Historian - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Historian

Historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past
and is regarded as an authority on it.[1] Historians are
concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and
research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as
the study of all history in time. If the individual is concerned
with events preceding written history, the individual is a
historian of prehistory. Some historians are recognized by
publications or training and experience.[2] "Historian" became a
professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as
research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere.

Contents
Objectivity
History analysis
Historiography
Ancient Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BC) was a
Enlightenment Greek historian who lived in the 5th
19th century century BC and one of the earliest
Professionalization in Germany historians whose work survives.

20th century
Education and profession
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Objectivity
During the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial, it became evident that the court needed to
identify what was an "objective historian" in the same vein as the reasonable person, and reminiscent
of the standard traditionally used in English law of "the man on the Clapham omnibus".[3] This was
necessary so that there would be a legal benchmark to compare and contrast the scholarship of an
objective historian against the illegitimate methods employed by David Irving, as before the Irving v
Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial, there was no legal precedent for what constituted an objective
historian.[3]

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Justice Gray leant heavily on the research of one of the expert witnesses, Richard J. Evans, who
compared illegitimate distortion of the historical record practice by holocaust deniers with established
historical methodologies.[4]

By summarizing Gray's judgment, in an article published in the Yale Law Journal, Wendie E.
Schneider distils these seven points for what he meant by an objective historian: [5]

1. The historian must treat sources with appropriate reservations;

2. The historian must not dismiss counter-evidence without scholarly consideration;
3. The historian must be even-handed in treatment of evidence and eschew "cherry-
picking";
4. The historian must clearly indicate any speculation;
5. The historian must not mistranslate documents or mislead by omitting parts of
documents;
6. The historian must weigh the authenticity of all accounts, not merely those that
contradict his or her favored view; and
7. The historian must take the motives of historical actors into consideration.

Schneider uses the concept of the "objective historian" to suggest that this could be an aid in assessing
what makes a historian suitable as expert witnesses under the Daubert standard in the United States.
Schneider proposed this, because, in her opinion, Irving could have passed the standard Daubert tests
unless a court was given "a great deal of assistance from historians".[6]

Schneider proposes that by testing a historian against the criteria of the "objective historian" then,
even if a historian holds specific political views (and she gives an example of a well-qualified
historian's testimony that was disregarded by a United States court because he was a member of a
feminist group), providing the historian uses the "objective historian" standards, he or she is a
"conscientious historian". It was Irving's failure as an "objective historian" not his right-wing views
that caused him to lose his libel case, as a "conscientious historian" would not have "deliberately
misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence" to support his political views. [7]

History analysis
The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts, and
purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain "what happened" and "why or how it
happened". Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics,
sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics. While ancient writers do
not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the
cultural context of the times. An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the
verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and
recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology.

Historiography

Ancient

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Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the

telling of history has emerged independently in civilizations around the
world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see
philosophy of history). The earliest chronologies date back to
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these
early civilizations were known by name.

Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development

that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere
around the Mediterranean region. The earliest known critical historical
works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus Reproduction of part of a
(484 – c. 425 BCE) who later became known as the "father of history" tenth-century copy of
(Cicero). Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less Thucydides's History of the
reliable accounts and personally conducted research by travelling Peloponnesian War.
extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures.
Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters
of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.
Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta,
establishing a rationalistic element that set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings.
He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his
successor Xenophon (c. 431 – 355 BCE) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in
his Anabasis.

The Romans adopted the Greek tradition. While early Roman works
were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman
statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), was written in Latin, in a
conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo (63 BCE –
c. 24 CE) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of
combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of
peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BCE – 17 CE) records the
rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what
would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome
represents the first known instance of alternate history.[8]

In Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five

Leonardo Bruni
Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of (c.1370–1444), the
China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State historian who first divided
of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE, is among the earliest history into the three eras of
surviving Chinese historical texts arranged on annalistic principles. Sima Antiquity, the Middle Ages,
Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for and Modern times.
professional historical writing. His written work was the Shiji (Records
of the Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in
literature. Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE, and it includes many treatises on
specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people and also explores the lives and deeds
of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.[9]

Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for
the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages.
They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic
history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or

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chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper
the analysis of events and causes.[10] An example of this type of writing is
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, which were the work of several different
writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late
9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154.[11]

A page of Bede's
Ecclesiastical History of the
English People
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with
the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad's life in the centuries
following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding
Muhammad and his companions from various sources, scholars had to
verify which sources were more reliable. To evaluate these sources, they
developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography,
science of hadith and Isnad (chain of transmission). They later applied
these methodologies to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization.
Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn
Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn
Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar
(1372–1449).

Enlightenment

During the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application
of scrupulous methods began.

French philosophe Voltaire (1694–1778) had an enormous

influence on the art of history writing. His best-known histories
are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and Essay on the Customs and
the Spirit of the Nations (1756). "My chief object," he wrote in
1739, "is not political or military history, it is the history of the
arts, of commerce, of civilization – in a word, – of the human
mind."[12] He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic
and military events, and emphasized customs, social history, and
achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to
make a serious attempt to write the history of the world,
eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, Voltaire's works of history are an
culture, and political history. excellent example of Enlightenment
era history writing. Painting by
At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar Pierre Charles Baquoy.
impact on history in Great Britain. In 1754, he published the
History of England, a six-volume work that extended from the
Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688. Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his
history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture,
including literature and science, as well.[13] William Robertson, a Scottish historian, and the
Historiographer Royal[14] published the History of Scotland 1542 - 1603, in 1759 and his most famous
work, The history of the reign of Charles V in 1769.[15] His scholarship was painstaking for the time
and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that had previously been unstudied.
He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general and universally
applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events.[16]

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The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon's,

monumental six-volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative
objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, at the time its methodology
became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called
the first "modern historian".[17] The book sold impressively, earning its
author a total of about £9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that
thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting."

19th century

Edward Gibbon's Decline of The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired
the Roman Empire (1776) much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century.
was a masterpiece of late Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great
18th-century history writing. Reform Act of 1832 in England.

Thomas Carlyle published his magnum opus, the three-volume The

French Revolution: A History in 1837.[18][19] The resulting work had a passion new to historical
writing. Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history, The History of England from
the Accession of James the Second, in 1848.[20] His writings are famous for their ringing prose and
for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history,
according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced
constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with the freedom of belief and expression. This
model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history.[21]

In his main work Histoire de France, French historian Jules Michelet

coined the term Renaissance (meaning "Re-birth" in French language), as a
period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle
Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the
world.[22] The nineteen-volume work covered French history from
Charlemagne to the outbreak of the Revolution. Michelet was one of the
first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people,
rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. Another important
French historian of the period was Hippolyte Taine. He was the chief
theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of
sociological positivism and one of the first practitioners of historicist
criticism. Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to
originate with him.[23] Jules Michelet, later in
his career.
One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss
historian Jacob Burckhardt[24] Burckhardt's best-known work is The
Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of
cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a
particular people, or a particular place.[25] By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to
analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional
government. William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874–78) was an important
influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from
the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English
historical learning.[26]

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Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world-historical
development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production
determined the structure of society at that point. Previous historians had focused on the cyclical
events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of
national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of "one's own" history from common
universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed
history as history of a nation.[27] A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and
analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.

Professionalization in Germany

The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were

pioneered in 19th-century German universities. Leopold von Ranke was a
pivotal influence in this regard, and is considered as the founder of modern
source-based history.[28][29][30][31]

Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom

and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents.
Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and Teutonic
Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources
for a historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal
missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand
Ranke established
accounts of eye-witnesses". Over a career that spanned much of the century,
history as a professional
Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing academic discipline in
such ideas as reliance on primary sources (empiricism), an emphasis on Germany.
narrative history and especially international politics (aussenpolitik).[32]
Sources had to be hard, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was
to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity. [33]

20th century

The term Whig history was coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation
of History in 1931, (a reference to the British Whigs, advocates of the power of Parliament) to refer to
the approach to historiography that presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever
greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and
constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional
government, personal freedoms, and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in
historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any
teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and transhistorical narrative.[34] Butterfield's antidote to
Whig history was "...to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past, the sensibility which studies the
past 'for the sake of the past', which delights in the concrete and the complex, which 'goes out to meet
the past', which searches for 'unlikenesses between past and present'."[35] Butterfield's formulation
received much attention, and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalised terms is
no longer academically respectable.[36]

The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the
20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The
school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography. [37][38]

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An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach

to history as one that

relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to

give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to
pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances,
to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy,
society, and civilisation.

Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced

The 20th century saw by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and
the creation of a huge economic constraints in determining historical outcomes. Friedrich Engels
variety of wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which was
historiographical salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g.
approaches. Marc the Fabian Society. R. H. Tawney's The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth
Bloch's focus on social
Century (1912)[39] and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926),
history rather than
reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. A
traditional political
circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB)
history was of
formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist
tremendous influence.
historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in
early capitalist society. Members included Christopher Hill, Eric
Hobsbawm and E. P. Thompson.

World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the
1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common
patterns that emerged across all cultures. Arnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History, written
between 1933 and 1954, was an important influence on this developing field. He took a comparative
topical approach to independent civilizations and demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels
in their origin, growth, and decay.[40] William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to
improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very
beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still
further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice
became necessary.[41]

Education and profession

An undergraduate history degree is often used as a stepping stone to graduate studies in business or
law. Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary
education.[42] In addition, it is normal for colleges and universities to require the PhD degree for new
full-time hires. A scholarly thesis, such as a PhD, is now regarded as the baseline qualification for a
professional historian. However, some historians still gain recognition based on published (academic)
works and the award of fellowships by academic bodies like the Royal Historical Society. Publication
is increasingly required by smaller schools, so graduate papers become journal articles and PhD
dissertations become published monographs. The graduate student experience is difficult—those who
finish their doctorate in the United States take on average 8 or more years; funding is scarce except at
a few very rich universities. Being a teaching assistant in a course is required in some programs; in
others it is a paid opportunity awarded a fraction of the students. Until the 1970s it was rare for

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graduate programs to teach how to teach; the assumption was that teaching
was easy and that learning how to do research was the main mission.[43][44]
A critical experience for graduate students is having a mentor who will
provide psychological, social, intellectual and professional support, while
directing scholarship and providing an introduction to the profession.[45]

Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival

centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and
consultants.[46] The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting
worse, with many relegated to part-time "adjunct" teaching jobs with low
pay and no benefits.[47]

See also Peter R.L Brown, a

professional historian of
Late Antiquity and the
List of historians
Medieval period.
Antiquarian
Auxiliary sciences of history
Historiography
Historical revisionism (negationism)

Notes
1. "Historian" (http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Historian).
Wordnetweb.princeton.edu. Retrieved June 27, 2008.
2. Herman, A. M. (1998). Occupational outlook handbook: 1998-99 edition. Indianapolis: JIST
Works. Page 525.
3. Schneider 2001, p. 1531.
4. Schneider 2001, p. 1534.
5. Schneider 2001, pp. 1534, 1535.
6. Schneider 2001, pp. 1534, 1538.
7. Schneider 2001, pp. 15333, 1539.
8. "Livy's History of Rome: Book 9" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070228233052/http://mcadams.p
osc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy09.html). Mcadams.posc.mu.edu. Archived from the original (http://mc
adams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy09.html) on 2007-02-28. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
9. Jörn Rüsen (2007). Time and History: The Variety of Cultures (https://books.google.com/books?id
=SvGyzu-nLaUC&pg=PA54). Berghahn Books. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-1-84545-349-7.
10. Warren, John (1998). The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography,
Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4, pp. 78–79.
11. "Anglophile," Ryan Setliff Online. Dec 2. 2019. https://www.ryansetliff.online/#anglophile
12. E. Sreedharan (2004). A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&pg=PA115). Orient Blackswan. p. 115. ISBN 9788125026570.
13. Wertz, S. K. (1993). "Hume and the Historiography of Science". Journal of the History of Ideas. 54
(3): 411–436. doi:10.2307/2710021 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2710021). JSTOR 2710021 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/2710021).
14. The Poker Club (http://www.jamesboswell.info/Misc/The_Poker_Club.php)

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15. Sher, R. B., Church and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment: The Moderate Literati of
Edinburgh, Princeton, 1985.
16. "William Robertson: An 18th Century Anthropologist-Historian" (http://www.aaanet.org/committees
/commissions/centennial/history/021hoebel.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-17.
17. Deborah Parsons (2007). Theorists of the Modernist Novel: James Joyce, Dorothy Richardson
and Virginia Woolf (https://books.google.com/books?id=yH9rdaF1CckC). Routledge. p. 94.
ISBN 9780203965894.
18. Marshall, H.E. "Carlyle – The Sage Of Chelsea" (http://marshall.thefreelibrary.com/English-Literat
ure-For-Boys-And-Girls/82-1). English Literature For Boys And Girls. Retrieved 2009-09-19 – via
Farlex Free Library.
19. Lundin, Leigh (2009-09-20). "Thomas Carlyle" (http://www.criminalbrief.com/?p=8890).
Professional Works. Criminal Brief. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
20. Macaulay, Thomas Babington, History of England. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J. B. Lippincott &
Co., 1878. Vol. V, title page and prefatory "Memoir of Lord Macaulay".
21. J. R. Western, Monarchy and Revolution. The English State in the 1680s (London: Blandford
Press, 1972), p. 403.
22. Brotton, Jerry (2002). The Renaissance Bazaar. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–22.
23. Kelly, R. Gordon, "Literature and the Historian", American Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1974), 143.
24. Jakob Burckhardt Renaissance Cultural History (http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/history/historian/J
acob_Burckhardt.html)
25. John Lukacs, Remembered Past: John Lukacs on History, Historians, and Historical Knowledge,
ed. Mark G Malvasi and Jeffrey O. Nelson, Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2004, 215.
26. s:A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Stubbs, William
27. Georgiy Kasianov, Philipp Terr (2010-04-07). A Laboratory of Transnational History Ukraine and
recent Ukrainian historiography (https://books.google.com/books?id=f52rawP96lYC&q=%22nation
alisation+of+history%22&pg=PA39). p. 7. ISBN 978-1-84545-621-4. Retrieved October 18, 2010.
"This essay deals with, what I call, "nationalized history", meaning a way of perceiving,
understanding and treating the past that requires separation of "one's own" history from
"common" history and its construction as history of a nation."
28. Frederick C. Beiser (2011) The German Historicist Tradition, p.254 (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=w2c6YaKf9usC&pg=PA254)
29. Janelle G. Reinelt, Joseph Roach (2007), Critical Theory and Performance, p. 193 (https://books.
google.com/books?id=asORYuvznpQC&pg=PA193&dq=rankean+positivism&hl=el&sa=X&ei=kH2
XUI65MuTc4QTU8YHwBw&ved=0CD0Q6wEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=rankean%20positivism&f=fals
e)
30. Stern (ed.), The Varieties of History, p. 54: "Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) is the father as well
as the master of modern historical scholarship."
31. Green and Troup (eds.), The Houses of History, p. 2: "Leopold von Ranke was instrumental in
establishing professional standards for historical training at the University of Berlin between 1824
and 1871."
32. E. Sreedharan, A textbook of historiography, 500 BC to AD 2000 (2004) p 185
33. Andreas Boldt, "Ranke: objectivity and history." Rethinking History 18.4 (2014): 457-474.
34. Ernst Mayr, "When Is Historiography Whiggish?" Journal of the History of Ideas, April 1990, Vol.
51 Issue 2, pp 301–309 in JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/pss/2709517)
35. Adrian Wilson and T. G. Ashplant, "Whig History and Present-Centred History," The Historical
Journal, 31 (1988): 1–16, at p. 10.

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36. G. M. Trevelyan (1992), p. 208.

37. Lucien Febvre, La Terre et l'évolution humaine (1922), translated as A Geographical Introduction
to History (London, 1932).
38. Editions.ehess.fr (http://www.editions.ehess.fr/revues/annales-histoire-sciences-sociales/numeros
-parus/)
39. William Rose Benét (1988) p. 961
40. William H. McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee a Life (1989)
41. McNeill, William H. (1995). "The Changing Shape of World History". History and Theory. 34 (2):
8–26. doi:10.2307/2505432 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2505432). JSTOR 2505432 (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/2505432).
42. Bls.gov : Social Scientists, Other (http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos054.htm) Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20090830051426/http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos054.htm) August 30, 2009, at the
Wayback Machine
43. Michael Kammen, "Some Reminiscences and Reflections on Graduate Education in History,
Reviews in American History Volume 36, Number 3, Sept 2008 pp. 468-484
doi:10.1353/rah.0.0027 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Frah.0.0027)
44. Walter Nugent, "Reflections: "Where Have All the Flowers Gone . . . When Will They Ever
Learn?", Reviews in American History Volume 39, Number 1, March 2011, pp. 205-211
doi:10.1353/rah.2011.0055 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Frah.2011.0055)
45. Michael Kammen, "On Mentoring Apprentice Historians and Appreciating Mentors—Gleaned
From the Memories of Others." Reviews in American History 40.2 (2012): 339-348. online (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/41678570)
46. Anthony Grafton and Robert B. Townsend, "The Parlous Paths of the Profession" Perspectives on
History (Sept. 2008) online (http://www.historians.org/Perspectives/issues/2008/0810/0810pro1.cf
m)
47. Robert B. Townsend and Julia Brookins, "The Troubled Academic Job Market for History."
Perspectives on History (2016) 54#2 pp 157-182 echoes Robert B. Townsend, "Troubling News
on Job Market for History PhDs," AHA Today Jan. 4, 2010 online (http://blog.historians.org/articles
/953/troubling-news-on-job-market-for-history-phds)

References
Schneider, Wendie Ellen (June 2001). "Past Imperfect: Irving v. Penguin Books Ltd., No. 1996-
I-1113, 2000 WL 362478 (Q. B. Apr. 11), appeal denied (Dec. 18, 2000)" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20131105162936/http://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/110-8/schneider.pdf) (PDF). The Yale
Law Journal. 110 (8): 1531–1545. doi:10.2307/797584 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F797584).
JSTOR 797584 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/797584). Archived from the original (http://www.yalela
wjournal.org/pdf/110-8/schneider.pdf) (PDF) on 5 November 2013.
Vidor, Gian Marco (2015). "Emotions and writing the history of death. An interview with Michel
Vovelle, Régis Bertrand and Anne Carol" (http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/gPh5dytgRYcRXsXa
N7Qq/full). Mortality. 20 (1): 36–47. doi:10.1080/13576275.2014.984485 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F13576275.2014.984485).

Further reading
The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature ed. by Mary Beth Norton and
Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed. 2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the

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Historian - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historian

most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online (http://hdl.handl
e.net/2027/heb.06298), vol 2 online (http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.06298)
Allison, William Henry. A guide to historical literature (1931) comprehensive bibliography for
scholarship to 1930. online edition (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;vie
w=toc;idno=heb06297.0001.001)
Barnes, Harry ElmerA history of historical writing (1962)
Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences,
(1978)
Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415030846 pp; 39
chapters by experts
Bender, Thomas, et al. The Education of Historians for Twenty-first Century (2003) report by the
Committee on Graduate Education of the American Historical Association
Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007,
ISBN 0-226-07278-9
Boia, Lucian et al., eds. Great Historians of the Modern Age: An International Dictionary (1991)
Cannon, John, et al., eds. The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians. Blackwell Publishers, 1988
ISBN 0-631-14708-X.
Gilderhus, Mark T. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction, 2002,
ISBN 0-13-044824-9
Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the
Postmodern Challenge (2005)
Kelly, Boyd, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing. (1999). Fitzroy Dearborn
ISBN 1-884964-33-8
Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell
2006. 520pp; ISBN 978-1-4051-4961-7.
Todd, Richard B. ed. Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960, (2004). Bristol: Thoemmes
Continuum, 2004 ISBN 1-85506-997-0.
Woolf D. R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (Garland Reference Library of the
Humanities) (2 vol 1998) excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/dp/0815315147/)

External links
Selected texts by the most known historians (http://www.culturahistorica.es/texts_historians.html)

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