhi sultanate,
5. There were frequent tensions over the question of power which were given religious
color, but primarily these were the fights or disputes over the surplus produce of the
land or over different taxes. The Muslims among themselves over these issues of power
and land.
6. Officially the Delhi sultanate was theocratic or islamici.e. the sultans did not allow open
violation of islamic law or sharia and appointed muslims clergy(ulema) to the
profitable offices of the state and granted them revenue free lands but in practise the
sultans did not allow the muslim ulemas to dictate the policies of the state. During the
time of Iltutmish many of the muslim clergies approached the sultan asking him to
enforce the muslim laws strictly giving the hindus option of only islam or death, on the
behalf of the sultan his wazir replied that it was impractical and impolitic and muslims
are so little in no. like slat in a dish.
7. The sultans were not dependent only on the islamic laws but they supplemented sharia,
by framing their regulations called zawabits. Alauddin Khilji told the leading qazi of
delhi Mughisuddin, that he did not know what is lawful or unlawful but he framed laws
as per the need of the state. Ziauddin Barani therefore refused to consider the state in
india as truly islamic acc. to him it was based on Jahandari, worldly or secular
considerations
8. POSITION OF HINDUS IN ISLAMIC STATE AND IMPOSITION OF TAX
a. the hinus in the islamic state that the status of Zimmis (protected people) it
means they accepted the muslim rule and agreed to pay a tex called Jiziya for

62
 their exemption from military service. It’s application on the delhi sultanate was
on a graded scale i.e. on economic needs, women, children and indigent people
who had insufficient means of earning were exempted from paying the tex, the
brahmans mostly remained exempted except Firoz-shah-Tughlq, this exemption
was not provided in islamic law but the sultans followed their zawabit
b. Usually Jiziya was collected along with the land revenue, it was difficult to
distinguish between jiziya and land revenues since almost all cultivators were
hindus.
c. Firoz-shah-tughlaq abolished many illegal cesses but jiziya was made a separate
tax which was also levied only on brahmans. The Theologians incharge of
collecting the tax humiliated and harassed the non-muslims, Jiziya was not
instrument to convert to convert hindus to islams, in general medieval states
were not based on the notion of equality but on the notion of privileges, as was
done just like the brahmans and kshatriyas of the past. Under Delhi Sultanates
Turks, Iranians. Afghans and a narrow group of Indian Muslims and
Theologians will become the privileged groups, for a large no. of Hindus they
continued with their everyday life which remained unaffected.
Religious freedom under Sultanate
1. Under the Sultanate the important question that emerges is the extent of religious
freedom given to non muslims, in the early phase in the coming of the delhi sultanate,
there was burning of temple conquest of cities, temples were in particular were targeted
as they symbolised the faith of the previous rulers whom they were fighting and also
partly to capture the treasures. During the early period of Sultanate a no. Of Hindu
temples were converted into mosques eg. Quwwat-ul-Islam in Mehrauli near Qutub-
Minar was previously a vishnu temple, in order to convert it into a mosque the inner
sanctum containing the diety was removed and a screen of arches containing inscribed
verses from the quran were put up. The courtyard of the temple remained intact
similarly in Ajmer Adhai din Jhompra.
2. Once the Turks settled down they started their own mosques. Their policies towards
temples and places of worship towards hindu, jains and non muslim rested on muslim
law of Shariat. The law forbids new places of worship to be built in opposition to islam
but it allowed the repair of old temples as the buildings cannot last forever. In the
villages and regional centres the construction of temples continued as it is as there was
no practice of islam their. Temples could be constructed within the privacy of the
homes, this liberal policy was not followed during times of war the enemies of islam
whether human or God were to be fought and destroyed. During times of peace the
Hindus practiced their religion openly and with pomp and show even in the areas under
the Sultanate. According to Barani Jalaluddin Khilji observed that both in capitals and
provinces the idols were publicly worshiped and hindu religious texts and epics were
widely recited and read. The hindus pass beneath the walls of the royal palace in
procession singing and dancing and beating drums to immerse the idols in yamuna
3. Despite the pressure of the orthodox section of the ulemas the Delhi Sultans followed
the policy of broad tolerations, sometimes criminals of war were converted to islam to
avoid capital punishment. there is an instance under firoz-shah Tughlaq for abusing a
Brahman, there are instances in the same period of muslims joining the hindu fold eg.

63
 Chaitanaya who was a Vaishnava reformer converted muslims to Hindus because they
were attracted to his teachings. The theologians considered apostasy from islam to be a
capital punishment. The question of conversion to islam which is often mentioned again
has to be seen in the context of it's time the conversions to islams were not by the
strength of the sword if it was so then the entire population of delhi would have been
forcibly converted to islam. The delhi Sultans were statesmen for they realised hindu
faith was too strong to be destroyed by force. Nizamuddin Aulia it is stated that some
hindus knew that islams is a true religion but they do not embrace islam.
4. Sometimes conversions to islam happened voluntarily for political or economic gains
or to remove the social position. Sometimes an important tribal chief or ruler converted
and all his subjects also followed. Sufi saints also played a role though they generally
were unconcerned with the conversions, and they welcomed both the hindus and
muslims in the Khanqahs. The saintly character of some of the Sufi saints created a
receptive climate for Islam, however there is no evidence to show in this period that a
large no of persons belonging to lower caste embraced islam.
5. Conversions may be due to a no. of factors, political, personal or regional. With the
mongol attacks in Afghanistan there was a steady flow of Afghans to India who were
engaging in trade, however Muslims still remain small in no.
Central Administration under the delhi Sultanate
Sultan
1. Sultan- Sultans offices is the most important one in the Sultanate period, he was vested
with political, legal and military authority, he was responsible for safety and security
of the state, and administration, he was also a commander in chief of army an important
aspect of sultans power was the maintenance of law and justice. The Sultans appointed
judges and acted as the court of appeal the final appeal was also made to the sultan
against the high handedness of his officials and appeals could directly be made to the
sultan.
2. Dispensation of justice was an important function of the sultan, Mohammad bin
Tughlaq did not excuse the religious class from harsh punishments. In the islamic law
there is no clear law of succession as it believes in equality or brotherhood at times the
idea of election was also suggested but in practice a succession of any son of a powerful
ruler was accepted all sons of the ruler were considered to have equal claims, the idea
of primogeniture was not fully acceptable to the muslims or hindus of the period,some
rulers try to nominate one of the son not necessarily the eldest as the successor.
Iltutmish even nominated a daughter in preference to his surviving sons.
3. It was for nobles to accept such a nomination, the muslim opinion argued for the idea
of legitimacy but from the very beginning of delhi sultanate the idea was challenged.
After Aibak his son did not succeed to the throne. His son in law Iltutmish who was a
better military commander succeeded to the throne, the military strength thus became
the main factor in succession. Public opinion was also important and could not be
ignored; it is stated in the records that the Khaljis could not enter Delhi for a long time,
after deposing Balban's successors as the public sentiment was hostile to them this was
one of the reasons for the construction of the new city of Siri.
Ministers and Administration

64
Wazir
a. Sultan was assisted by a no. Of ministers directly selected by him, and he remained at
his office at leisure, their no. Varied from sultan to sultan.
b. Wazir- he was a key figure in Administration and in the beginning he was a military
leader. By 14TH CE the wazir emerged as an expert in revenue matters, he presided
over a large department dealing with both income and expenditure.
c. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq took interest in reorganising the revenue department, his
wazir was Khwaja Jahan who was widely respected and trusted by the sultan that in his
absence from the capital the wazir took charge of administration. Under the Wazir a
separate Auditor General Mustaufi -I-Mamalik looked after expenditure and accountant
general called Mushrif-I-Mamalik inspected the income, both of them were under the
wazir. Under Mohammad Bin Tughlaq Sultanate was the largest empire after the
Mauryas and the department was smoothly run. Under firoz-shah Tughlaq a converted
Tailang Brahmin Khan-I-Jahan was his wazir and he exercised full authority under him.
He was the wazir for 18 long years and it was the peak of the wazir's influence.
d. Under Firoz-shah Tughlaq the office of wazir was made hereditary and Khan-i-Jahan
II was succeeded by his son but his role after the death of firoz shah Tughlaq to act as
a king maker and his failure resulted in a set back in the position of the wazir
Diwan-i-Arz
military department almost equal to wazir.
a. Ariz-i-Mamalik was the commander in chief as the Sultan himself headed the army.
The responsibility of Ariz-i-Mamalik was to recruit, equip and pay the army.
b. Balban was the first sultan to set up a military department and to organise it. Later
Allauddin Khalji introduced a system of inspection of both the troops and horses. He
insisted on the regular muster of the armed forces, he introduced the dagh system, the
branding of the horse with the royal seal so that the soldiers may not bring the horses
of poor quality to the muster. Further a descriptive role or Chehra of each soldier was
to be maintained, and the army was posted in different parts of the sultanate with a
strong contingent remaining in the capital.
c. Among the Delhi Sultans Allauddin Khalji had the largest standing army around 3 lakhs
according to Barni, he was the first sultan to pay in cash, previous to this sultans gave
iqta to the soldiers in Doab. Balban's attempt to recover the iqtas disaffected the
soldiers. Allauddin Khalji brutally abolished the iqtas, he paid 238 tankas to a soldier
with one horse and 78 additional tankas for a soldier with two horses. The efficiency of
his army was proved in his military successes against Mongols and Deccans.
d. Under Delhi Sultanate elephants were also trained for war purposes. Cavalry was
dominated by Turks and Afghans. There was a separate unit of Sappers and miners to
remove all obstacles for movement of the army.
Diwan-i-Risalat
a. Department looking after religious matters and stipends to religious scholars and
donations to colleges and schools, it was headed by Sadar.
Qazi

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 a. The chief qazi headed the justice department, he was also called Qazi-ul-Quzzat, he
was aided by Muftis who explained the Islamic law according to quran.
b. The chief Qazi appointed Qazis in different parts of the empire, especially where there
was a large muslim population. The Qazi dispense justice based on civil laws of
muslims, hindus were governed by their personal laws and in villages by panchayats
and in the cities by leaders of caste groups.
c. The criminal law which was widely applicable

d. The justice system or the penal laws were very severe with punishments like mutilation
and death. Force and torcher was used for confessions.
e. Kotwal was responsible for maintaining peace and order. The Muhtasibs were the
municipal police who were to maintain a strict watch over the conduct of the people,
Control markets and regulate weights and measures.

Diwan-i-Insha
This department was the secretarial staff of the Sultanate which included daibirs or the
secretaries, they were responsible for announcing royal proclamation, dispatch letters to other
provincial governors.

Intelligence Department
This Department as the name suggests looks after the spying networks in the sultanate and the
appointment of spies to the different corners. The spies were called barids or agents. The head
of this department was the most trusted noble of the sultanate and he appointed barids in
different parts including the capital cities, under Allauddin the day to day market operations
were also informed to the sultans. The spies played an important role in keeping a strict control
on the nobles, people, markets, sarais rest house and foreign enemies.

Household Department
This was another important department of the sultanate, which looked after the personal
comforts of the ruler and the requirements of the royal women. The department supervised the
royal karkhanas or workshops. The official incharge of this department was called Wakil-i-
Dar. Wakil-i-Dar was also responsible for the maintenance of court decorum or etiquettes,
placing nobles according to their rank and status. Under Firoz Shah Tughlaq there was a
department for public works as he built a network of canals and public buildings and fort cities,
some of his important port works are canals to Sutlej to Ghaggar, Mandawi to Sirmur, Jamuna
to Firuzabad. He founded the towns like Jaunpur, Fatehabad, Hissar Firoza, Firuzpur,
Firuzabad and Badaun. He brought two Ashokan pillars, one from Khizrabad and other from
Meerut to Delhi.

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Diwan-i-Bandgan ( slave department)
Under Firoz Shah Tughlaq , it is said there were around 24 thousands slaves and many of them
were employed in the royal workshops.

Majlis-i-Khas
Private council of the sultan, whom the sultan consulted on all important matters.

Market reforms/ regulations under of Allauddin Khilji

1296-1316

Reasons for the introduction of market regulations

1. Allauddin wanted to expand his Sultanate and he was an ambitious ruler.
2. He wanted to protect sultanate from the Mongol menace
3. To fulfill both his objectives, he needed a large standing army
4. His desire was further strengthened when in 1303 during his siege of Chittor, Mongols
invaded Delhi and Allauddin had to rush back to suppress the Mongol threat, this also
prompted him to recruit a permanent army which was not only huge or large but
included the choicest, well-armed and the best soldiers, archers, cavalry men who were
always ready for immediate actions. It is said by the historians of his time that the
soldiers were the favoured children of sultan.
5. Allauddin wanted to maintain his soldiers on a good standard of living with a moderate
salary, his successful military campaigns had resulted in excessive flow of gold and
silver to the capital and adjoining towns this led to rise in prices and the need for
increase in salary. The sultan was apprehensive that the treasury would be depleted if a
large amount of cash salary was paid to the soldiers year after year. He wanted to save
the sultanate and the economy and also his soldiers from the vicious cycle of inflation
and price rise.
6. After considerable deliberation he introduced a salary structure for the soldiers, where
in the soldiers were divided into three categories, the foot soldiers (Pyada) were to be
given 78 tankas per anm. It was a silver coin equal to one coin of Mughal period and in
weight 1 tola. The horsemen Sawar with a horse provided 156 tanaka per annum. If the
horsemen provided the horse 78 additional tankas. If the horse men maintained two
horses then 312 tankas.
7. The sultan desired to make the salary structure rigid and permanent and for this reason
he had to regulate the markets.
8. Sultans advisors suggested regulating the necessities of life and prices of grains for
ensuring permanent stability. Allauddin Khilji therefore passed a no. of economic
regulations to fix the prices of various necessities of life and also to ensure the regular
supply to the people at fixed prices without much profit. The prices could no longer be
arbitrarily fixed. Prices were not fixed according to fluctuating demands and supply,

67
 good or bad weather, speculations by traders to make profit. Prices were fixed according
to the production cost.
REGULATIONS
Cereals and grains
8 regulations or Zabita
1. Price of wheat was regulated at 7.5 jitals Per maund. 50 jitals make a silver coin and 1
maund is equal to 40 kg. Barely at 4 jitals , cereals like mash and mukhud at 5 jitals ,
Moth at e jitals.
2. The land revenue for the Khalisa land were taken in kind and stored as a buffer in state
granaries
3. In times of food scarcity the state used these stocks.
4. Allauddin appointed Malik Qabul as his Shahna-i-Mandi , controller of the grain
market. Malik worked with spies and deputies to ensure that no one broke regulations
5. Separate markets were set up for each major trade and put under a charge of Shahna or
superintendent.
6. All grain carriers or caravans of the sultanate were brought into a single corporation
under the charge of Shahna-i-Mandi. The merchants were registered at Delhi and
licenses were issued to them to bring grains from remote villages of the sultanate. The
local and provincial revenue officials helped the merchants in the procurement of grains
at fixed rates, the grains Carried by the merchants were either sold by the state or by
merchants on fixed prices. Merchants were allowed to make a small profit plus cost of
carriage over and above the procurement price. Profits were kept very low and any
merchant breaking the law was put in chains and confined to prison till they agreed to
law profits unwillingly or willingly.
7. The grain carrier and their family were settled on the banks of river Yamuna so that the
merchants can easily transport grain through rivers from various parts of the country
under the supervision of the government officials. The families were the hostage for the
merchant's good behaviour.
8. He also introduced regulations against Regrating i.e. buying and hoarding of goods with
the view to retailing at a profit. If the merchants were caught hoarding their entire
resources were confiscated by the state and the defaulters were fined.
9. The sultan received daily reports regarding market rates and transactions from three
different sources Shaman-i-mandi, Barids, munshis. If there were differences in the
reports the officials were held accountable and they were not spared.
10. Prices remained stable throughout the year, whether rain or no rain. These regulations
were the wonders of the time.
11. Allauddin made provisions for rationing of grains during the time of famine.
Fortunately there was no large famine in his period.

Regulations for Clothes and Groceries

1. For the sale and purchase of cloth and Groceries on low prices an open market called
Sarai Adl was created. Different prices were fixed for different kinds of clothes.
2. The incharge of the market was an official called Rais Parwana or a permit officer

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 3. All the Indian and foreign cloth merchants were required to bring every sort of cloth to
the cloth Market, they were to sell the clothes at the rates prescribed by the government.
4. Cloth merchants were registered in a single corporation with their names and bonds
were executed for fixed quantities of cloth to be bought and sold in delhi. The prices of
Coarse cloth and garment for common use for instance chadars ordinary bedsheet was
fixed at 10 Jitals long cloth coarse per 40 yards was fixed at 1 tanka.
5. For the superior quality of cloth such as cotton, silk, muslin and other luxurious wear
for the nobles were in great demand. Such clothes were procured from Kashmir,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Bengal. There was heavy expenditure involved
and the state subsidised the expenses, the Multani traders who were experts in clothes
trade given an advance of 1 lakh and 20 lakhs of Tankas as loans to bring cloth and sell
at Delhi at less than procurement price.
6. The cloth merchants acted merely as the commission agent of the state and any loss in
transactions was met by the state treasury.
7. The purchase of these commodities was rationed, permits were issued to the nobility
according to the status and purse for purchasing specified quantities of clothes.
According to Ferishta, export of fine cloth from Delhi to outside was not allowed to
prevent merchants from making profits outside Delhi.
8. People were not permitted to wear silk at home unless permitted by the Sultan.

Regulations of livestocks
1. The market for which Allauddin introduced the market was primarily for horses, cattles
and the slaves. The sale and purchase of these goods was to be done in this market.
2. There were different varieties/ qualities of horses and superior brands of horses were
approved for the army. Horses were divided into three grades and prices were fixed
accordingly i.e. 100-120 tankas for first grade. 80-90 for second grade and 65-70 for
third grade if horses. An ordinary pony which was used for transport luggages was for
12-20 tankas. Fine quality horses imported from outside were not sold to local dealers
in the open market as there was a possibility of these local dealers selling it to the dallals
or the middle men at higher prices. Permits were issued to local dealers and wealthy
persons for the purchase of superior quality horses. The entire conduct of business in
the horse market was done directly under the supervision of the Sultan who also
undertook periodic review
3. Horse Merchants disobeying the regulations were either whipped or wiped out.
Cattles
1. Included buffaloes,cows,camels, oxen, goats, sheep, asses in short all domestic animals
were also sold and purchased within the prices fixed by state. There was a separate
market for slaves, slave girls were sold between 5 to 12 tankas, concubines 20 to 40
tankas, handsome boy 20 to 30 tankas, slave labourers 10 to 15 tankas.
2. All the markets were under the control of Diwan-i-Riyasat ministry of commerce and
the superintendent of weights and measures called Nazir constituted part of the
regulatory market. Malik Yaqub, was appointed as Diwan-i-Riyasat, all the shahnas
including Shahna-I-mandi were under Diwan-i-Riyasat. He was responsible for the
success of economic regulations, he also appointed Muhtasibs, the censor officers to

69
 ensure public morality and order. Anyone breaking the rules were given severe
punishments. Shahnas constantly moved in the markets with a body of soldiers on
horses and whipping shop keepers for fraud. In conclusion Allauddin Khilji introduced
a strong centralised system with his market regulations and agrarian reforms but
unfortunately his legacy could not be carried forward by the later Sultans. It needed
constant enforcement and rigorous implementation of the market regulations which
were artificially established.

MUGHAL STATE

Theory of kingship and the nature of state

1. The nature of any state and its administrative structure is determined largely by the
theory of state or sovereignty and the policies initiated by the ruler.
2. Under the Mughals the persian-turko-mongol tradition of kingship flourished. They
influenced the Mughal courts attaching great importance to the institution of the king
for preserving order and stability in the society. And also for eradicating anarchy and
disorder and lawlessness.
3. Monarchy was considered central to Mughal politics, they did not accept unlike Delhi
sultans the sovereignty of Khalifa even nominally. The Mughals were independent as
long as there was no conflict with the Quran. Mughals under Babar were not new to the
art of governance, as they possessed an experience of almost two centuries of dynastic
rule in Central Asia. Babar asserted his supremacy by taking the title of Padshah and
he did not recognise any outside authority therefore the Mughal state was less theocratic
than Delhi sultanate as they did not recognise any independent religious head like
caliph.
4. The Mughal perception of monarchy primarily carried the impact of the turkomongol
tradition that had evolved in the previous centuries in central Asia, the tradition was
based on the fundamental principle of absolute monarchy. In the Mongol theory of
kingship the empire was to be divided among all the legitimate sons, Babe did not
approve of this as he knew this to be the cause of the decline of the empires of Taimur
and Genghis Khan. He advised his son and successor Humayun to treat his brothers
fairly but Humayun believed in absolute monarchy.
5. The divine element in the concept of Mughal sovereignty was adopted by Babar. Babar
adopted the title of Zille-i-Ilahi i.e. shadow of divine on earth, he also took the title of
Padshah, pad signifies stability and possession, while means origin i.e. God. In other
words monarch is the originator of sovereignty, stability and possession. He is a light
emanating from God.
6. Akbar will go a step further with his concept of sovereignty, he changed the idea of
shadow of God on earth to Farr-i-izidi i.e. the light of God on Earth and Kiyan khawarah
a sublime halo. He links the monarch directly to god becoming one with God. He didn't
need any religious intermediaries to assist him. Further Akbar's theory of kingship
asserted that many qualities flow from the possession of this light for eg paternal love

70
 towards his people, a generous heart, tolerance, trust in God, prayer and devotion. The
intention of Akbar was to guard against any direct or indirect share in the monarch's
authority. In Akbar's perception of sovereignty one can see the zenith of Islamic idea
of sovereignty.
Mughal Administrative Apparatus
1. Theoretically the Mughal administrative structure was bureaucratic and the emperor
was the sole power and bureaucracy was Banda-i-dargah. There were a no. of Central
ministries or departments and officers who were directly appointed by the Mughal
emperor, the emperor followed the policies of checks and balances and equal division
of power among the nobility to ensure that no nobel could emerge powerful to threaten
the monarchy.
2. The Mughal rulers publicised the Jharokha Darshan with great deal of pomp and show
in which the Mughal emperor appeared at the appointed time before the general public
adhering to the myth that a mere look at the emperor would redress their grievance or
cure their them of sickness.
3. Akbar was the first Mughal emperor who had the time and opportunity to organise the
Administrative structure. Akbar paid great attention to the organisation of the Central
administration which was similar in structure tonthat of the Delhi sultanate. However,
he carefully reorganised the conduct of affairs in the various departments. He gave a
new shape to the administrative system giving a new lease of life.
Vakil/ wazir
1. In the Central Asian polity and the taimuric tradition there was centrality in the position
of wazir, he was all powerful under whom various heads of department functioned. In
the initial years of Akbar Behram Khan had exercised the powers of all powerful wazir
as the regent. As Akbar gained experience he reorganised the office of wazir to limit its
power, he did not abolish the post of wazir but it was much reduced in power and
became more of a decorative post. It was given to important nobles who played little
part in the administration.
2. Akbar preferred the title of Diwan or vakil instead of wazir in order to emphasize his
point, he used the title of Diwan-i-ala in preference to the title of wazir and it signified
that he was only the head of the revenue department. The position was not always held
by a high noble in Akbar's court. Many nobles held mansabs higher than wazirs. He
was no longer a principal advisor to the emperor; he was only an expert in revenue
matters. At times the office of Diwan was shared by many people. The Diwan was
responsible for all income and expenditure and held control over all Khalisa, Jagir and
inam lands.
3. The revenue was further divided into no. of officers for eg Diwan-I-Tan i.e. who looked
after payment of cash salaries, Diwan-i-Buyutat he looked after the royal household,
the revenue also included an army of clerks, secretaries and superintendent, it also had
the office of Mustaufi auditor and Mushrif the chief accountant. The supervisor of the
imperial treasury called Khazanadar was also under the revenue department.
Mir Bakshi

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 1. Mir Ariz of Delhi sultanate, he was the head of military department and nobility.
Therefore only the leading nobles were appointed to the post, who had the trust and
confidence of the emperor.
2. All orders of appointment of mansabdars and their salary papers were approved and
passed by Mir Bakshi. He personally supervised the branding of horses and checked
the Muster roll of soldiers. Based on his verification of inspection the amount of salary
was certified after which Diwan made an entry in his register/record.
3. He also headed the intelligence Department of the empire, he posted the spies or the
Barids and the Waqia navis to the different parts of the empire. He gathered information
from all the sources and presented it in the court. Akbar deliberately kept the office of
Diwan and Mir Bakshi at power so that they could act as a check on each other's
influence.
Mir Saman/ Khan Saman
Officer incharge of the imperial household, including supplies of all the provisions and articles
for the use of women quarters in the palace. Most of the articles of use were manufactured in
the royal workshops called karkhanas. Nobles enjoying the absolute confidence of the ruler
were appointed to this office. Mir saman was also responsible for the maintenance of the Court
etiquettes, controlled the royal bodyguards and also the iverally supervision of the royal palace.

Sadr-us-Sudur
He was the head of the ecclesiastical department, his chief duty was to protect the laws of the
shariat. He was also responsible for distribution of charity Madad-i-maash, Wazifas or the cash
grants were also distributed by him, he also distributed the land grants- Inam, suryughal,
Madad-i-maash. Sometimes sadar-us-sudur was also the chief Qazi, under Shahjahan the two
posts were combined,under Aurangzeb the two post were separate and the position or the power
of Sadar was much reduced, he only supervised the assignment of allowances, looked after
charitable grants, scrutinized applications and presented to the emperor. He also distributed
arms to the poor.

Qazi-ul-Quzzat
He was the head of the judiciary and he appointed the Qazis and muftis in different parts of the
empire. During the period of akbar the office of chief Qazi headed by Abdun Nabi fell into bad
repute due to misuse of power and corruption. The principal duties of the Qazi was to
administer the shariat law both in civil and criminal cases. He appointed Qazis in subas, sarkars,
parganas, towns and villages. A separate qazi was appointed for the army.

Mir Adl
Similar to sheriff, While the Qazis heard and decided the cases, he executed the orders of the
court

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Muhtasib
Taking care of public morality, it was his duty to ensure observance of rules of morality in
public, control forbidden practice like wine drinking, use of Bhang, other intoxicants, gambling
in public, he also performed secular duties like examining weights and measures and enforcing
fair price.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
1. In 1580 Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas, after his expansion in Deccan three
more were added. Some of the important provinces were Delhi, Bengal, Agra, Lahore,
Qabul, Ajmer, Malva, Gujarat, Bihar etc as these were quite lucrative.
2. The suba was headed by the subedar or the governor, he was appointed by the Mughal
emperor along with other officers to keep check on the powers of the Subedars, these
officers were diwan, Bakshi, A Sadr, A Qazi and Waqia Navis. The system of checks
and balances was extended to the provinces.
3. Emperor himself undertook regular visits to the provinces to strengthen his control, he
also frequently transferred the Subedars, so that they do not acquire a permanent
powerful base.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
Sarkar
Below the subas were the sarakars, which was equivalent to the Shiq of the Delhi sultanate,
there were two important officials at this level Amalguzar and Faujdar, Faujdar was the
executive head of the sarkar, his duty was to take care of rebellion and law and order,
safeguarding the lives and property of people under his jurisdiction, he was to provide security
to traders passing through his area and keep and eye or vigil on recalcitrant Zamindars. Faujdar
was also to help Amalguzar or Amils in revenue collection they were the revenue collectors
under the Mughals, they supervised and assessed the revenue of subordinate officials, they
were also responsible for increasing the revenue under cultivation, and encourage the peasants
to pay the revenue willingly, all accounts were maintained by him, which included daily
receipts of income and expenditure and reports were sent to the emperor

Thanedar

73
Thanas were located at the places where armies were stationed under the Mughals for
maintaining law and order. These thanas were headed by thanedar, they were also established
in disturbed areas in and around the cities, thanedar were under the Faujdar of the area and they
were appointed on the recommendations of the Subedars and the diwans.

Paragana
Below Sarkar a paragana, headed by Shiqdar, a no. Of villages constituted a paragana, the two
important officers under Shiqdar were Amils and Qanungos, Amil assisted in revenue
collection, Qanungos maintained all records pertaining to the land of the area, including the
different crops grown in a Paragana.

Villages
The lowest unit of administration under the Mughals, Mauza was the lowest unit to assess land.
Village was headed by a village headman, other important officers were Muqaddams, patwaris,
patwaris maintained records and Muqaddams were intermediaries.

Towns And Fort Administration

The Mughals maintained a separate administration in cities and towns, the most imp officer in
city was Kotwal, his primary duty was to safeguarding the life and property, maintaining
register of people entering and leaving the cities, issuing permits, ensuring that no illicit liquor
was manufactured in his area and he was the superintendent of weights and measures.

Fort- Qilas
Under the Mughals there were large no. of Qilas of some strategic importance. Each fort was
a mini township with a large garrison, Qilas were under the charge of a Qiladar, who was a
high ranking Mansabdar. He was incharge of administration of the fort and he was assigned a
Jagir in the vicinity of the fort as his payment. The Qiladars as time performed the duties of a
Faujdar.

Port Administration
Ports were called Bandargahs, the Mughals were aware of the economic importance of sea and
developed many ports. Later these ports would become centres of European commercial
activity. Port Administration was independent of a provincial government. They were
autonomously governed by a governor called Mutasaddi, who was appointed directly by the
emperor, at times the office of the governor was auctioned and given to the highest bidder. The
governor also supervised the mint house. A subordinate officer under him called Shahbandar
looked after the custom House. In conclusion the administration of the Mughal state was

74
distributed among a vast range of officers but no one was allowed to either usurp or interfere
in each other's jurisdiction in order to prevent abuse of power and the autocratic hold the system
of checks and balances prevented any officer from acquiring or gaining unlimited power.

MANSABDARI SYSTEM UNDER MUGHALS

1. It was introduced by Akbar in 1577 in his 19th year of his rule. It was an institution
unique to the Mughals, mansab literally means a rank or a position in the Mughal
system it also meant a function, a prerogative and a duty. It was unique as the mansabdar
under the Mughals performed both civil and military duties and they were placed on a
military payroll. The mansab was divided into two components, zat and Sawar. Zat
means the personal status of the mansabdar in the system and the salary to be fixed
according to his Zat. Sawar indicates the number of cavalry men a mansabdar was to
maintain. For instance Mirza Shahrukh, his Zat was 5000 Zat(his status) and supposed
to Maintain 2000 sawars that means 4000 horses as one sawar two horses, as the ratio
was 1:2.
2. Each officer was assigned a Mansab or a rank, the lowest Mansab was that of 10 and
the highest was 5000. Towards the end of the Akbar's reign the highest Mansab was of
7000 given to Mirza Aziz Koka and Man singh. The Mughal princesses received the
highest Mansab, Dara shikho. Great care was taken to ensure that the sawars recruited
were experienced and well mounted, Akbar therefore insisted on recording the Chehra
of each soldier and the horses were branded by imperial marks. The contingent of the
mansabdar was periodically inspected by the royal officer appointed by Akbar, only
fine quality horses of Arabic and Iraqi breed were employed in the army. Ideally for 10
sawars mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses. It was a cardinal principle of the
mansabdari system to maintain the ratio of 1:2 to provide rest and backups to horses
during the march and also in war. A sawar with one horse was considered only half a
sawar. The Mughal cavalry was considered the most efficient one till the time 1:2 was
adhered to or followed.
3. Akbar was opposed to the regional, religious and parochial tendencies among his nobles
and soldiers. He insisted on the mixed contingents of Mughals, Pathans, Rajputs and
Hindustani. He wanted to weaken the forces of tribalism among the nobles and soldiers.
The mansabdar contingent also included in addition to cavalry men the musketeers
badukhchis, bowmen, miners and sappers. Iranis and Turanis were considered among
the best soldiers and they received high salaries. The average salaries of sawars was rs
20 per month.
4. The salary of the sawar and the army contingent was added in the salary of the
mansabdar. The mansabdar was paid by assigning him a Jagir, A jagir did not give any
hereditary right to that area, it only meant that the land revenue of that jagir would be
paid to the mansabdar and not to the state. Sometimes the mansabdar were paid in cash.
Akbar did not like the jagirdari system but it was too deeply entrenched in the Indian
society. Akbar didn't want them to get attached to any jagir, he regularly transferred his
mansabdar every 3 to 4 years so that they do not get attached to a particular jagir.
5. The mansabdari system had its origin in the army of Genghis Khan, his army was
divided on a decimal basis. The lowest of command was 10 and the highest was 10,000,
that is Toman. The commander of 10 thousand was called Khan, the Mongol system

75
 influenced both the Delhi sultanate and the Mughals. Not much is known about the
armies of Babur and Humayun.
6. There were three categories of mansabdars in the system, the lowest category of below
five hundred Zat was called mansabdar, the noble holding the zats of 500 to 2500 was
called Amir, and the noble holding the zat of 2500 and above Amir-i-Umda.
7. The significance of classification was that an amirn can have under his charge a
mansabdar to serve him during a battle. Similarly, Amir-i-Umda would have both Amir
and Umda-i-azam. Persons were usually appointed in the lowest Mansab and gradually
they were promoted. Akbar favoured merit in the promotions, mansabdars can also be
demoted as punishment, akbar was open to talent to some extent, it was a common
service for both civilians and army men.
8. The mansabdar met his personal expenses through his salary and he maintained
stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels and mules and carts from his salary. It was
in proportion to his Zat. For eg. A mansabdar with a zat of 5000 maintained 340 horses,
100 elephants, 400 camels, 100 mules, 160 carts. Later it is mentioned by Abul Fazal
that the stipulated quota of horses etc was maintained centrally i.e. Agra, Lahore, but
Mansabdar paid from his salary. Horses were classified into 6 categories based on
efficiency and elephant into 5 categories.
9. Salary structure: handsome salary were given to the mansabdar and the mansabdari
system was the highest paid service in the world. A mansabdar with a rank of 5000
received a salary of rs 30,000 per month. A 3000 zat received rs 17,000 and 1000 zat rs
8200. A person holding a rank of 100 called sadi received the salary of rs 7000 per
annum. Roughly a quarter of the salary of the mansabdar was spent on transport corps,
which was vital for the nobility of the army.
10. Akbar himself kept a large body of cavalry men as his bodyguards, these were called
Ahadis or gentlemen troopers, these were persons of noble lineage but impoverished.
And were not in a position to raise a contingent but they had impressed Akbar with their
skills and talents. Akbar provided a salary of rs 800 a month to them with 8 to 10 sawars
and horses. And they were answerable only to akbar.

Changes under Jahangir

1. He reduced the average salary of a sawar. Under Akbar, the average salary of a sawar
was Rs. 240 per annum. Under Jahangir, it was reduced to Rs. 200.
2. Further he also reduced the zat salary by introducing what was called ‘Du aspen sit
aspah’, i.e., troops with two or three horses, this meant that a particular mansabdar was
to maintain a larger quota of troops without increasing his zat rank.

Changes under Shahjahan

1. He drastically reduced the number of sawars a mansabdar was required to maintain i.e.,
1/3rd to 1/4th. For instance, a noble with 3000 zat and 3000 sawar under Shahjahan had
to maintain only 1000 sawars.
2. The number of sawars increased under Shahjahan, straining the financial resources of
the Mughal state and Shahjahan was forced to bring about drastic cuts in the salary.
This created disaffection among the mansabdars.

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 3. In order to satisfy the mansabdars, Shahjahan introduced the ‘month scale system’,
under this system, the nobles were put on 10 months, 8 months, 6 months etc., in order
to rotate the lucrative jagirs among the mansabdars to satisfy their needs and also to
allow them their full quota of salary.
4. In addition, he reduced the number of sawars to be maintained by the mansabdar. For
example: if a noble was put on a 10-month scale, he had to maintain only 1800 horses,
if he was on a 5 months scale then only 1000 horses.
5. Under Shahjahan, this was not linked to the decline of income in jagirs as the area under
cultivation increased, the production of cash crops also increased. However, during
Shahjahan in the 17th century, there was a rise in prices due to excessive availability of
silver. This affected the revenue structure under the Mughals. The system of revenue
collection and calculation under the Mughals was based on Jama-dami which was the
income from the Jangir based on dams (copper coins). So, more silver had to be given
by the state and this was reducing the salaries of the mansabdars.
6. In conclusion, the drastic reduction of Mughal cavalry affected the army. The
maintenance of mansabdari system required proper functioning of zat and jagirdari
system. If the jama-dami was inflated, nobles will not get their assigned income. Under
Akbar, the mansabdari system worked well due to the meticulous attention and
selection of competent people as wazir.

Revenue System under the Mughals/Agrarian Structure

1. Sher Shah of the Sur dynasty introduced a scientific method of assessment and
collection of land revenue. In this system, cultivated area was measured and a central
schedule called ray. The central schedule fixed the dues of the peasantry crop wise on
the basis of the productivity of land. The schedule was converted every year into a
central schedule of prices. Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s system but it was soon found
that fixing of the central schedule of prices often led to considerable delays resulting in
great hardships to the peasantry. Another disadvantage was that the prices of the crops
were fixed according to those prevailing at the imperial circle and therefore they were
higher in comparison to the country side or rural area. The peasantry was forced to part
with a larger share of their produce.
2. Akbar therefore, went back to the system of annual assessment. The Qanungos who
were the hereditary holders of land and local officers who were well informed with
local conditions were ordered to report on the actual produce from the land, the state of
cultivation, the local prices. But in many areas Qanungos were dishonest and concealed
the real produce. Annual assessments also resulted in great difficulty for the peasantry
and the state.
3. But in many areas Qanungos were dishonest and concealed the real produce. Annual
assessments also resulted in great difficulty for the peasantry and the state.
4. In 1573, after his Gujrat campaign, Akbar gave personal attention to the land revenue
system. Officials called Karoris were appointed all over Northern India. They were
responsible for the collection of a crore of dams which is Rs. 250 thousand. They also
monitored the Qanungos, checking the facts and figured supplied by them. On the basis
of the information provided by the karoris and the qanungos, the actual produce, local
prices and productivity of the land was identified. In 1580, Akbar instituted a new

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 revenue system known as ‘Dhahsala’ or ‘Ain-i-dahsala’, with the prices to be fixed for
a period of 10 years. Under this system, the average produce of different crops and
average prices prevailing over the last 10 years were calculated, 1/3 rd of the average
produce was the state share. The state demand was fixed in cash, this was done by
converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over
the past 10 years. The state demand was fixed in Rs. Per bigah.
5. A further improvement was made later, the local prices were taken into account but also
Akbar brought together the Parganas with the same type of productivity into 1
assessment circle. The peasantry was required to pay on the basis of local produce and
local prices.
6. There were a number of advantages of the dahsala system
(a) As soon as the area sown by the peasantry had been measured, the state as
well as the peasantry knew what the dues were
(b) The unit of measurement was sikandri gaz (introduced by Sikandar lodhi),
i.e., by use of bamboos linked with iron rings.
(c) The peasantry was given remission in the land revenue if crops failed on
account of drought, floods etc.
(d) The system of measurement and assessment based upon it is called the
Zabti system. The dahsala system was a further development of the Zabti
system. Akbar introduced the dahsala system in the areas from Lahore to
Allahabad and Gujrat and Malawa.
7. A number of other systems of assessment were also followed under Akbar. The most
common and the oldest system of assessment was batai or ghalla bakshi. In this system,
the produce was divided between the peasantry and the state in fixed proportion. The
crop was divided after it had been thrashed or when it had been cut and tied as stacks
or while it was standing in the field. This system was considered a very fair one but it
needed an army of honest officials to be present at the time of cutting or thrashing of
the crops.
8. The peasantry was allowed to choose between zabti and batai under certain conditions
i.e., when the crop was ruined. Under batai system, peasantry was given a choice to pay
in cash or kind, though the Mughal state preferred cash. In case of crops like indigo,
cotton, oil seeds and sugar cane, the state demand was invariably in cash and hence they
were called cash crops.
9. The third system in use under the Mughals was the Kankut or the nasaq system. It meant
a rough assessment or rough calculation of the amount to be paid by the peasantry on
the basis of what he had been paying in the past. This was fixed for the village as a
whole and it was called the kankut system. Other local methods of assessment also
existed.
10. While fixing the land revenue, the Mughal state also took into consideration the
continuity of cultivation. For this purpose, the land was classified into 4 categories.
(i) Polaj: the land that remained in cultivation
almost throughout the year

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 (ii) Parauti: aka fallow land, this is the
uncultivated land. This land paid at full rates
(polaj rates) when cultivated
(iii) Chachar: a land which remained fallow for
2 or 3 years
(iv) Banjar: when the land remains uncultivated
for more than 3 years or longer These lands
were assessed at concessional rates and the
revenue would rise till the full polaj rate was
paid in the 5th or the 8th year. in this way, the
state brough fresh and uncultivated lands
under cultivation.
11. Land was further classified into good, middling and bad. Although, the state demand
was fixed at/3rd of the produce. It varied according to the productivity of the land and
the method of assessment.
12. Akbar was deeply interested in the improvement and extension of the revenue system.
He asked his revenue officials ‘amils’ to act like a father to the peasantry. Amils were
to advance loans called taccavi to the peasantry for seeds, implements, animals in times
of need and to recover them in easy instalments. Amil was also to encourage the
peasantry to plough as much land as possible and to grow the superior quality of crops.
The zamindars of the area (influential people) were also asked to cooperate with the
amils. The peasantry had the hereditary rights to land as long as they cultivated the land.
They could not be ejected if they paid the land revenue.
13. In conclusion, the ain-i-dahsala was not a 10-year settlement nor was it a permanent
one as the state retained the right to modify it. However, Akbar’s revenue settlement
continued to be the basis of the land revenue system of the Mughals till the end of the
17th century. The zabti system was associated with Raja Todar Mal and sometimes it is
called ‘Todar Mal’s Bandobast’. Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer who first
served under Sher Shah. Under Akbar, he was the part of a team of brilliant officers
like Aitmad Khan, Muzaffar Khan and Shehabuddin Ahmed.

History and Law

1. In both History and Law, sources are important. The three major sources of law
i.e., customs, precedents and legislations are significant from historical point of
view. All three of them have their origin in History.
2. Logic and deductive reasoning play an important role. It is not possible to lab
experiments in both the areas and the arguments have to be deduced by the
power of reasoning.
3. Evidence and witnesses are the common methodology of both history and law,
both require sequential construction of the past in the form of events as they
actually happened. The court will not accept any case without the facts and
evidence pertaining to it. Eye witness testimonies are crucial in law and in
history. Cross examination and investigation are important tools of analysis to

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 arrive at more realistic conclusions. In both history and law, the events have
already occurred and now it left to the investigators (legal professionals, police,
or court), to re-enact what actually was the sequence of events. The only
difference between law and history is that in the legal system, judgements have
to be given and on the other hand, a historian simply give their observations and
comments which are not binding.
4. Modern Indian judiciary is the legacy of the English legal system in the form
of colonialism. English legal system processes and procedures were introduced
in India such as the rule of law, English court procedures, common law tradition
and the codification of laws. The privy council has left behind a rich legacy of
landmark legal cases/judgements which are of persuasive value to the present-
day supreme court. The federal court which was established under the GOI at
1935 is a precursor of our supreme court today, it was functional only for 12
years. It has given to the SC the tradition of integrity and up-righteousness. The
Indian Penal Code and the GOI act which is termed as mini constitution is a
legacy of the British colonialism.
5. 200 years of India as a colony of Britain has given to the Indians a sense of
injustice and exploitation. India at the time of independence was clear on the
issues of sovereignty and the constitution that they wanted which is why
fundamental rights are important in the constitution. Indians believed political
rights to be important at the time of formation of the constitution, hence, the
preamble is important. The experiences with colonialism made the framers of
the Indian constitution wary of dictatorial and hereditary or feudal power
structures. They did not want Indian people to be subjugated under any despot
and their experiences made them value democratic traditions. It was the colonial
experience that made Indian adopt the republican model i.e., the head of the
state was to be elected.
6. Laws do not exist isolation and therefore, understanding the historical past is
relevant in understanding the present whether is it varna system or socio-
political, economic and cultural traditions of the past. It is only through history
that one can understand for instance the nature of landed/agrarian relations,
specific to India. Cornwallis was a landed aristocrat with England who had the
powers given to the English landlords from an important historical document
Magna Carta. He introduced the permanent settlement in Bengal without
understanding the complex agrarian structure prevailing in the region.
Zamindars were the intermediaries on the land and Cornwallis made then
proprietors of the land and in the process the cultivators to reduced to the status
of landless labourers.
7. A student of history and law studies the development of laws from the past to
the present. They study how from a link between religion and law, there is a
gradual movement in modern times to delink law and religion and to make laws
secular. The best example is the Napoleonic court aka the civil law of Napoleon.
8. Interdisciplinarity is an underlined principle in both law and history.
Interdisciplinary studies are important in today’s time. One must understand
what historical forces shaped laws, how law has maintained its autonomy which
is reflected in the changes that have come in the present age. History shows how

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 complex shows how a complex set of phenomena have shaped our laws and
legal institutions.
9. Historically law is important to legitimise any rule and authority, for example:
Britain placed importance on the concept of a moral nation to legitimise
colonising other countries under the objective of its civilising mission.
10. It is important for the students of law and social sciences to understand that in
the past the society had prevalence of legal pluralism which are associated with
indigenous rights and sovereignty. The tendency of the colonial state to
homogenise laws has to be evaluated in the context of modern times to keep
intact indigenous practices and local traditions.

VIJAYNAGARA STATE

1. Existed between 14 and 16 CE

2. Many foreign travellers have described the Vijayanagar state at its peak. These
travellers were Domingo Paes, Abdul Razzaq, Nicolò Conti.

3. Vijayanagar empire was also called Karnataka Samrajyamu.

4. means the city of victory and it was both a city and the name of an Empire. It was
founded in the 14th century.

5. It extended from river Krishna to the extreme south of the peninsula. Later it came to
be famous as Hampi/Halebid. The name is derived from the local mother goddess
Pampadevi.

6. The ruins of Hampi were brought to life by the British colonial officer Colonel Colin
Mackenzie.

7. The empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers Harihara and Bukka.

8. A distinct feature of Vijayanagar polity was that the claimant to the throne was not
confined to the members of the ruling family but could also be claimed by military
commanders.

9. It is divided into four dynasties Sangama 1336-1485, Saluvas 1485-1503, Tuluvas

1503-1542, Aravidu till 17th CE.

10. The most well-known king was from the Tuluva dynasty who was Krishna deva Raya
1509-1529, he expanded and consolidated the empire. Under him the land between
Tungabhadra and Krishna river Raichur Doab was acquired in 1512, the famous
Gajapati Rulers of Odisha were subdued in 1514, Krishnadev also defeated Sultan of
Bijapur in 1520, by the time of his death, he had made many enemies, the hostility was
faced by Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagar at the famous battle Rakshasi-
Tangadi, where the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda routed the

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 Vijayanagar armies. Aravidu dynasty came to exist only in the east from Penukonda to
Chandragiri.

11. In the Vijayanagar empire the king was at the apex and he was given the title of Raya
there existed the military chiefs called Nayakas. The Nayakas controlled force and had
their own arm supporters. They constant moved from one area to another and at times
they were accompanied by peasantry looking for fertile lands. These military chiefs
usually spoke Telugu or Kannada.

12. Many Nayakas submitted to the authority of the king was Vijayanagar but they often
rebelled and had to be subdued by military actions.

13. A major political innovation of the Vijayanagar empire was the Amar Nayaka system,
it was very similar to the iqtadari system of Delhi sultanate. Amar Nayaka were military
commanders who were given territories by Rayas, they collected taxes from artisans,
peasants, craftsmen, traders in their territory. A part of the revenue was retained by
them for personal use and for maintaining the military contingent, including horses and
elephant. These military contingents, provided the Vijayanagar state with an effective
fighting force with which they were able to expand in southern peninsula. Some of the
revenues were used for maintenance of temples and irrigation work. The Amar Nayakas
were the feudal subordinates of Vijayanagar king and hence they sent regular tributes
to the king annually and made personal appearance in the king's court with gifts to
express their loyalty. The Vijayanagar king asserted their power over them by
transferring them from one place to another. By the 17th Ce many of the Nayakas
established independent kingdoms and this hastened the collapse of the central imperial
structure.

14. Another distinctive feature of the Vijayanagar polity was the important role played by
the religious classes in the state. Religion and state were closely aligned in the
Vijayanagar state. The Vijayanagar kings emphasised on the strict adherence of
Dharma and the state invested heavily in the rituals of kingship. The Vijayanagar
kingship was symbolic and they exercised their control over many overlords which
were autonomous beyond the centre of the state. In other words, the authority of the
Vijayanagar kings was directly exercised only in the centre, the kings resorted to
symbolic rituals through the instrument of religion to ensure loyalty of feudal lords.
Ritual kingship of the Vijayanagar rulers is best exemplified in the Mahanavami
festival, this was an annual royal ceremony which lasted for about Nine days. It
culminated in the 10th day. The important feudal lords participated in the festivities
coming from different corners of the empire. Through this festival the Vijayanagar king
sovereignty was recognised and strengthened with the peripheral parts of the empire.
Although Brahmans were part of the ceremony, they did not play a predominant role as
all the rights of the festival were performed by the king himself.

15. A distinct feature of the Vijayanagar state was the presence of the Brahmans not their
religious capacity but as political and secular administrators. Many important fortresses
were made under control of brahmans especially Telegu Brahmans, during this period
many of the Brahmans desired to become as administrators and accountant as it offered

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 good carrier prospect. The imperial secretariat was administered by the Brahmans.
These Brahmans belonged to a sub caste called Telugu NIyogis, they were not orthodox
in performing religious rites, they also worked as potential legitimisers of the
Vijayanagar state.

16. For example: the Brahman Vidyaranya and his family were ministers of sangham
brothers, providing legitimacy to their rule by accepting them back in the Hindu fold.
The Brahmans were also appointed as military commanders, for example: under
Krishnadeva Raya Brahman called Timma received economic support as he was an
integral part of Vijayanagar polity. The Brahmans constructed and commanded
fortresses in Different parts of the empire and for which they assigned revenues of some
crown villages called bhandarvada. There was a difference between the crown villages
and the Amaram villages. In Amaram villages, the income was under the charge of the
local military chiefs.

17. The Vijayanagar kings enjoyed strong relationship with the sects and temples of the
time. In order to establish effective control in the distant Tamil region, the Vijayanagar
rulers took the help of the Vaishnava sect and its leaders who were from the Tamil land.
It was necessary for the Vijayanagar rulers to take their help as they were outsiders and
hence, they established contacts with the basic Tamil regional organisations. The
relationship the kings with the sects and temples can be explained in the following way:

(a) Temples were the primary resource for sustaining the Vijayanagar kings in the
Tamil land

(b) Leaders (Sampradayas) of the sects were the connecting link between the king and
the temples

(c) The routine supervision of the temples was under the control of the local secretarial
groups but the disputes relating to temples were in the hands of the kings

(d) The intervention of the king was administrative

This relationship between the king, temple and sects led to the emergence of a particular kind
of agrarian economy. The different dynasties patronised different sects. The first Sangama
dynasty was Shaivites, who made additions to the Sri Virupaksha temple or Pampapati temple
at Vijayanagar. The Saluvas were vaishnovites but they patronised both the Shaiva and the
vaishno temples. Krishna deva rai constructed the Krishnaswami temple. The Arvato dynasty
gave donations to Vaishnava temples.

The Ayagar System

Under Vijayanagar polity, Ayagar became important, they are village Headman -with the titles
reddi, maniyam, gauda. Accountant- Karnam senabhova, Watchman- talaiyari. They were
given land or a portion of a village, sometimes they had to pay a fixed rent but generally were
manya lands (tax free) in other words no customary tax was imposed on their agriculture

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income, sometimes some funds were diverted to village functionaries. Other Ayagar sysmtem
members like washerman who performed services for villages were also payed by assigning
them plots of lands. There were other village servants who provided ordinary goods and
services, like leather workers who also made leather bags used in lift irrigation devices called
kiapilla or mohte, potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, watermen who looked after irrigation
channels, bankers and money landers. The distinguishing feature of the Ayagar system was the
special allocation of income from land and specific cash payments made to the service
providers to the village servants holding a particular office for the first time.

Land Revenue

1. The major source of state income was land income, the rate of revenue varied according
to the fertility and the regional location, the revenue was generally 1/6th of produce in
some cases 1/4th was also taken. The Brahman and the temples paid 1/20th to 1/30th
respectively. It was payable in both cash and kind.

2. There were three categories of land revenue, Amara, Bandaravada and Manya.
Bandaravada was a crown village, a part of it's income was utilised for maintaining the
Vijayanagar force, Manya was tax free villages and the income from Manya was used
to maintain the Brahmans, temples and maths, Amra villages constituted the largest
category given by the Vijayanagar rulers to the amar nayakas, their holders did not
possess proprietary rights on land, but they enjoyed over the income of land. The Amar
tenure was primarily residual as the income was distributed after deductions has been
made for supporting Brahmans and the force.

3. The state derived its income in various ways from the country side. Rice was a stable
crop, it is mentioned that both black and while variety of rice is produced from the
Coromandel to Pulicat, cereals like grams and pulses were also cultivated, spices like
black pepper, coconut, betel nuts. Land tenures were given to individual Brahmans or
groups of Brahmans as well as to maths which included the non-Brahmanical Shaiva
Sidhantas and Vaishnava gurus. Under the Vijayanagar state there was a great increase
in deva dan grants, besides the land tax professional taxes were imposed on shepherds,
farm servants’ washermen, potters, shoe makers, musicians, etc there was also tax on
property and grazing and house tax was also imposed. Villages were also supposed to
pay for the maintenance of the village officers. The state also laid transit dues
sthaladayam, margadayam, manuladayam. The state also derived from investments and
irrigation which was called dasavanda and Kattu-Kodage in Karnataka, irrigation
activities were undertaken in semi-dry areas where certain hydrographic projects can
be undertaken. The irrigation tax was taken as a share in the increased productivity of
the land earned by the persons who undertook such developmental work. For example:
construction of a tank or channel. The individual personally benefited from the
initiatives and the increased productivity also benefited the cultivators of the area.

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 4. Under the Vijayanagar state, temples emerged as big land holders. Hundreds of villages
were granted in the name of the deities to the large temples. There were a large number
of temple officials to manage the land holdings and earning from the temple. These
temple functionaries were paid their salaries from the income derived from the
devadana villages. The income was also utilised to provide food offerings and to
purchase items for the temple like incense sticks, aromas and clothes. They also
purchased temple essentials for carrying out the ritual rites like morning Abhishek etc.
At times, the state made cash endowments to the temples to provide ritual services. The
temples also contributed to the economy. They took up irrigation works; large temples
even maintained an irrigation department for proper utilisation of temple grants. Many
devotees who gave cash grants to the temples, received a share of prasadam i.e., the
food offerings. In this period, temples emerged as important centres of economic
activity in South India. Many temples, especially the big ones, also emerged as bankers.
They gave employment to a large number of people. It is mentioned in Mahalingam
that one temple employed 370 servants. Temples gave loans to individuals and village
assemblies for economic activities. The loans were given against lands whose incomes
went to the temples. Cash endowments made by the state to the Tirupati temple were
invested in irrigation. The income was therefore used for various activities centring
around the temple and its surroundings. Cash grants were used to advance commercial
loans to business firms at Trichonopoly.

Foreign Trade

1. We get a lot of information regarding foreign trade from Amuktamalyada by

Krishnadeva Raya, Domigo Paes, Nuniz. There is a vivid description of the horse trade.
The role of the Indians in the overseas trade was minimal. The foreign trade was controlled
by Muslim merchants according to Barbosa. They were given special treatment by the ruler
and assigned a nayar bodyguard, a chetty accountant and an agent for helping in local
transactions.

2. The royal monopoly of Pear fisheries at kayal was given to a Muslim merchant. The
Arabs and later Portuguese controlled the horse trade from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the
western coast ports. Goa supplied horses to Vijayanagar. Besides horses, other items were
ivory, pearls, precious nuts, coconuts, spices, palm sugar and salt.

a. Pearls from Persian Gulf at Ceylon

b. Precious stones from Pegu (Surma)
c. Velvet from Mecca
d. Satin, brocade, silk, damask from China
e. Vijayanagar was exporting white rice, sugar cane, and iron
f. Diamonds were exported from Vijayanagar. In fact, Numiz says,
Vijayanagar diamond mines were the richest in the world. The principal
mines were on the banks of Krishna river and the areas were Kurnool

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 and Anantpur. This led to the development of the diamond industry for
cutting and polishing of precious stones like diamonds, sapphires, rubies
in Vijayanagar and Malabar.

Flourishing Internal Trade and Urban Life

1. Under the Vijayanagar state, there were internal trade and urban life; both short and
long-distance internal trade existed.
2. Roads and roadside facilities were developed. Carts were used for transport of grains
over short distances.
3. Riverine transportation or shipping, especially the backwardly on the western ports.
4. Pack animals have been used for long distance transport and at times armed guards
were employed. Local rich people realised the importance of trade and gave
encouragement to town-based trade. Also, auxiliary trade, there were regular and
periodic fairs which were established around the big temples during festival times.
Fares were conducted by trade institutions headed by a Pattanaswami. In the literary
sources, 80 major trade centres are mentioned. Gauda or the chief also patronised these
trade fares. Markets for agricultural and non-agricultural products were segregated and
in accordance to the left (Shivites-agri) and right (Vaishvaites-non-agri) hand caste
affiliations.
5. There was also trade in consecrated food for pilgrims and the sale of the rite of ritual
functions and offices which constituted an important aspect of temple. The merchants
and artisans were identified with certain cities, especially in the Andhra land. For
example: Telugu oil pressers and merchants were associated with the city of Berwada
in Krishna district. In these trading towns, the transit duties, shops and house rents
providing incomes to the towns. The temples records mention the prestige of merchants
and artisans. The Vijayanagar state possessed strong urban qualities which have not
been witnessed in any other Southern Indian state of the time. The capital city included
within its precincts, markets, palaces, temples, mosques etc. The urban quality was
however completely destroyed by the middle of the 14th century.

UNIT - IV

Sources of Law in Ancient India

Sutras (Thread)

I. Brevity, unambiguous

Dharma sutras: Gautama, Baudhayana and Apastambha

1. Dharma sutras are part of Kalpa sutras

2. These are rules with regard to human conduct
3. Dharma sutra deals with relationship between individual and the state

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 4. Detailed discussions on the duties of varnas and ashrams, social usage, customs and
practices of everyday life
5. The origin of civil and criminal law is traced to this period
6. Civil law included taxes, inheritance, position of women etc.
7. Criminal included assault, adultery, murder, theft etc.
8. All people in the society were not equal in the eyes of law as the rules of punishment
were based on Varna considerations. For example: an offence by shudra had a
punishment of death sentence and an offence would brahman would not be punished
and he could do penance
9. Dharam sutras are the earliest source of Hindu law
10. Within the sutras there are differences over the idea of crime and punishment
11. Important dharma sutras were/are Gautama, Baudhayana, Apastambha and Vashishta
12. Gautama Dharam sutra: the themes and topics are legal and religious. It asserted the
importance of cultivators, pastoralists, traders, artisans, money lenders and discusses
practices and usages of these groups. This dharma sutra also covers matters like
marriage, inheritance, partition and stree dhan.
13. Baudhayan: this dharma sutra is not available to us completely and is only available
in fragments. It discusses in detail marriage, inheritance etc. It refers to the custom of
marrying a daughter to the maternal uncle in South India. It also mentions the control
over trade and commerce by the king or the state. Various taxes and duties were levied
i.e., levy on the sea custom duty. There were duties on the basic value of the
merchandise and also imposition of excise duty on the manufactured goods.
14. Apastambha: the sutra states that the conduct of a person is to be regulated by law laid
down by the men of the dvija i.e., the three upper-caste and who were properly obedient
to their teachers who were ages and of subdued senses i.e., not given avarice or
hypocrisy. The sutra acknowledges Vedas as the primary source of law, it also criticises
Niyoga as a king of polyandry. The sutra also opposed adoption as it amounted to
selling or deserting one's lawful child.

Dharma shastras

1. They are in verse form unlike sutras which are in points

2. Gives instructions in the sacred laws
3. Greater concentration on law
4. Dharma shastras are also called smritis meaning to remember or memorise
5. Smritis have guided the lives of people since ancient India
6. The Brahmans trace the explanation of religious duties and shastras
7. They were considered authentic guides to law, customs and duty as they were
described with divine origin
8. Vedas were found to be inadequate to regulate the complex social system that emerged
over time
9. Dharma shastras are a combination of practical and ethical code of conduct

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 10. These shastras deal with varnas, dharma of kshatriyas and kings, judicial procedures,
ashrams, privileges, obligations and responsibilities, some aspects of substantive law
like crime and punishments, contracts, partition and inheritance, adoption, gambling
etc.
11. These is a lot of emphasis on dharma shastras on moral qualities with emphasis on
right conduct in everyday life including proper rites and ceremonies to be regularly
performed by men and women of different varnas
12. Dharma shastras constantly underline the subjugation of lower aims to achieve high
moral values
13. Smritis are primarily related to varna ashram dharma and not with sadharan dharma
i.e., duties common to all
14. Dharma shastra were partly religious and partly moral as the authors were brahmans
15. Dharma shastras looked at the government and political processes in the light of the
available Vedic records
16. Dharma shastras are essentially deductive in nature
17. The dharma shastras set before themselves very high standards, goals and ideals
18. Smritikaras primarily deal with Raja shastras

19. Manu smriti is the earliest of the dharma shastras

20. Many manus are mentioned in the text in three different periods between 200 BCE to
200 CE and some say it was compiled by Rishi Bhrigu
21. It’s a metrical law book which mentions 2685 verses
22. It prescribes dandaniti and it was claimed that it was composed by Brahma, in dandniti
it deals with life, morals and government
23. In the three chapters, Manu discusses king and the state, origin of kingship and its
nature, duties of the king, ministers and other officials, judiciary, sources of law,
classification of law, punishments and ethical principles of warfare
24. Other chapters deal with morality, penance, expiation, migration of souls and salvation
25. Manu smriti viewed dharma as the supreme power of the state and the king’s primary
duty was to follow dharma
26. The state was not an end in itself and the objective of the state was the means to attain
purusharthas which are Artha, Dharma, Kama and Moksha, the last one was possible
only for a few
27. For the first time, the law was classified under 18 titles
28. Criminal law was based on caste privileges and disabilities which have been described
in great detail
29. Punishments were both retributive and deterrent
30. Manu smriti emphasises on both justice and equity

Yajnavalkya

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1. It is another important Dharma shastra, supposedly composed by Rishi Yajnavalkya
2. It is more systematic and concise
3. It contains three books on three major categories of Indian law (a) Acara (Proper
conduct), (b) Prayashchitta (expiation), and (c) Vyavhara (criminal law)
4. The first two categories mention three popular courts (a) Kula, (b) Shreni and (c) Puga
5. Kula is the lowest court for arbitration in minor matters
6. This smriti explains the judicial procedures and the processes. According to this smriti,
there are 4 stages in a law suit. The text also favours writing down the plaint when the
complaint was made for the first time and again in the presence of the defendant. Any
discrepancy between the original complaint and the second one in the presence of the
adversary may go against the complainant. No counterclaim or counter charge was
allowed till the plaint was disposed off. In case of kalah and violent crimes aka Sahasa,
counter charge was allowed. In serious offences (criminal), especially involving a
woman, the parties had to plead without loss of time. At the start of the suit, the parties
were to give sureties.
7. Evidence or mode of proof: there were three-fold evidences or mode proof being:
documents, witnesses and possession. The text also added ordeal. Any document
written by the judge was more authoritative except when it was done by force or fraud.
Further, any document which was transferred to another country or spoiled, soiled or
mutilated or it contained illegible script was considered invalid. The trial was based on
witness depositions. The character of the witness was important and a witness must be
religious, generous, from a respectable family, a speaker of truth, eminent in virtue, fair
minded, having sons and wealthy.
8. Yajnavalkya responds to the growing needs of the society and the law reflects the
growing complexities of the society especially in property matters. While Manu does
not recognise the adverse possession to convert in possession. Yajnavalkya recognises
possession as a proof or evidence where there is doubt about the title to whom it
belongs. Possession for Yajnavalkya was important under the procedural law. he
regarded possession as a matter of proof and not as a case of substantive right. Under
this reasoning, Yajnavalkya disallowed proof of title in case of hereditary possession.
According to Yajnavalkya, title and possession together establish proprietary rights. He
recognised adverse possession as a source of acquisition of right.
9. Yajnavalkya makes a clear distinction between the religious and secular law. The
popular usage acceptable to people must prevail over sacred law. The king also must
abide by the laws and customs of the conquered country. The king’s decree must
comply with the basic norms governing the social order.
10. Yajnavalkya focused extensively on the civil law, for instance: with regard to debt
which was secured by a pledge (promise) on interest of a certain percentage per month
had to be honoured. The interest was charged according to the caste hierarchy i.e., the
upper caste paying the lower rates of interest. High rates of interests were charged (10-
20%) from the persons who travelled through forests and sea. The text did not favour
usury (interest on loan). For different types of articles, he allowed different interests
varying from 8x, 4x, 3x, or 2x the original principle.

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 11. According to this smriti, if the partition took place in the lifetime of the father then the
eldest son was entitled the best share i.e., the only thing he was allowed or else it was
to be divided equally among all sons. If the partition occurred after the death of the
father then his assets and liabilities were shared equally by the sons. The mother was
entitled to an equal share while the daughters were permitted 1/4 th part of the son’s
share. In the absence of a son, the order of succession was as follows: (i) the wife, (ii)
the daughters, (iii) both parents, (iv) brothers, (v) their sons, (vi) gotrajas, (vii) bandhus
(agnates), (viii) pupils and (ix) the fellow student.
12. Yajnavalkya recognised the right of a widow as an heir and her right to inherence.
13. Streedhan: the smriti prescribes six kinds of wealth included in streedhan: (a) gift by
the father, mother, husband or brother, (b) gifts at the time of marriage, (c) gifts received
at her husband’s marriage with another wife, (d) gifts received by her kindred
associated with her, (e) bridal price and (f) gifts received after marriage. According to
this smriti, women had full proprietary rights over the streedhan but if her husband
utilised the streedhan to meet emergencies, he was not liable to return it. In case a
woman died without any issue (children), the property could be inherited either by the
husband (in case of marriage according to proper Vedic rites) or the parents, depending
on the form of marriage.
14. Punishments: the smriti prescribes four types of punishments i.e., (a) gentle
admonition, (b) harsh reproof, (c) fine and (d) corporal punishments. The text advices
the king to punish his relatives if they disobey the law. The first-time offenders would
have his little finger and thumb cut-off. On the second offence, they’re pried off a hand
or foot. The highest punishment was for those who helped a thief knowingly or those
giving false witnesses, cheats, thugs or those who alter the charters. For false witnesses
or cheats, the brahman offender was to be banished while non-brahman offender was
to be fined. Banishment is also prescribed for brahmans giving false evidence or for
transgressing the rules and regulations of corporate organisations or for playing with
false dice and other fraudulent activities. Capital punishment was prescribed for the
destruction of embankments. Death sentence by burning was prescribed while wicked
women were to be drowned to death for their offence. Milder punishments were
prescribed for unintentional offences. Crimes must be punished irrespective of the
social status and the king must be impartial in awarding punishments (though he would
do so according to caste). The punishments must be relative to the circumstances and
nature of the crime. The punitive measures must conform to the sacred literature.
15. The state should not interfere in the judicial functions of the brahmans.

SOURCE OF ISLAMIC LAW

Shariat

1. It's the islamic law, in the Islam state and society are based on precepts of Shariat.
2. Shariat is the legal sovereign
3. Shariat is considered divine, eternal and immutable.

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 4. The shariat has three principle components, the Quran, Hadis and Ijma.
5. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters with 6360 verses.
6. The prime objective of shariat is to guide humanity to lead an ethical life and to
emphasise on the fact that the dominant force should be spirituality. It does not advocate
any compulsion in religion that war is envisaged only to stop religious persecution and
to protect house of worship.
7. Interpretation played an important role in the development of Sharia law, it is made up
of judge made law to a large extent.
8. Marriage, succession and inheritance are within the ambit of Shariat law
9. In a complex growing and changing society, there was a need for interpretation of
profits teaching.
10. According to the Quran monogamy is to be preferred but in special circumstances four
wives can be taken.
11. Females were entitled to a share in the father's and husband property but women were
not forbidden to leave their home, however they need to be modest in their dress and
demeanor.
12. Islamic law provides rules for guiding male behaviour and for social, economic and
political ethics.

Sunnas or Hadis

1. The Quran or shariat is supplemented by sunna, sunnas are the practices of prophet
Muhammad which were transmitted in the form of short narratives or Statements or
traditions, they were called Hadis.
2. There is no controversy in Islam over the Quran but Sunni and Shia Hadis differ in
content and methodology.
3. The most authentic collection of sunni Hadis is by Muhammad Bin Ismail Bukhari 810-
870, his work is known as sahih or authentic. It contains 2762 statements each preceded
by the chain of it's transmitters. These Hadis were selected from a mass of 6 lakh
traditions, this indicates or shows the enormous number of false statements current in
the time of Bukhari, and the difficulties he faced.
4. Another authentic sunni Hadis is by Ibn al-Hajjaj. The sunni works of Hadis are known
as 6 canonical books
5. The Shia Hadis contained the sayings of Ali and his descendants known as imams
besides those of the prophet. According to Shias they were the custodians of prophet
muhammad's knowledge, which is both Esoteric and exoteric. Their narrative embodied
prophetic traditions.
6. There were 4 important works of Shia Hadis, the earliest one by Mohammad ibn Yaqub
Kulyani written in 940 CE is the most important one.
7. Hadis are regarded as the best interpretation of law and has played an important part in
the development of Shariat because wherever the Qur'an is either silent or doesn't
contain any injunction the authorities of Hadis is sort.
8. Quran and Hadis are considered most valuable and are described as Usul that is usual
or basic and hence the basis of islamic jurisprudence.

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Ijma

1. It is the consensus of opinions of the most eminent theologians of islam, it is accepted

as the right solution where existing laws are inadequate to solve new problems in the
Islamic society.
2. Wherever the legal opinion was unanimous regarding an interpretation of a verse of
Quran or a tradition of the prophet it was safe not to differ.
3. Unless a judge has a strong reason to differ on an interpretation which received
universal recognition he was expected to agree.

Qiyas

They are analogies and influences based on Quran and Hadis

Urfi law

1. Rules and regulations issued from time to time to develop the Islamic law by the rulers
of the Muslim state.
2. They are based on the concept of justice and fair play and they are related to matters
like Trade, property etc
3. All these collectively are called urfi law
4. A judge was allowed considerable discretion in the interpretation and application of
urfi law.
5. The judge had no such discretion in the interpretation of Shariat law and he had to abide
by the views of the approved learner jurists.

Four main schools of law in Islam

1. In Islam considerable complexity emerged due to the conflicting interpretation by

mujtahids learned jurists of islam. They had divergent opinions over legal points and
other matters which were not covered in the injunctions of Quran or Hadis.
2. As a consequence various well defined schools of islamic law emerged. Their
commentaries on the Muslim laws were based on their interpretation after a exhaustive
study of Quran, Hadis, Ijma and the Qiyas
3. Each school was marked by it's own distinctive characteristics. Some of the schools
were fundamentalist and others were rationalist.
4. The four main schools of law are Hanafi school by Abu Hanifa 699-767 , Maliki school
by Malik ibn Anas 713-797, Hanbali school by Ahmed ibn Hanbal 780-885, Shafi
school by Mohammad ibn Idris al Shafi 767-820.

HAnfiyyah/ Hanafi mazhab

1. The school of religious law emerged from the ancient law school in Kufa and Basra.
Abu Hanifa did not write any books on law, but his disciples Abu Yosuf and Al-
Shaybani embodied their teachers' view. Abu Hanifa gave Personal judgements and

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 conclusions by analogies and he insisted on the right of preference istihsan i.e. the law
giver may depart from analogy on the grounds of equity
2. Have greater importance to rational deduction and was most popular in northern India.
3. The imam Abu Yosuf had left an important treatise on laws governing state and
agricultural produce
4. Hanafi school had most liberal approach towards non-Muslims in a muslim empire.
5. The Maliki school had the oldest corpus of islamic laws called Al-Muwatta written by
Malik ibn Anas of Medina it includes 1700 juridical traditions based on consensus of
opinions among those who were believed to be the best acquainted with the spirit of
prophets' decisions. Malik's students Mohammad Idris Shafi worked in Cairo and
Baghdad and he created a middle ground between the Malik and the Hanafi school.
6. Shari's pupil Hanbal was a strong champion of puritanic islam.
7. The works of the founders of the four schools of islamic jurisprudence including the
works of their students successors forms the major corpus of the sunni school of law.
After Hanbals death an argument developed among the all the four schools that all
essential legal questions had been settled and that future judges or jurists should abide
by the laws propounded by them, this decision which is known as the closing of the
door of ijtihad. This unquestioning of the doctrine of any of four schools is known as
taqlid or imitation. The jurists of subsequent centuries were muqallids of the imitators.

SUFISM

1. It primarily strives to achieve inner realisation of divine unity through intuition and
spirituality. It also means Tasawwuf or safa(purity) or sufa (platform), suf (Coarse wool
worn by sufi).
2. Sufism emphasised on contemplation and meditation rejecting rational argument..
3. Some sufis during their spiritual practise enter into Trance or ecstasy or frenzy but
generally sobriety was considered essential for Sufism.
4. Sufi mystic orders emerged in west Asia in 10th Ce by the 13th Ce Sufia were divided
into 14 orders called silsilas. Sufis shunned/avoided vulgar displays of wealth and
degeneration of morals that came about with the rise of islamic empire.
5. Most of the sufi orders did not want to do anything with the state, a tradition which was
carried forward by the chistis in india.
6. Some of the early Sufis like Rabia and Mansur bin Hallaj in 10th ce laid great emphasis
on the bond between God and the individual soul. This was a pantheistic approach
which brought them into conflict with the orthodox Islam. Sufis were persecuted and
Masur executed for heresy. But the Sufis continued to draw the masses towards them.
In 12th ce Al Ghazzali and later Ibn Arabi tried to reconcile mysticism with Islamic
orthodoxy, he argued positive knowledge of God and his qualities cannot be gained by
reason but only revelation and the reveal book Quran was vital for a mystic.
7. The Silsilas were generally led by a prominent mystic who lived in the Khanqah also
called hospice along with his disciples. The head of the Khanqah was called pir or

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 teacher and the disciples were called Murid. The pir appointed a successor called
Khalifa. Pir were also called Shaikh and he established rules in his Khanqah for spiritual
conduct and interactions among the disciples and the ordinary people.
8. The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying continuous link between the master
and disciple stretching to an unbroken genealogy eight upto prophet Muhammad. It was
through this unbroken channel that the spiritual power and blessings were transmitted
to devotees.
9. Special rituals of initiations were developed in which the initiates took an oath of
allegiance, loyalty. Wore a patched garment and shaved their hair.
10. On the death of the pir or the Shaikh his dargah became a popular sufi shrine and he
came to be known as wali and on urs, marriage or union of walis soul with divine and
visit to the shrine constituted ziyarat (important pilgrimage).
11. The monastic organisation of the Sufis and some of their practices such as penance,
fasting, holding the breath, ear piercing. Is linked to influences to Buddhism and Yogis,
respective of the origins there were many similarities between the ideas of the sufis and
the hindu Yogis and mystics about the nature, relationship of God, soul and matter. This
provided a basis or a foundation of mutual understanding and tolerance. The human
spirit of Sufism is important in integrating the mediaeval society.
12. Sufis were divided into two groups Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara lived in the
Khanqahs and followed the Islamic law, Be-shara didn't live in Khanqah and were not
bound by laws, they believed in mendicancy and celibacy. They were constantly
wandering and they were Qalandars, Malangs, madaris, Haidaris.
13. Of the Ba-shara movement there were two significant sufi orders in 13th and 14th ce
were the Suhrawrdis and Chishtis.
14. The Chishtis orders were established by Muinuddin Sijzi came from the town of chishtis
in afghan in 1192 to Ajmer. His disciples were Bakhtyar Kaki after him Baba Farid
Ganj-i-Shakar stayed in Pak Patan, initially in Hansi Ajodhan then Nizamuddin Aulia
and Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi. These early Sufis mingled with people of lower classes
and led an austere and simple life, they conversed with people in hindi or hindavi. These
Sufis make themselves popular by adopting musical recitation called sama to create a
mood of closeness or intimacy with God. Amir khusro is the disciple of Nizamuddin
Aulia. They chose hindi verses to make a greater impact. Nizamuddin Aulia adopted
yogic breathing practices and he was called a siddha or a perfect person. The Chishti
Khanqah of Nizamuddin Aulia was on the banks of river Yamuna, it comprised several
small rooms and a big hall called Jamat khana, where the inmates and the visitors lived
and prayed. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met
visitors in the morning and evening. A varanda surrounding the courtyard and a
boundary wall encircled the complex, there was an open kitchen called langar, which
was run on futuh unasked for charity from morning to night people came to Khanqah,
Sufi shrine were not only places of Ziyarat and pilgrimage they were places of music,
musical chants or qawwali by trained musicians to evoke ecstasy, the sufi remembered
god either by Zikr reciting the divine name or by through sama evoking his presence
by performing mystical music.

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 15. Chishtis maintained distance from worldly power by they were not absolutely isolated
from political power, they accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political
elites. The sultan set-up a charitable trust called auqaf as endowments for Khanqahs
and granted them free lands called inam. Chishtis accepted both donations in cash and
kind. Instead of accumulating donations the shaikhs preferred to use them for their
immediate requirement of Khanqah such as food, clothing, keep of living quarters and
ritual necessities. Their moral piety and scholarship attracted people in believing the
miraculous power of the Sufis to heal them of sickness. Kings acquired legitimation
and support from Sufis especially the Delhi sultanate. When the Turks first set up their
state in India the sultan resisted the insistence of ulemas on shariat at that time the sultan
turned towards the Sufis who assisted them by giving them legitimacy. It was also
believed that the Auliya could intercede with God to improve material and spiritual
condition of ordinary people. The king also therefore wanted their tomb in the vicinity
of sufi shrine and hospices, there were instances of conflict between the Sufis and sultan
eg. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
16. Suhrawardi came into India in 12th 13th, it's activities were confined to Multan and
Punjab, the founder was Shihabuddin Suhrawardi , another one was Hamiduddin
Nagori, unlike the chishtis Suhrawardi didn't believe in leading a life of poverty. It
accepted the services Islamic kingdom holding a position in ecclesiastical department.
The sufi preferred to be aloof from their state and shunned the company of nobles and
kings, both helped the ruler in their own way by creating a climate of tolerance and
receptivity in people of different religions and sects by their message of peace and
harmony.

BHAKTI

1. It is a devotional worship of God with an ultimate objective of attaining moksha or salvation

2. Bhakti cult goes as far back as Indus civilization as we have the seal of pashupati or lord
shiv in the meditation being worshipped.

3. Bhakti finds mention in Vedas, Upanishads, epics and puranas.

4. Vedanta which is also called Upanishad has gone into metaphysical explorations or
philosophical

The essence of vedanta philosophy is

a. Creator and the creation

b. Concept of God and Brahman or parmatma and soul which is atma

c. Doctrine of rebirth and transmigration of soul

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d. Theory of karma or law of deeds.

e . Vedanta suggests three paths to salvation gyan, karma and Bhakti. Gyan is Salvation through
knowledge, karma is salvation through disinterested action. And Bhakti is devotional worship
to god.

5. Important features of BHAKTI

A. All powerful omnipotent .

B. Complete surrender to creators

C. worship by means of good deeds, meditation and chanting the names of God

D. Establishing a personal relationship with God kr between master and slave or a friend,
husband and wife, beloved and lover.

6. Bhakti as a cult started in Tamil in 6th Ce as a reaction against Jainism and Buddhism,
Nayanas were the Shaiva worshippers, and Vaishnava were Vishnu worshippers.

7. Bhakti saints took up the principle of universal brotherhood from the Sufis and in the 16th
ce bhakti saints like nanak and Kabir stressed on Hindu Muslim unity. Bhakti movement is not
an outcome of Sufism.

8. Bhakti saints believed in devotion as a form of worship to attain salvation.

9. Under the influence of Sufis there was the importance of guru as spiritual guides to help
them attain their objectives, a living guru was indispensable.

10. The Bhakti saints believed in high moral character and virtuous living.

11. Equality of all human beings and love of human being was the true devotion to God

12. Some of the Bhakti saints were social and revolutionary reformers speaking up against deep
rooted socio religious evils like caste system, idol worship, supremacy of Brahman priest etc.
They challenged the sanctity of ancient Indian scriptures and sanskrit and hence they preached
in local dialect and language of people, they condemn idol worship and superstitious beliefs as
meaningless they included in this yags, pligrimages etc, they also attacked tantric activities and
mircales and also avoided metaphysical and philosophical debates, most of the were eclectic
and broad minded and denounced untouchability and believed in equality many of the BHAKTI
saints were from lower caste.

13 There were two schools under the bhakti movement Saguna and Nirguna.

The saguna school believed that the god has many forms and attributes and he has many avatars
eg Meera, they worshipped images , Nirguna school believed in God without form or attributes
but God was merciful and responsive to human prayers eg Nanak and Kabir.

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14. 788 to 820 ADCommon Era shankaracharya from Nambudri, he recognised the ascetic
order of sanyasi on the pattern of Buddhist monks. Organised the mats in Jagannath Puri,
Shringeri, Dwarka and he is considered the father of bhakti movement.

15. Shankaracharya did not stress on Bhakti marg, it is Ramanuja in 12th Ce who is said to
have systematised the Bhakti marg

He was a Vaishnava and he broke the caste barrier, he said that God was the supreme creator
but soul though part and parcel of divine force was yet distinct from it. Suggesting Dualism in
the monastic philosophy of Shankaracharya. He laid greater stress on the devotional worship
to personal god, the other prominent bhakti saints were

Nimbarkar in Braja, he personified radha and krishna as one.

16. Madhavacharya a vaishnavite saint

17 Ramananda- He ignored traditional barriers of caste, he had his followers predominantly

from lower caste Raidas cobbler, Kabir weaver, Dhanna Jat peasant, Sena barber, Pipa rajput,

Ramananda taught devotional worship to ram and Sita opposing supremacy of Brahmans as
sole custodians of hindu religion.

"Jat pat puche na koi, pooche Har ko bhaje toh har ko hoye "

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