Visual Complex Analysis

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1 Geometry and Complex Arithmetic 1

I Introduction 1
1 Historical Sketch 1
2 Bombelli’s “Wild Thought” 3
3 Some Terminology and Notation 6
4 Practice 7
5 Symbolic and Geometric Arithmetic 8
II Euler’s Formula 10
1 Introduction 10
2 Moving Particle Argument 10
3 Power Series Argument 12
4 Sine and Cosine in Terms of Euler’s Formula 14
III Some Applications 14
1 Introduction 14
2 Trigonometry 14
3 Geometry 16
4 Calculus 20
5 Algebra 22
6 Vectorial Operations 27
IV Transformations and Euclidean Geometry* 30
1 Geometry Through the Eyes of Felix Klein 30
2 Classifying Motions 34
3 Three Reflections Theorem 37
4 Similarities and Complex Arithmetic 39
5 Spatial Complex Numbers? 43
V Exercises 45

2 Complex Functions as Transformations 55

I Introduction 55
II Polynomials 57
1 Positive Integer Powers 57
2 Cubics Revisited* 59
3 Cassinian Curves* 60
III Power Series 64
1 The Mystery of Real Power Series 64
2 The Disc of Convergence 67
xvi Contents

3 Approximating a Power Series with a Polynomial 70

4 Uniqueness 71
5 Manipulating Power Series 72
6 Finding the Radius of Convergence 74
7 Fourier Series* 77
IV The Exponential Function 79
1 Power Series Approach 79
2 The Geometry of the Mapping 80
3 Another Approach 81
V Cosine and Sine 84
1 Definitions and Identities 84
2 Relation to Hyperbolic Functions 86
3 The Geometry of the Mapping 88
VI Multifunctions 90
1 Example: Fractional Powers 90
2 Single-Valued Branches of a Multifunction 92
3 Relevance to Power Series 95
4 An Example with Two Branch Points 96
VII The Logarithm Function 98
1 Inverse of the Exponential Function 98
2 The Logarithmic Power Series 100
3 General Powers 101
VIII Averaging over Circles* 102
1 The Centroid 102
2 Averaging over Regular Polygons 105
3 Averaging over Circles 108
IX Exercises 111

3 Möbius Transformations and Inversion 122

I Introduction 122
1 Definition of Möbius Transformations 122
2 Connection with Einstein’s Theory of Relativity* 122
3 Decomposition into Simple Transformations 123
II Inversion 124
1 Preliminary Definitions and Facts 124
2 Preservation of Circles 126
3 Construction Using Orthogonal Circles 128
4 Preservation of Angles 130
5 Preservation of Symmetry 133
6 Inversion in a Sphere 133
III Three Illustrative Applications of Inversion 136
1 A Problem on Touching Circles 136
2 Quadrilaterals with Orthogonal Diagonals 137
3 Ptolemy’s Theorem 138
 Contents xvii

IV The Riemann Sphere 139

1 The Point at Infinity 139
2 Stereographic Projection 140
3 Transferring Complex Functions to the Sphere 143
4 Behaviour of Functions at Infinity 144
5 Stereographic Formulae* 146
V Möbius Transformations: Basic Results 148
1 Preservation of Circles, Angles, and Symmetry 148
2 Non-Uniqueness of the Coefficients 149
3 The Group Property 150
4 Fixed Points 151
5 Fixed Points at Infinity 152
6 The Cross-Ratio 154
VI Möbius Transformations as Matrices* 156
1 Evidence of a Link with Linear Algebra 156
2 The Explanation: Homogeneous Coordinates 157
3 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues* 158
4 Rotations of the Sphere* 161
VII Visualization and Classification* 162
1 The Main Idea 162
2 Elliptic, Hyperbolic, and Loxodromic types 164
3 Local Geometric Interpretation of the Multiplier 166
4 Parabolic Transformations 168
5 Computing the Multiplier* 169
6 Eigenvalue Interpretation of the Multiplier* 170
VIII Decomposition into 2 or 4 Reflections* 172
1 Introduction 172
2 Elliptic Case 172
3 Hyperbolic Case 173
4 Parabolic Case 174
5 Summary 175
IX Automorphisms of the Unit Disc* 176
1 Counting Degrees of Freedom 176
2 Finding the Formula via the Symmetry Principle 177
3 Interpreting the Formula Geometrically* 178
4 Introduction to Riemann’s Mapping Theorem 180
X Exercises 181

4 Differentiation: The Amplitwist Concept 189

I Introduction 189
II A Puzzling Phenomenon 189
III Local Description of Mappings in the Plane 191
1 Introduction 191
2 The Jacobian Matrix 192
3 The Amplitwist Concept 193
xviii Contents

IV The Complex Derivative as Amplitwist 194

1 The Real Derivative Re-examined 194
2 The Complex Derivative 195
3 Analytic Functions 197
4 A Brief Summary 198
V Some Simple Examples 199
VI Conformal = Analytic 200
1 Introduction 200
2 Conformality Throughout a Region 201
3 Conformality and the Riemann Sphere 203
VII Critical Points 204
1 Degrees of Crushing 204
2 Breakdown of Conformality 205
3 Branch Points 206
VIII The Cauchy-Riemann Equations 207
1 Introduction 207
2 The Geometry of Linear Transformations 208
3 The Cauchy-Riemann Equations 209
IX Exercises 211

5 Further Geometry of Differentiation 216

I Cauchy-Riemann Revealed 216
1 Introduction 216
2 The Cartesian Form 216
3 The Polar Form 217
II An Intimation of Rigidity 219
III Visual Differentiation of log(z) 222
IV Rules of Differentiation 223
1 Composition 223
2 Inverse Functions 224
3 Addition and Multiplication 225
V Polynomials, Power Series, and Rational Func-
tions 226
1 Polynomials 226
2 Power Series 227
3 Rational Functions 228
VI Visual Differentiation of the Power Function 229
VII Visual Differentiation of exp(z) 231
VIII Geometric Solution of E´ = E 232
IX An Application of Higher Derivatives: Curva-
ture* 234
1 Introduction 234
 Contents xix

2 Analytic Transformation of Curvature 235

3 Complex Curvature 238
X Celestial Mechanics* 241
1 Central Force Fields 241
2 Two Kinds of Elliptical Orbit 241
3 Changing the First into the Second 243
4 The Geometry of Force 244
5 An Explanation 245
6 The Kasner–Arnol’d Theorem 246
XI Analytic Continuation* 247
1 Introduction 247
2 Rigidity 249
3 Uniqueness 250
4 Preservation of Identities 251
5 Analytic Continuation via Reflections 252
XII Exercises 258

6 Non-Euclidean Geometry* 267

I Introduction 267
1 The Parallel Axiom 267
2 Some Facts from Non-Euclidean Geometry 269
3 Geometry on a Curved Surface 270
4 Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Geometry 273
5 Gaussian Curvature 273
6 Surfaces of Constant Curvature 275
7 The Connection with Möbius Transformations 277
II Spherical Geometry 278
1 The Angular Excess of a Spherical Triangle 278
2 Motions of the Sphere 279
3 A Conformal Map of the Sphere 283
4 Spatial Rotations as Möbius Transformations 286
5 Spatial Rotations and Quaternions 290
III Hyperbolic Geometry 293
1 The Tractrix and the Pseudosphere 293
2 The Constant Curvature of the Pseudosphere* 295
3 A Conformal Map of the Pseudosphere 296
4 Beltrami’s Hyperbolic Plane 298
5 Hyperbolic Lines and Reflections 301
6 The Bolyai-Lobachevsky Formula* 305
7 The Three Types of Direct Motion 306
8 Decomposition into Two Reflections 311
9 The Angular Excess of a Hyperbolic Triangle 313
10 The Poincaré Disc 315
11 Motions of the Poincaré Disc 319
12 The Hemisphere Model and Hyperbolic Space 322
IV Exercises 328
xx Contents

7 Winding Numbers and Topology 338

I Winding Number 338
1 The Definition 338
2 What does “inside” mean? 339
3 Finding Winding Numbers Quickly 340
II Hopf’s Degree Theorem 341
1 The Result 341
2 Loops as Mappings of the Circle* 342
3 The Explanation* 343
III Polynomials and the Argument Principle 344
IV A Topological Argument Principle* 346
1 Counting Preimages Algebraically 346
2 Counting Preimages Geometrically 347
3 Topological Characteristics of Analyticity 349
4 A Topological Argument Principle 350
5 Two Examples 352
V Rouché’s Theorem 353
1 The Result 353
2 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 354
3 Brouwer’s Fixed Point Theorem* 354
VI Maxima and Minima 355
1 Maximum-Modulus Theorem 355
2 Related Results 357
VII The Schwarz-Pick Lemma* 357
1 Schwarz’s Lemma 357
2 Liouville’s Theorem 359
3 Pick’s Result 360
VIII The Generalized Argument Principle 363
1 Rational Functions 363
2 Poles and Essential Singularities 365
3 The Explanation* 367
IX Exercises 369

8 Complex Integration: Cauchy’s Theorem 377

I Introduction 377
II The Real Integral 378
1 The Riemann Sum 378
2 The Trapezoidal Rule 379
3 Geometric Estimation of Errors 380
III The Complex Integral 383
1 Complex Riemann Sums 383
2 A Visual Technique 386
3 A Useful Inequality 386
 Contents xxi

4 Rules of Integration 387

IV Complex Inversion 388
1 A Circular Arc 388
2 General Loops 390
3 Winding Number 391
V Conjugation 392
1 Introduction 392
2 Area Interpretation 393
3 General Loops 395
VI Power Functions 395
1 Integration along a Circular Arc 395
2 Complex Inversion as a Limiting Case* 397
3 General Contours and the Deformation Theorem 397
4 A Further Extension of the Theorem 399
5 Residues 400
VII The Exponential Mapping 401
VIII The Fundamental Theorem 402
1 Introduction 402
2 An Example 403
3 The Fundamental Theorem 404
4 The Integral as Antiderivative 406
5 Logarithm as Integral 408
IX Parametric Evaluation 409
X Cauchy’s Theorem 410
1 Some Preliminaries 410
2 The Explanation 412
XI The General Cauchy Theorem 414
1 The Result 414
2 The Explanation 415
3 A Simpler Explanation 417
XII The General Formula of Contour Integration 418
XIII Exercises 420

9 Cauchy’s Formula and Its Applications 427

I Cauchy’s Formula 427
1 Introduction 427
2 First Explanation 427
3 Gauss’ Mean Value Theorem 429
4 General Cauchy Formula 429
II Infinite Differentiability and Taylor Series 431
1 Infinite Differentiability 431
2 Taylor Series 432
III Calculus of Residues 434
xxii Contents

1 Laurent Series Centred at a Pole 434

2 A Formula for Calculating Residues 435
3 Application to Real Integrals 436
4 Calculating Residues using Taylor Series 438
5 Application to Summation of Series 439
IV Annular Laurent Series 442
1 An Example 442
2 Laurent’s Theorem 442
V Exercises 446

10 Vector Fields: Physics and Topology 450

I Vector Fields 450
1 Complex Functions as Vector Fields 450
2 Physical Vector Fields 451
3 Flows and Force Fields 453
4 Sources and Sinks 454
II Winding Numbers and Vector Fields* 456
1 The Index of a Singular Point 456
2 The Index According to Poincaré 459
3 The Index Theorem 460
III Flows on Closed Surfaces* 462
1 Formulation of the Poincaré-Hopf Theorem 462
2 Defining the Index on a Surface 464
3 An Explanation of the Poincaré-Hopf Theorem 465
IV Exercises 468

11 Vector Fields and Complex Integration 472

I Flux and Work 472
1 Flux 472
2 Work 474
3 Local Flux and Local Work 476
4 Divergence and Curl in Geometric Form* 478
5 Divergence-Free and Curl-Free Vector Fields 479
II Complex Integration in Terms of Vector Fields 481
1 The Pólya Vector Field 481
2 Cauchy’s Theorem 483
3 Example: Area as Flux 484
4 Example: Winding Number as Flux 485
5 Local Behaviour of Vector Fields* 486
6 Cauchy’s Formula 488
7 Positive Powers 489
8 Negative Powers and Multipoles 490
9 Multipoles at Infinity 492
10 Laurent’s Series as a Multipole Expansion 493
III The Complex Potential 494
 Contents xxiii

1 Introduction 494
2 The Stream Function 494
3 The Gradient Field 497
4 The Potential Function 498
5 The Complex Potential 500
6 Examples 503
IV Exercises 505

12 Flows and Harmonic Functions 508

I Harmonic Duals 508
1 Dual Flows 508
2 Harmonic Duals 511
II Conformal Invariance 513
1 Conformal Invariance of Harmonicity 513
2 Conformal Invariance of the Laplacian 515
3 The Meaning of the Laplacian 516
III A Powerful Computational Tool 517
IV The Complex Curvature Revisited* 520
1 Some Geometry of Harmonic Equipotentials 520
2 The Curvature of Harmonic Equipotentials 520
3 Further Complex Curvature Calculations 523
4 Further Geometry of the Complex Curvature 525
V Flow Around an Obstacle 527
1 Introduction 527
2 An Example 527
3 The Method of Images 532
4 Mapping One Flow Onto Another 538
VI The Physics of Riemann’s Mapping Theorem 540
1 Introduction 540
2 Exterior Mappings and Flows Round Obstacles 541
3 Interior Mappings and Dipoles 544
4 Interior Mappings, Vortices, and Sources 546
5 An Example: Automorphisms of the Disc 549
6 Green’s Function 550
VII Dirichlet’s Problem 554
1 Introduction 554
2 Schwarz’s Interpretation 556
3 Dirichlet’s Problem for the Disc 558
4 The Interpretations of Neumann and Bôcher 560
5 Green’s General Formula 565
VIII Exercises 570

References 573

Index 579

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