COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER OUTLINE

Communications electronics encompasses a wide range of 17-1 Basic Receivers
systems, including both analog and digital. Any system that 17-2 The Linear Multiplier
sends information from one point to another over relatively 17-3 Amplitude Modulation
long distances can be classified as a communications system.
Some of the categories of communications systems are radio 17-4 The Mixer
(broadcast, ham, CB, marine), television, telephony, radar, 17-5 AM Demodulation
navigation, satellite, data (digital), and telemetry. 17-6 IF and Audio Amplifiers
Many communications systems use either amplitude
17-7 Frequency Modulation
modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM) to send
information. Other modulation methods include pulse 17-8 The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
modulation, phase modulation, and frequency shift keying Err System Application
(FSK) as well as more specialized techniques. By necessity, the
scope of this chapter is limited and is intended to introduce
you to basic AM and FM communications systems and circuits.
 1:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬
INTRODUCTION CHAPTER OUTLINE
‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﻳﻀﺔ‬
Communications electronics encompasses a wide range of 17-1 Basic Receivers
1-17 ‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺇﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
systems, including both analog and digital. Any system that 17-2 The Linear Multiplier
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬2-17 ‫ ﺃﻱ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬.‫ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﻇﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬
sends information from one point to another over relatively 17-3 Amplitude Modulation
3-17 ‫ﻳﺮﺳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ‬
long distances can be classified as a communications system.
.‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬
Some of the categories of communications systems are radio 17-4 The Mixer
The Mixer 4-17 ‫ﺑﻌﺾ ﻓﺌﺎﺕ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮ‬
(broadcast, ham, CB, marine), television, telephony, radar, 17-5 AM Demodulation
‫ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ‬5-17 ،‫ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﺍﺭ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﻳﻮﻥ‬،(‫ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﺔ‬،CB ،‫ ﻟﺤﻢ ﺍﻟﺨﻨﺰﻳﺮ‬،‫)ﺍﻟﺒﺚ‬
navigation, satellite, data (digital), and telemetry. 17-6 IF and Audio Amplifiers
‫ ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬IF 6-17 .‫ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺣﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ )ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ( ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ‬
Many communications systems use either amplitude
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﺃﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
17-7 Frequency Modulation
‫ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬17-7
modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM) to send
‫( ﻟﻺﺭﺳﺎﻝ‬FM) ‫( ﺃﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬AM) ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
17-8 The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
(PLL) ‫ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬17-8
information. Other modulation methods include pulse
‫ ﻭﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﻃﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺾ‬.‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ‬
modulation, phase modulation, and frequency shift keying Err System Application
‫ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬،‫ ﻭﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
(FSK) as well as more specialized techniques. By necessity, the
(FSK) ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ‬.‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺨﺼﺼﺎ‬،
scope of this chapter is limited and is intended to introduce
‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﻭﻳﻬﺪﻑ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬
you to basic AM and FM communications systems and circuits.
.‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬FM‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻭﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES MBB SYSTEM APPLICATION PREVIEW

Describe basic superheterodyne receivers Digital data consisting of a series of binary digits (1s and 0s)
are commonly sent from one computer to another over the
Discuss the function ofa linear multiplier
telephone lines. Two voltage levels are used to represent the
Discuss the fundamentals of amplitude modulation two types of bits, a high-voltage level and a low-voltage
level. The data stream is made up of time intervals when the
Discuss the basic function of a mixer
voltage has a constant high value or a constant low value
Describe AM demodulation with very fast transitions from one level to the other. In
other words, the data stream contains very low frequencies
Describe IF and audio amplifiers
(constant-voltage intervals) and very high frequencies
Describe frequency modulation (transitions). Since the standard telephone system has a
bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz to 3000 Hz, it cannot
Describe a phase-locked loop (PLL)
handle the very low and the very high frequencies that
make up a typical data stream without losing most of the
information. Because of the bandwidth limitation of the
KEY TERMS telephone system, it is necessary to modify digital data
before they are sent out; and one method of doing this is
Amplitude modulation (AM) with frequency shift keying (FSK), which is a form of
Frequency modulation (FM) frequency modulation.
A simplified block diagram ofa digital communications
Four-quadrant multiplier equipment (DCE) system for interfacing digital terminal
Balanced modulation equipment (DTE), such as a computer, to the telephone
network is shown in the system application. The system FSK-
Mixer modulates digital data before they are transmitted over the
Phase-locked loop (PLL) phone line and demodulates FSK signals received from
another computer. Because the DCE’s basic function is to
Lock range modulate and demodulate, it is called a modem. Although
Capture range the modem performs many associated functions, in this
system application our focus will be on the modulation and
demodulation circuits.

VISIT THE COMPANION WEBSITE

Study aids for this chapter are available at

http://www.prenhall.com/floyd
 2:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES MBB SYSTEM APPLICATION PREVIEW
MBB ‫ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﻣﻌﺎﻳﻨﺔ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬
Describe basic superheterodyne receivers Digital data consisting of a series of binary
digits (1s and 0s)
(0‫ ﻭ‬1) ‫ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬:‫ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ‬
are commonly sent from one computer to another over the
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﻛﻤﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻋﺒﺮ‬
Discuss the function ofa linear multiplier
‫ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
telephone lines. Two voltage levels are used to represent the
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ‬.‫ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‬
Discuss the fundamentals of amplitude modulation two types of bits, a high-voltage
level and a low-voltage
‫ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬،‫ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺘﺎﺕ‬
level. The data stream is made up of time intervals when the
‫ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﻓﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬.‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ‬
Discuss the basic function of a mixer
‫ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻼﻁ‬
voltage has a constant high value or a constant low value
‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻟﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‬
Describe AM demodulation with very fast transitions from one level to the other. In
‫ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﺳﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ‬AM ‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
other words, the data stream contains very low frequencies
‫ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ‬،‫ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ‬
Describe IF and audio amplifiers
‫ ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬IF ‫ﻭﺻﻒ‬
(constant-voltage intervals) and very high frequencies
‫)ﻓﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ( ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ‬
Describe frequency modulation (transitions). Since the standard telephone system has a
‫ ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻥ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ‬.(‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ )ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻻﺕ‬
bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz to 3000 Hz, it cannot
‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ‬،‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬3000 ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬300 ‫ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ‬
Describe a phase-locked loop (PLL)
(PLL) ‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
handle the very low and the very high frequencies that
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ‬
make up a typical data stream without losing most of the
‫ﻗﻢ ﺑﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺩﻓﻖ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﺩﻭﻥ ﻓﻘﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
information. Because of the bandwidth limitation of the
‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻟـ‬.‫ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ‬
telephone system, it is necessary to modify digital data
‫ ﻓﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﻱ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ‬،‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‬
KEY TERMS
‫ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ ﺍﻻﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
before they are sent out; and one method of doing this is
‫ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻬﻢ؛ ﻭﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﻃﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻫﻲ‬
Amplitude modulation (AM) with frequency shift keying (FSK), which is a form of
‫ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻝ‬،(FSK) ‫( ﻣﻊ ﻣﻔﺘﺎﺡ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬AM) ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
Frequency modulation (FM) frequency modulation.
.‫( ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬FM) ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
A simplified block diagram ofa digital communications
‫ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻲ ﻣﺒﺴﻂ ﻟﻼﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ‬
Four-quadrant multiplier equipment (DCE) system for interfacing digital terminal
‫( ﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ‬DCE) ‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬
Balanced modulation equipment (DTE), such as a computer, to the telephone
‫ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‬،‫ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ‬،(DTE) ‫ﻣﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻧﺔ‬
network is shown in the system application. The system FSK-
-FSK ‫ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬.‫ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬
Mixer modulates digital data before they are transmitted over the
‫ ﺑﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ‬Mixer ‫ﻳﻘﻮﻡ‬
Phase-locked loop (PLL) phone line and demodulates FSK signals received from
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻤﺔ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‬FSK ‫( ﻭﻳﺰﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬PLL) ‫ﺧﻂ ﻫﺎﺗﻒ ﺫﻭ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
another computer. Because the DCE’s basic function is to
‫ ﻫﻲ‬DCE ‫ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟـ‬.‫ﻛﻤﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ ﺁﺧﺮ‬
Lock range
‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬
modulate and demodulate, it is called a modem. Although
‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬.‫ ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﻣﻮﺩﻡ‬،‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻭﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
Capture range the modem performs many associated functions, in this
‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﺎﺋﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﻪ‬
system application our focus will be on the modulation and
‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰﻧﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻭ‬
demodulation circuits.
.‫ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
VISIT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
‫ﻗﻢ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
Study aids for this chapter are available at
‫ﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﻓﻲ‬
http://www.prenhall.com/floyd
‫ﻓﻠﻴﺪ‬/‫ﻛﻮﻡ‬.‫ﺑﺮﻧﻬﻞ‬.‫ﻭﻭ‬//:‫ﺣﻄﺐ‬
818 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

17-1 BASIC RECEIVERS

Receivers based on the superheterodyne principle are standard in one form or another
in most types of communications systems and are found in familiar systems such as
standard broadcast radio, stereo, and television. In several of the system applications in
previous chapters, we presented the superheterodyne receiver in order to focus on a
given circuit; now we cover it from a system viewpoint. This section provides a basic
introduction to amplitude modulation and frequency modulation and an overview of
the complete AM and FM receiver.
After completing this section, you should be able to

= Describe basic superheterodyne receivers

= Define AM and FM

= Discuss the major functional blocks of an AM receiver

= Discuss the major functional blocks of an FM receiver

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitede modelation (A) is a method for sending audible information, such as voice
and music, by electromagnetic waves that are broadcast through the atmosphere. In AM,
the amplitude of a signal with a specific frequency (f,), called the carrier, is varied accord-
ing to a modulating signal, which can be an audio signal (voice or music), as shown in
Figure 17-1. The carrier frequency permits the receiver to be tuned to a specific known fre-
quency. The resulting AM waveform contains the carrier frequency, an upper-side fre-
quency equal to the carrier frequency plus the modulation frequency (f. + f,,), and a
lower-side frequency equal to the carrier frequency minus the modulation frequency (f. — f,,,).
Por example, if a | MHz carrier is amplitude modulated with a 5 kHz audio signal, the fre-
quency components in the AM waveform are | MHz (carrier), | MHz + 5 kHz =
1,005,000 Hz (upper side), and 1 MHz — 5 kHz = 995,000 Hz (lower side). Harmonics of
these frequencies are also present.

FIGURE 17-1 Amplitude Bars

j A — Carrierrie
An example of an amplitude modulued
a
Lo e
envelopPe 27 ynN
LA UN fa »
modulated signal. In this case, “fy s 7 | \
ae x
4 \ pa \
the higher-frequency carrier is Z 4 fy aff} r
“f)\ \
{| ‘ 7 | hy3
modulated by a lower-frequency |

AI Nes | laa] . Nh
sinusoidal signal. N. 3

WW WA | | WANING
NIISY SIE
IL)
NUTT?
UY
The frequency band for AM broadcast receivers is 540 kHz to 1640 kHz. This means
that an AM receiver can be tuned to pick up a specific carrier frequency that lies in the
broadcast band. Each AM radio station transmits at a specific carrier frequency that is dif-
ferent from any other station in the area, so you can tune the receiver to pick up any desired
station.
 3:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
818 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ = ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬818
17-1 BASIC RECEIVERS
‫ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬17-1
Receivers based on the superheterodyne principle are standard in one form or another
‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻨﺪﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﻭ ﺑﺂﺧﺮ‬
in most types of communications systems and are found in familiar systems such as
‫ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ‬
standard broadcast radio, stereo, and television. In several of the system applications in
‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺒﺚ ﺍﻹﺫﺍﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺘﻴﺮﻳﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﻳﻮﻥ‬
previous chapters, we presented the superheterodyne receiver in order to focus on a
‫ ﻗﺪﻣﻨﺎ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
given circuit; now we cover it from a system viewpoint. This section provides a basic
‫ ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬.‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻧﺤﻦ ﻧﻐﻄﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬
introduction to amplitude modulation and frequency modulation and an overview of
‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻟﻤﺤﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻋﻦ‬
the complete AM and FM receiver.
.‫ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ‬FM‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Describe basic superheterodyne receivers
‫= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲ‬
= Define AM and FM
FM‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫= ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ‬
= Discuss the major functional blocks of an AM receiver
AM ‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
= Discuss the major functional blocks of an FM receiver
FM ‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
Amplitude Modulation
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
Amplitede modelation (A) is a method for sending audible information, such as voice
‫ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬،‫( ﻫﻲ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬A) ‫ﻧﻤﺬﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻯ‬
and music, by electromagnetic waves that are broadcast through the atmosphere. In
AM,
،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ‬.‫ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﺚ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ‬،‫ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ‬
the amplitude of a signal with a specific frequency (f,), called the carrier, is varied accord-
‫ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟـ‬،‫( ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬،f) ‫ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺗﺴﺎﻉ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ‬
ing to a modulating signal, which can be an audio signal (voice or music), as shown in
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ‬،(‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ )ﺻﻮﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ‬،‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
Figure 17-1. The carrier frequency permits the receiver to be tuned to a specific known
fre-
 .‫ ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻀﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻑ‬.1-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
quency. The resulting AM waveform contains the carrier frequency, an upper-side fre-
.‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬AM ‫ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ‬.‫ﻛﻮﻳﻨﺴﻲ‬
quency equal to the carrier frequency plus the modulation frequency (f. + f,,), and a
quency ‫( ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬f. + f،،)، ‫ ﻭ‬a
lower-side frequency equal to the carrier frequency minus the modulation frequency (f.
— f,,,).
.(,,,f. — f) ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻄﺮﻭﺣﺎ ﻣﻨﻪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
Por example, if a | MHz carrier is amplitude modulated with a 5 kHz audio signal, the fre-
‫ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬5 ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ | ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﺈﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ‬
quency components in the AM waveform are | MHz (carrier), | MHz + 5 kHz =
= ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬5 + ‫ | ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ‬،(‫ ﻫﻲ | ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ )ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬AM ‫ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ‬
1,005,000 Hz (upper side), and 1 MHz — 5 kHz = 995,000 Hz (lower side). Harmonics of
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﻴﺎﺕ‬.(‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ )ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ‬995,000 = ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬5 — ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1‫ ﻭ‬،(‫ﻫﺮﺗﺰ )ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ‬
1,005,000
these frequencies are also present.
.‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬
FIGURE 17-1 Amplitude Bars
‫ ﻗﻀﺒﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬1-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
j A — Carrierire
‫ ﻛﺎﺭﻳﺮﻳﺮ‬- ‫ﻱ ﺃ‬
A m n o du e l x a a t m e p d l e si o g f n al a . n a In m p t l hi i s t u c d a e se , “fya s Lo
emnovdeullopuPeee d LA2 7 yn N UN fa »
A m n o du e l x a a t me e p d l e si o g f n al a . n a In m p t l hi i s tu c d a e se , “fya s Lo
emnovdeullopuPeee d LA2 7 yn N UN fa »
t m h o e d u h l i a g t h e e d r -f b r y e q a ue l n o c w y e r- c f ar r r e i q er u en is cy “f)Z \ ae
x {| ‘ 7 4 4 7 | \ | \ f y hy3 aff}pa \ r \|
t m h o e d u h l i a g t h e e d r -f b r y e q a ue l n o c w y e r- c f ar r r e i q er u en is cy “f)Z \ ae
x {| ‘ 7 4 4 7 | \ | \ f y hy3 aff}pa \ r \|
AI N. Nes 3 | laa] . Nh
‫ ﻧﻪ‬. [‫ ﻧﺺ ﻉ | ﻻ‬.‫ﺃﻱ ﻥ‬
sinusoidal signal.
.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬
WW WA | | WANING
‫ﺩﺑﻠﻴﻮ ﺩﺑﻠﻴﻮ ﻭﺍ | | ﺗﺮﺍﺟﻊ‬
NII SIE NUTT?
‫ﻫﻞ ﺃﻧﺖ ﻣﺠﻨﻮﻥ؟‬
SY IL) UY
UY (‫ﻭ ﺇﻳﻞ‬
The frequency band for AM broadcast receivers is 540 kHz to 1640 kHz. This means
‫ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1640 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬540 ‫ ﻫﻮ‬AM ‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ‬
that an AM receiver can be tuned to pick up a specific carrier frequency that lies in the
‫ ﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻳﻘﻊ ﻓﻲ‬AM ‫ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
broadcast band. Each AM radio station transmits at a specific carrier frequency that is
dif-
.‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ‬AM ‫ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻮ‬.‫ﻓﺮﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ‬
ferent from any other station in the area, so you can tune the receiver to pick up any
desired
‫ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﺃﻱ ﺷﻲﺀ ﺗﺮﻳﺪﻩ‬،‫ﻧﻘﻠﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ‬
station.
.‫ﻣﺤﻄﺔ‬
 BASIC RECEIVERS 819

The Superheterodyne AM Receiver

A block diagram of a superheterodyne AM receiver is shown in Figure 17—2. The receiver
shown consists of an antenna, an RF (radio frequency) amplifier, a mixer, a local oscillator
(LO), an IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier, a detector, an audio amplifier, a power am-
plifier, and a speaker.

Antenna

Speaker
Audio and a
RF Mixer i ‘ Detector
amplifier amplifier
amplifiers
1 T

| AGC
| T
| I

Local
Gang tuned | _ oscillator

FIGURE 17-2

Superheterodyne AM receiver block diagram.

Antenna The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF amplifier.
These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolts).

RF Amplifier This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any carrier fre-
quency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected frequency and its two side bands
pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers do not have a separate RF amplifier stage.)

Local Oscillator This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455 kHz above
the selected RF frequency.

Mixer This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal from the out-
put of the RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no RF amplifier) and the sinusoidal
output of the local oscillator (LO). These two signals are then “mixed” by a nonlinear
process called heterodyning to produce sum and difference frequencies. For example, if the
RF carrier has a frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and
difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 kHz and 455 kHz, respectively. The dif-
ference frequency is always 455 kHz no matter what the RF carrier frequency.

IF Amplifier The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal, a replica of the orig-
inal AM carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to 455 kHz. The IF am-
plifier significantly increases the level of this signal.

Detector This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the 455 kHz in-
termediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed, so the output of the de-
tector consists of only the audio signal.

Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal and drives
the speaker to produce sound.

AGC The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector that is pro-
portional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back to the IF amplifier, and
sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the gains so as to maintain constant sig-
nal levels throughout the system over a wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
 4:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
BASIC RECEIVERS 819
819 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﻮﻥ‬
The Superheterodyne AM Receiver
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲ‬AM ‫ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
A block diagram of a superheterodyne AM receiver is shown in Figure 17—2. The
receiver
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬.‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ‬AM ‫ ﺭﺳﻤﺎ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻴﺎ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬2-17 ‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
shown consists of an antenna, an RF (radio frequency) amplifier, a mixer, a local oscillator
‫ ﻭﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬،‫ ﻭﺧﻼﻁ‬،(‫ )ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮ‬RF ‫ ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ‬،‫ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﺢ ﻣﻦ ﻫﻮﺍﺋﻲ‬
(LO), an IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier, a detector, an audio amplifier, a power
am-
(LO)، ‫ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ‬IF (‫ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ‬،‫ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺻﻮﺕ‬،‫ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ‬،(‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬.
plifier, and a speaker.
.‫ ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬،‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Antenna
‫ﻫﻮﺍﺋﻲ‬
Speaker
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Audio and a
‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭ ﺃ‬
RF Mixer i ‘ Detector
‫ﺧﻼﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
amplifier amplifier
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬
amplifiers
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
1T
‫ﺕ‬1
| AGC
‫| ﺍﻳﻪ ﺟﻲ ﺳﻲ‬
|T
‫|ﺕ‬
|I
‫| ﺃﻧﺎ‬
Local
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬
Gang tuned | _ oscillator
‫ﻋﺼﺎﺑﺔ ﺿﺒﻄﻬﺎ | _ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬
FIGURE 17-2
2-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Superheterodyne AM receiver block diagram.
 .Superheterodyne AM ‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
Antenna The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF amplifier.
.‫ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ ﻳﻠﺘﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﻭﻳﺪﺧﻠﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ‬
These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolts).
.(‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺻﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺟﺪﺍ )ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﻀﻌﺔ ﻣﻴﻜﺮﻭﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻓﻘﻂ‬
RF Amplifier This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any carrier fre-
.‫( ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ )ﺿﺒﻄﻬﺎ( ﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻭﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺣﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬RF) ‫ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ‬
quency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected frequency and its two side
bands
‫ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻭﻧﻄﺎﻗﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻴﻦ‬.AM ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ‬
pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers do not have a separate RF amplifier
stage.)
(.‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ‬AM ‫ )ﻻ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬.‫ﻋﺒﺮ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬
‫ﺗﻤﺮ‬
Local Oscillator This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455 kHz above
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﺗﻮﻟﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ‬
the selected RF frequency.
.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ‬
Mixer This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal from the out-
‫ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺝ‬،‫ﺧﻼﻁ ﺗﻘﺒﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﺪﺧﻠﻴﻦ‬
put of the RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no RF amplifier) and the sinusoidal
‫ﻭﺿﻊ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ )ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ( ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻲ‬
output of the local oscillator (LO). These two signals are then “mixed” by a nonlinear
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ "ﺧﻠﻂ" ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺧﻄﻴﺔ‬.(LO) ‫ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬
process called heterodyning to produce sum and difference frequencies. For example, if
the
‫ ﺇﺫﺍ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬.‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
RF carrier has a frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭ‬1455 ‫ ﻫﻮ‬LO ‫ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1000 ‫ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 kHz and 455 kHz, respectively. The dif-
-‫ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ‬455 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭ‬2455 ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻫﻲ‬
ference frequency is always 455 kHz no matter what the RF carrier frequency.
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ‬455 ‫ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻌﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ‬
IF Amplifier The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal, a replica of the orig-
.‫ ﻭﻫﻲ ﻧﺴﺨﺔ ﻃﺒﻖ ﺍﻷﺻﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻲ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬AM ‫ ﻫﻮ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬IF ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ‬IF ‫ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
inal AM carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to 455 kHz. The IF am-
-‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﻟﻰ‬AM ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
plifier significantly increases the level of this signal.
.‫ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
Detector This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the 455 kHz in-
-‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻓﻲ‬455 ‫ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ )ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ( ﻣﻦ‬:‫ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
termediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed, so the output of the
de-
-‫ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺩﻱ‬،IF ‫ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ‬.(IF) ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
tector consists of only the audio signal.
.‫ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ‬tector ‫ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ‬
Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal and drives
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺸﻔﺔ ﻭﻣﺤﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻗﺮﺍﺹ‬
the speaker to produce sound.
.‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
AGC The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector that is pro-
AGC ‫( ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ‬AGC) ‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ‬
portional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back to the IF amplifier,
and
‫ ﻭ‬،IF ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.‫ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﺔ‬
sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the gains so as to maintain constant
sig-
‫ ﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻠﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‬،‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﺰﺝ ﺍﻷﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ‬
nal levels throughout the system over a wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺃﻧﺤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻋﺒﺮ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬
820 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Figure 17-3 shows the signal flow through an AM superheterodyne receiver. The re-
ceiver can be tuned to accept any frequency in the AM band. The RF amplifier, mixer, and
local oscillator are tuned simultaneously so that the LO frequency is always 455 kHz above
the incoming RF signal frequency. This is called gang tuning.

540 kHz-1640 kHz

electromagnetic waves

Saas Audio modulated 455 kilz 155 KHz modulated

carrier / modulated TI [F amplified \mplified
| audio

RF gs Mixer
: : IF fe ' Detector
vo
Audio and
power 4
é/ \

amplifier amplifier ,
amplifiers
A f | | Sound
/| Bats
Yudio
waves

Tuned TS {? ‘
ct | \.
| : i
Local |
oscillator,
LO f+ 455 kHz

FIGURE 17-3

lilustration of signal flow through an AM receiver.

Frequency Modulation
[2 _iIn frequency modulation (FM), the modulating signal (audio) varies the frequency of a
carrier as opposed to the amplitude, as in the case of AM. Figure 17-4 illustrates basic fre-
quency modulation. The standard FM broadcast band consists of carrier frequencies from
88 MHz to 108 MHz, which is significantly higher than AM.

FIGURE 17-4

An example of frequency 4 s t=
I aT
| ‘\
modulation.
Modulating \. J \. 7 f
signal | i\ /\ iN VA
I ! \. ! | AF

\ |
| 1
| 1
| !
| \
| !
| |
| |
| i
NINN
LAAN nl
\ | \ | | |
I | | | | |
1 | I | ' |
| | I | | !
l | | ! ' |
| | I | I |
| l \ | ' !
| | I | \ |
t | I | ' !
on |
A A AANANNA AI
nh I nina n\n n |

HETIL T} OTL TTA Ea

Frequency- AreteHHH te na Et Hi POLY TL || ti +
eee bt
modulated TTT | [| iT} i WII ii PVT | i !
carrier HATE Waly ey tT | I | 1; |
i
WUUVUU
ra UY' UU
oy e
VU UU| he
Ut
I
i I ( 1 ! j i
 5:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
820 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ = ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬820
Figure 17-3 shows the signal flow through an AM superheterodyne receiver. The re-
-‫ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ‬.AM ‫ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻓﺎﺋﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ‬17-3 ‫ﻭﻳﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
ceiver can be tuned to accept any frequency in the AM band. The RF amplifier, mixer,
and
‫ ﻭ‬،‫ ﻭﺧﻼﻁ‬،‫ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ‬.AM ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻟﻘﺒﻮﻝ ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ‬
local oscillator are tuned simultaneously so that the LO frequency is always 455 kHz
above
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ‬LO ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
the incoming RF signal frequency. This is called gang tuning.
.‫ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺎﺑﺔ‬.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬
540 kHz-1640 kHz
‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1640-‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬540
electromagnetic waves
‫ﻣﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﻛﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ‬
Saas Audio modulated 455 kilz 155 KHz modulated
Saas Audio ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬155‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭ‬455 ‫ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺑـ‬
carrier / modulated TI [F amplified \mplified
‫ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ \ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ‬F] ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ‬TI / ‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬
| audio
‫| ﺻﻮﺗﻲ‬
RF : : IF ' Auvdo io and é / \
RF :: IF' Auvdo io ‫ ﻭ‬é / \
gs Mixer fe Detector power 4
gs ‫ ﺧﻼﻁ‬fe 4 ‫ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬
amplifier amplifier ,
,‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬
amplifiers
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
A f | | Sound
‫ﺍ ﻑ | | ﺻﻮﺕ‬
| BYaudtiso waves
‫| ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺃﻭﺩﻳﺘﻴﺴﻮ‬
/
/
Tuned TS {? ‘
' ‫ }؟‬TS ‫ﺿﺒﻄﻬﺎ‬
ct | \.
.\ | ‫ﻁ ﻡ‬
|:i
 ‫ ﺃﻧﺎ‬: |
Local |
| ‫ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬
oscillator,
،‫ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬
LO f+ 455 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬f+ 455 ‫ﻟﻮ‬
FIGURE 17-3
3-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
lilustration of signal flow through an AM receiver.
.AM ‫ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
Frequency Modulation
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
[2 _iIn frequency modulation (FM), the modulating signal (audio) varies the frequency of
a
[2 _i‫( ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬FM)، ‫ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ )ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ( ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺃ‬
carrier as opposed to the amplitude, as in the case of AM. Figure 17-4 illustrates basic
fre-
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬4-17 ‫ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬.AM ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﺑﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
quency modulation. The standard FM broadcast band consists of carrier frequencies
from
‫ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺣﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ‬FM ‫ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺑﺚ‬.‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ‬
88 MHz to 108 MHz, which is significantly higher than AM.
.AM ‫ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ‬،‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬108 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬88
FIGURE 17-4
4-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
An example of frequency
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
modulation. 4 s tI = aT | ‘\
\' | ‫ ﻕ ﺗﻲ = ﻓﻲ‬4 .‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
Modulating \. J \. 7 f
‫ ﻭ‬7 .\ ‫ ﻱ‬.\ ‫ﺗﺤﻮﻳﺮ‬
signal | i\ /\ iN VA
VA ‫\ ﻓﻲ‬/ \i | ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
I ! \. ! | AF
‫ ! | ﻝ‬.\ !‫ﺃﻧﺎ‬
\|\|\|||
\|\|\|||
|1I|||||
| | | | | ‫ ﺃﻧﺎ‬1 |
|11|I|'|
| ' | ‫ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬1 1 |
|!||I||!
! | | ‫| ! | | ﺃﻧﺎ‬
|\l||!'|
|'!||‫|\ﻝ‬
|!||I|I|
| ‫| ! | | ﺃﻧﺎ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬
|||l\|'!
!' | \ ‫| | | ﻝ‬
||||I|\|
| \ | ‫| | | | ﺃﻧﺎ‬
|it|I|'!
!' | ‫| ﺃﻧﺎ ﺭ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬
NLAIANN Nnl on | A Anh I AANnAinNa NA An\In n |
NLAIANN Nnl ‫ | ﻋﻠﻰ‬A Anh I AANnAinNa NA An\In n |
HETIL TT} OTL TTA Ea
‫ ﻣﻦ‬TTA ‫{ ﺃﻭﺗﻞ‬TT ‫ﻫﻴﺘﻴﻞ‬
Frequency- AreteH HH te na EtHi POLeYe e bTL t|| ti +
+ ‫|| ﺗﻲ‬AreteH HH te na EtHi POLeYe e bTL t -‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
modulated TTT | [| iT} i WII ii PVT | i !
! ‫ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬TTT | [| iT} i WII II PVT ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻀﻤﻴﻦ‬
carrier HATE Waly ey tT | I | 1; |
| ‫؛‬1 | ‫ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬ey tT ‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻠﺔ ﻛﺮﻩ ﻭﺍﻟﻲ‬
i
‫ﺃﻧﺎ‬
WUUVUU UY UU VU UU Ut
WUUVUU UY UU VU UU Ut
ra ' oy ee | he I
‫ﺭﻉ ﺃﻭﻱ ﺇﻱ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬
iI(1!ji
‫! ﻱ ﻁ‬1) ‫ﺃﻧﺎ‬
 BASIC RECEIVERS 821

The Superheterodyne FM Receiver

The FM receiver is similar to the AM receiver in many ways, but there are several differ-
ences. A block diagram of a superheterodyne FM receiver is shown in Figure 17-5. Notice
that it includes an RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, and IF amplifier just as in the AM
receiver. These circuits must, however, operate at higher frequencies than in the AM sys-
tem. A significant difference in FM is the way the audio signal must be recovered from the
modulated IF. This is accomplished by the limiter, discriminator, and de-emphasis network.
Figure 17-6 depicts the signal flow through an FM receiver.

RF 7 | Mixer 4 ve 1 I Limiter |+—» Discriminator

amplifier amplifier (Detector)
— | 7 ; 1
! |
i / | I |

A
1 lee ee
i
yooh
!boone
AGC 4 | *
/ / De-emphasis | | Audio and power |
' i network amplifiers
1 aay
i /
fo /_ | Local
Gang tuned oscillator

FIGURE 17-5

Superheterodyne FM receiver block diagram.

88 MHz-108 MHz
electromagnetic \
waves ' 10.7 MHz 0.7 MHz
EM 0.7 MHz FM Amplified FM Limited FM
= , | :

| |
RF ; IF | re | woof
ve [> Mixer [ ¢. [t>| Limiter +.) Discriminator
amplifier amplifier
| Y__—— Audio

' ‘ Audio and

. _ De-emphasis , —~t]
{+
‘ 10.7 MHz power 4
el ee network se
amplifiers /

Local
- j
Compensated Amplified
Sound
oscillator audia audio

FIGURE 17-6

Example of signal flow through an FM receiver.

RF Amplifier This circuit must be capable of amplifying any frequency between 88 MHz
and 108 MHz. It is highly selective so that it passes only the selected carrier frequency and
significant side-band frequencies that contain the audio.
Local
acal
) Occilintns
This circuit produces a sine wave at a frequency 10.7 MHz above the se-
lected RF frequency.
 6:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
BASIC RECEIVERS 821
821 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﻮﻥ‬
The Superheterodyne FM Receiver
FM Superheterodyne ‫ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
The FM receiver is similar to the AM receiver in many ways, but there are several differ-
.‫ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺣﻲ‬AM ‫ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬FM ‫ﻳﺸﺒﻪ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
ences. A block diagram of a superheterodyne FM receiver is shown in Figure 17-5.
Notice
ences. ‫ ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻲ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬5-17 ‫ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬FM ‫ ﻳﻼﺣﻆ‬.‫ﻣﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﻳﺔ‬
that it includes an RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, and IF amplifier just as in the AM
AM ‫ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻝ ﻓﻲ‬IF ‫ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻢ‬،‫ ﻭﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬،‫ ﻭﺧﻼﻁ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺸﺘﻤﻞ‬
receiver. These circuits must, however, operate at higher frequencies than in the AM
sys-
.AM ‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬،‫ ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬
tem. A significant difference in FM is the way the audio signal must be recovered from
the
FM ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻠﻒ‬FM ‫ ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﺗﻴﻢ‬
modulated IF. This is accomplished by the limiter, discriminator, and de-emphasis
network.
.‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﻭﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ‬.‫ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ‬
Figure 17-6 depicts the signal flow through an FM receiver.
.FM ‫ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬17-6 ‫ﻭﻳﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
RF 7 | Mixer 4 ve 1 I Limiter |+—» Discriminator
‫—« ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰ‬+| Mixer 4 ve 1 I Limiter | 7 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ‬
amplifier amplifier (Detector)
(‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ )ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
—|7;1
١;‫—|ﺡ‬
!|
!|
i / !| I| |*
*| |‫ !| ﺃﻧﺎ‬/ ‫ﺃﻧﺎ‬
1 i AGC
‫ ﺁﻱ ﺟﻲ ﺳﻲ‬1
A lee ee yooh boone 4
4 ‫ﻟﻲ ﺇﻱ ﻳﻮﻩ ﺑﻮﻥ‬
/ / De-emphasis | | Audio and power |
| ‫ ﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ | | ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬//
' i network amplifiers
‫'ﺃﻧﺎ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ‬
1 a ay
‫ ﺃ ﻫﻮ‬1
fi /_/
/_/ ‫ﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬
o | Local
‫ﺱ | ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬
Gang tuned oscillator
‫ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺎﺑﺔ‬
FIGURE 17-5
5-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Superheterodyne FM receiver block diagram.
.‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲ‬FM ‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
88 MHz-108 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬108-‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬88
electromagnetic \
\ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻲ‬
waves ' 10.7 MHz 0.7 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬0.7 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10.7 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ‬
EM 0.7 MHz FM Amplified FM Limited FM
EM 0.7 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ‬FM ‫ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ‬FM ‫ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩ‬FM
=,|:
=,|:
||
||
RF ; IF | re | woof
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ؛ ﺇﺫﺍ | ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ | ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻤﺔ‬
ve [> Mixer [ ¢. [t>| Limiter +.) Discriminator
‫( ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ‬.+ ‫ ]ﺭ<| ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ‬.¢ ] ‫ﻟﻘﺪ ]< ﺧﻼﻁ‬
amplifier amplifier
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬
| Y__—— Audio
‫| ﻭ__—— ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
' De-emphasis‘ Audio, and
‫ ﻭ‬،‫"ﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ" ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
. _ —~t]
[‫ _ —~ﺭ‬.
{‘ + 10.7 MH z ampploiwfesier 4
{' + 10.sh МХ ‫ ﻣﻊ‬amploivfesier h
el ee network e rs /
/ RS ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻩ ﻩ‬
- j Sound
‫ ﻱ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬-
Local Compensated Amplified
‫ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬
oscillator audia audio
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻤﻊ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺻﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬
FIGURE 17-6
6-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Example of signal flow through an FM receiver.
.FM ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
RF Amplifier This circuit must be capable of amplifying any frequency between 88 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬88 ‫ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ‬
and 108 MHz. It is highly selective so that it passes only the selected carrier frequency
and
‫ ﺇﻧﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﻳﺔ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﺮﺭ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻭ‬.‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬108 ‫ﻭ‬
significant side-band frequencies that contain the audio.
.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Loac) caall Occilintns This circuit produces a sine wave at a frequency 10.7 MHz above
the se-
Loac) caall Occilintns ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻓﻮﻕ‬10.7 ‫ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬SE-
lected RF frequency.
.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺓ‬
822 s COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Mixer This circuit performs the same function as in the AM receiver, except that its out-
put is a 10.7 MHz FM signal regardless of the RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier This circuit amplifies the 10.7 MHz FM signal.
Limiter The limiter removes any unwanted variations in the amplitude of the FM signal
as it comes out of the IF amplifier and produces a constant amplitude FM output at the
10.7 MHz intermediate frequency.

Discriminator This circuit performs the equivalent function of the detector in an AM sys-
tem and is sometimes called a detector rather than a discriminator. The discriminator re-
covers the audio from the FM signal.

De-emphasis Network For certain reasons, the higher modulating frequencies are ampli-
fied more than the lower frequencies at the transmitting end of an FM system by a process
called preemphasis. The de-emphasis circuit in the FM receiver brings the high-frequency
audio signals back to the proper amplitude relationship with the lower frequencies.

Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit is the same as in the AM system and can be
shared when there is a dua) AM/FM configuration.

| SECTION 17-1
REVIEW 1. What do AM and FM mean?
Answers are at the end 2. How do AM and FM differ?
of the chapter. 3. What are the standard broadcast frequency bands for AM and FM?

17-2 THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER

The linear multiplier is a key circuit in many types of communications systems. In this
section, you will examine the basic principles of IC linear multipliers and look at a few
applications that are found in communications as well as in other areas. In the
following sections, we will concentrate on multiplier applications in AM and FM
systems.
After completing this section, you should be able to

= Discuss the function of a linear multiplier

= Describe multiplier quadrants and transfer characteristic
= Discuss scale factor
= Show how to use a multiplier circuit as a multiplier, squaring circuit, divide circuit,
square root circuit, and mean square circuit

Multiplier Quadrants
There are one-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant multipliers. The quadrant classi-
fication indicates the number of input polarity combinations that the multiplier can handle.
A graphical representation of the quadrants is shown in Figure 17-7. A four-quadrant
multiplier can accept any of the four possible input polarity combinations and produce an
output with the corresponding polarity.
 7:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
822 s COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ ﻕ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬822
Mixer This circuit performs the same function as in the AM receiver, except that its out-
‫ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺃﻥ ﺧﺮﺟﻬﺎ‬،AM ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
put is a 10.7 MHz FM signal regardless of the RF carrier frequency.
.‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ‬10.7 ‫ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬FM ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
IF Amplifier This circuit amplifies the 10.7 MHz FM signal.
.‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10.7 ‫ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬FM ‫ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬:IF ‫ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Limiter The limiter removes any unwanted variations in the amplitude of the FM signal
FM ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﺑﺈﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺮﻏﻮﺏ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
as it comes out of the IF amplifier and produces a constant amplitude FM output at the
‫ ﺑﺴﻌﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ‬FM ‫ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺧﺮﺝ‬IF ‫ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
10.7 MHz intermediate frequency.
.‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10.7 ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
Discriminator This circuit performs the equivalent function of the detector in an AM sys-
.AM ‫ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬:‫ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰ‬
tem and is sometimes called a detector rather than a discriminator. The discriminator re-
tem ‫ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ‬.‫ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ﻛﺎﺷﻔﺎ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﺗﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍ‬
covers the audio from the FM signal.
.FM ‫ﻳﻐﻄﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
De-emphasis Network For certain reasons, the higher modulating frequencies are
ampli-
.‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ ﻷﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‬
fied more than the lower frequencies at the transmitting end of an FM system by a
process
‫ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬FM ‫ﺗﻢ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻪ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬
called preemphasis. The de-emphasis circuit in the FM receiver brings the
high-frequency
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ‬FM ‫ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬.‫ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﻖ‬
audio signals back to the proper amplitude relationship with the lower frequencies.
.‫ﺗﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬
Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit is the same as in the AM system and can be
‫ ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬AM ‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻫﻲ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ‬
shared when there is a dua) AM/FM configuration.
.AM/FM ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺩﻋﺎﺀ( ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ‬
| SECTION 17-1
1-17 ‫| ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
1. What do AM and FM mean?
‫؟‬FM‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ‬.1
REVIEW
‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
Answers are at the end 2. How do AM and FM differ?
‫؟‬FM ‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬.2 ‫ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬
of the chapter. 3. What are the standard broadcast frequency bands for AM and FM?
‫؟‬FM‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟـ‬.3 .‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬
17-2 THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬17-2
The linear multiplier is a key circuit in many types of communications systems. In this
‫ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬
section, you will examine the basic principles of IC linear multipliers and look at a few
‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺔ ﻭﺇﻟﻘﺎﺀ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‬IC ‫ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
applications that are found in communications as well as in other areas. In the
‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ‬
following sections, we will concentrate on multiplier applications in AM and FM
FM‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ ﺳﻨﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻗﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬
systems.
.‫ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Discuss the function of a linear multiplier
‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
= Describe multiplier quadrants and transfer characteristic
‫= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻭﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬
= Discuss scale factor
‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ‬
= Show how to use a multiplier circuit as a multiplier, squaring circuit, divide circuit,
،‫ ﻭﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ‬،‫ ﻭﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻊ‬،‫= ﺃﻇﻬﺮ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻛﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ‬
square root circuit, and mean square circuit
‫ ﻭﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ‬،‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ‬
Multiplier Quadrants
‫ﺍﻷﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ‬
There are one-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant multipliers. The quadrant
classi-
‫ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﻒ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻲ‬.‫ ﻭﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﺭﺑﺎﻉ‬،‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺑﻌﻴﻦ‬،‫ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺮﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ‬
fication indicates the number of input polarity combinations that the multiplier can
handle.
.‫ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ‬fication ‫ﻳﺸﻴﺮ‬
A graphical representation of the quadrants is shown in Figure 17-7. A four-quadrant
‫ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬.7-17 ‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺭﺳﻮﻣﻲ ﻟﻸﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
multiplier can accept any of the four possible input polarity combinations and produce
an
‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻘﺒﻞ ﺃﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ‬
output with the corresponding polarity.
‫ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
 THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 823

+V FIGURE 17-7

Four-quadrant polarities and their

products.

(-V 4) = VP (+V i+V)

= +V7

O
®
(-V (-¥)= +" (4V 1-V) =-V2

The Multiplier Transfer Characteristic

Figure 17-8 shows the transfer characteristic for a typical IC linear multiplier of two input
voltages Vy and Vy. Values of Vy run along the horizontal axis and values of Vy are the
sloped lines. To find the output voltage from the transfer characteristic graph, find the in-
tersection of the two input voltages Vy and V,. Then find the output voltage by projecting
the point of intersection over to the vertical axis. An example will illustrate this.

FIGURE 17-8
Le i
KXY —-. A four-quadrant multiplier transfer
a a characteristic.
NN
~~ ss. o>
s AN __|
S
%2 vy=r20N
6 Vy=0V
2 |My 3 ,
2 50 —~2.0\
5 2, _
° | be
5 -4.0 | { . | | | a is = ~6.)
Ns L gece
-6.0 . |t — . RL On
-8.0 t

-10 :
-10 -80 -60 -40 -2.0 0 42.0 +40 +60 +80 +10
Vy, input voltage (volts)

EXAMPLE 17-1
Determine the output voltage for a four-quadrant linear multiplier whose transfer
characteristic is given in Figure 17-8. The input voltages are Vy = —4 V and
Vy = +10V.

Solution The output voltage is —4 V as illustrated in Figure 17-9. For this transfer
characteristic, the output voltage is a factor of ten smaller than the actual product of
the two input voltages. This is due to the scale factor of the multiplier, which is
discussed next.
 8:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 823
823 @ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
+V FIGURE 17-7
7-17 ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬+
Four-quadrant polarities and their
‫ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻬﺎ‬
products.
.‫ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ‬
(-V 4) = VP (+V i+V= )+V 7
(-V h) = ‫( ﺍﻟﺴﻜﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ‬+V i+V= )+V sht
O
‫ﻳﺎ‬
®
®
(-V (-¥)= +" (4V 1-V) =-V2
(-V (-¥)= +" (4V 1-V) =-V2
The Multiplier Transfer Characteristic
‫ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ‬
Figure 17-8 shows the transfer characteristic for a typical IC linear multiplier of two input
‫ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﻴﻦ‬IC ‫ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ‬8-17 ‫ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
voltages Vy and Vy. Values of Vy run along the horizontal axis and values of Vy are the
‫ ﻫﻲ‬Vy ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ ﻭﻗﻴﻢ‬Vy ‫ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻗﻴﻢ‬.Vy ‫ ﻭ‬Vy ‫ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ‬
sloped lines. To find the output voltage from the transfer characteristic graph, find the
in-
‫ ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ‬،‫ ﻟﻠﻌﺜﻮﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬.‫ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺎﺋﻠﺔ‬
tersection of the two input voltages Vy and V,. Then find the output voltage by
projecting
‫ ﺛﻢ ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻹﺳﻘﺎﻁ‬.V‫ ﻭ‬Vy ‫ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺟﻬﺪﻱ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
the point of intersection over to the vertical axis. An example will illustrate this.
.‫ ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﺍ‬.‫ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﺳﻲ‬
FIGURE 17-8
8-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Le i
‫ﺃﻧﺎ‬
KXY —-. A four-quadrant multiplier transfer
‫ ﻧﻘﻞ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻲ‬.-— ‫ﻛﻜﺴﻲ‬
a a characteristic.
.‫ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ‬
NN
‫ﻥ‬.‫ﻥ‬
~~ ss. o>
 <‫ ﺱ‬.‫~~ ﺳﺲ‬
s AN __|
|__ ‫ﻕ‬
S
‫ﺱ‬
%2 vy=r20N
Р20Н = ‫ ﺃﻧﺖ‬%2
6 Vy=0V
‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0 = ‫ ﻓﻲ‬6
22 50 |My —~32 .0\ ,
, \0. 32~— ‫ |ﺑﻠﺪﻱ‬50 22
5 2, _
5 2, _
° | be
‫ | ﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬°
5 -4.0 | { . | | | a is = ~6.)
(.6~ = ‫ | | | ﺃ ﻫﻮ‬. } | 4.0- 5
Ns L gece
Ns L ‫ﻟﻴﻠﺔ‬
-6.0. t| — . RL On
‫ ﺭﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ‬. — |‫ ﺭ‬.6.0-
-8.0 t
‫ ﻃﻦ‬8.0-
-10 :
-١٠ :
-10 -80 -60 -40 -2.0 0 42.0 +40 +60 +80 +10
-١٠+ ٨٠+ ٦٠+ ٤٠+ ٤٢.٠ ٠ ٢.٠- ٤٠- ٦٠- ٨٠- ١٠
Vy, input voltage (volts)
(‫ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ )ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬،‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
EXAMPLE 17-1
1-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
Determine the output voltage for a four-quadrant linear multiplier whose transfer
‫ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻧﻘﻠﻪ‬
characteristic is given in Figure 17-8. The input voltages are Vy = —4 V and
‫ ﻭ‬Vy = -4 V ‫ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﺔ ﻫﻲ‬.8-17 ‫ﻭﺗﺮﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Vy = +10V.
.‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬10+ = ‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
Solution The output voltage is —4 V as illustrated in Figure 17-9. For this transfer
‫ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬.17-9 ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬4- ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻫﻮ‬
charact eristic, the output voltage is a factor of ten smaller than the actual product of
‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﺑﻌﺸﺮ ﻣﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ‬
the two input voltages. This is due to the scale factor of the multiplier, which is
 ‫ﺍﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺮﺟﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻮ‬
‫‪discussed next.‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﺖ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ‪.‬‬
824 ™ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

FIGURE 17-9
+10

+8.0

+6.0

output voltage (volts)

+40

+2.0

Vout

-10 -80 -60 -4.0 -2.0 0 42.0 +4.0 46.0 +80 +10
Vy, input voltage (volts)

Related Problem” Find Vout if Vy = —6V and Vy = +6V.

“Answers are at the end of the chapter.

The Scale Factor, K

The scale factor, K, is basically an internal attenuation that reduces the output by a fixed
amount. The scale factor on most IC multipliers is adjustable and has a typical value of 0.1.
Figure 17-10 shows an MC 1495 configured as a basic multiplier. The scale factor is deter-
mined by external resistors, which include two equal load resistors, according to the fol-
lowing formula:
2R,
K =——+—
RyRyleo

FIGURE 17-10

Basic MC1495 linear multiplier with

external circuitry for setting the scale
factor.

MC1495
Inputs 4 linear multiplier
 9:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
824 ™ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫™ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬824
FIGURE 17-9
9-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
+10
+١٠
+8.0
٠.‫ﺽ‬+
+6.0
٠.‫ﻁ‬+
(volts)
(‫)ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬
+40
+٤٠
+2.0
٠.‫ﺃ‬+
voltage
‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﻰ‬
output
‫ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺝ‬
tuoV
V‫ﻫﺬﺍ‬
-10 -80 -60 -4.0 -2.0 0 42.0 +4.0 46.0 +80 +10
١٠+ ٨٠+ ٤٦.٠ ٤.٠+ ٤٢.٠ ٠ ٠.‫ ﺃ‬٤.٠- ٦٠- ٨٠- ١٠-
Vy, input voltage (volts)
(‫ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ )ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬،‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
Related Problem” Find Vout if Vy = —6V and Vy = +6V.
.Vy = +6V‫ ﻭ‬Vy = —6V ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ‬Vout ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ" ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ‬
“Answers are at the end of the chapter.
.‫"ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬
The Scale Factor, K
‫ ﻙ‬،‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ‬
The scale factor, K, is basically an internal attenuation that reduces the output by a fixed
‫ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﻮﻫﻴﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻳﻘﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬،K ،‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ‬
amount. The scale factor on most IC multipliers is adjustable and has a typical value of
0.1.
.0.1 ‫ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻭﻟﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻴﺔ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ‬IC ‫ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ‬.‫ﻛﻤﻴﺔ‬
Figure 17-10 shows an MC 1495 configured as a basic multiplier. The scale factor is
deter-
‫ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ‬.‫ ﻛﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬MC 1495 ‫ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ‬10-17 ‫ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
mined by external resistors, which include two equal load resistors, according to the fol-
 ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺟﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺗﺸﺘﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺘﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺘﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﻞ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪lowing formula:‬‬
‫ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺧﻔﺾ‪:‬‬
‫‪2R,‬‬
‫ﺃﺭ‪,‬‬
‫—‪K =——+‬‬
‫ﻙ =——‪—+‬‬
‫‪RyRyleo‬‬
‫ﺭﻳﺮﻳﻠﻴﻮ‬
‫‪FIGURE 17-10‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪10-17‬‬
‫‪Basic MC1495 linear multiplier with‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ‪ MC1495‬ﻣﻊ‬
‫‪external circuitry for setting the scale‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻴﺎﺱ‬
‫‪factor.‬‬
‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ‪.‬‬
‫‪MC1495‬‬
‫‪MC1495‬‬
‫‪Inputs 4 linear multiplier‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ‪ 4‬ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
 THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 825

The current Jp, is set by internal and external parameters according to this formula:

-V} - 0.7V
Tro Ry + 5002
where R, is the combination of the fixed resistor and the potentiometer. The potentiometer
provides for fine adjustment by controlling Igo.
The expression for the output voltage of the IC linear multiplier includes the scale fac-
tor, K, as indicated in Equation 17-1.

Vour = KV,Vy Equation 17-1

EXAMPLE 17-2
Determine the scale factor for the basic MC1495 multiplier in Figure 17-11. Assume
the 5 kQ potentiometer portion of R, is set to 2.5 kQ. Also, determine the output
voltage for the given inputs.

FIGURE 17-11
+15V

Ry Ry
10kA 10kQ 3.3 6k 5-6 kQ
10 110 45) (6
9
Oo——“

Vy=42V 12
o——_ MC1495 »
3 linear multiplier id oer
V\=4+3V 8 /—o——_______@——o.
Oo-—————

3 13 [
10kQ Rs
Re ISkQ Oy

SkQ

Solution Calculate Zp).

1, - EME OTV ISV=07V__143V_4)

2" R, + 5002 125k +5000 13kO m
The scale factor is
2R 2(5.6 kO
K
~ RyRylg, (10kQ)(10( kQ)(1.1
)
mA) = 0.102
The output voltage is

Vout = KVxVy = 0.102 (+2 V) (+3 V) = 0.611 V

Related Problem What is the output voltage in Figure 17-11 if the 5 kQ potentiometer is set to its
maximum resistance?
 10:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 825
825 @ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
The current Jp, is set by internal and external parameters according to this formula:
:‫ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ‬Jp ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ‬
-V} - 0.7V
-B} - 0.SHV
Tro
‫ﻳﻌﺘﻘﺪ‬
Ry + 5002
5002+‫ﺭﻱ‬
where R, is the combination of the fixed resistor and the potentiometer. The
potentiometer
‫ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬.‫ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺰﻳﺞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻭﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬R ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
provides for fine adjustment by controlling Igo.
.Igo ‫ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ‬
The expression for the output voltage of the IC linear multiplier includes the scale fac-
-‫ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ‬IC ‫ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
tor, K, as indicated in Equation 17-1.
tor، K، 1-17 ‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬.
Vour = KV,Vy Equation 17-1
Vour = KV، Vy 1-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
EXAMPLE 17-2
2-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
Determine the scale factor for the basic MC1495 multiplier in Figure 17-11. Assume
‫ ﻳﻔﺘﺮﺽ‬.11-17 ‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬MC1495 ‫ﺣﺪﺩ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ‬
the 5 kQ potentiometer portion of R, is set to 2.5 kQ. Also, determine the output
‫ ﻭﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬.kQ 2.5 ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬R ‫ ﻣﻦ‬kQ 5 ‫ﺗﻢ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﺰﺀ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
voltage for the given inputs.
.‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺓ‬
FIGURE 17-11
11-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
+15V
‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬15+
Ry Ry
‫ﺭﻱ ﺭﻱ‬
10kA 10kQ 3.3 6k 5-6 kQ
10ka 10k z.z shk 5-sh kya
10 110 45) (6
‫( )ﻁ‬٤٥ ١١٠ ١٠
9
‫ﺹ‬
Oo——“
"--‫ﻭ‬
Vy=42V 12
12 ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬42 = ‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
o——_ MC1495 »
« MC1495 _—— ‫ﺱ‬
3 linear multiplier id oer
‫ ﻣﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬3
V\=4+3V 8 /—o——_______@——o.
Vu=h+ZV 8 /—o——________@——o.
Oo-—————
-------‫ﻭ‬
3 13 [
] ١٣ ‫ﻉ‬
10kQ Rs
‫ ﺃﻟﻒ ﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ‬10
Re ISkQ Oy
‫ﻳﺎ ﺍﺑﻨﻪ‬
SkQ
SkQ
Solution Calculate Zp).
.(Zp ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ‬
1, - EME OTV ISV=07V__143V_4 )
1، - EME OTV ISV=07V__143V_4 )
2" R, + 5002 125k +5000 13kO m
‫ ﻙ ﻡ‬13 5000+ ‫ ﻙ‬125 5002 + ،‫" ﺹ‬2
The scale factor is
‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﻫﻮ‬
2R 2(5.6 kO
2R2(5.6 ‫ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺃﻭ‬
K ( ) = 0.102
0.102 = ( ) ‫ﻙ‬
~ RyRylg, (10kQ)(10 kQ)(1.1 mA)
(‫ ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﺃﻣﺒﻴﺮ‬1.1) (‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺱ‬10) (‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺱ‬10) ،‫~ ﺭﻳﺮﻳﻠﺞ‬
The output voltage is
‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ‬
Vout = KVxVy = 0.102 (+2 V) (+3 V) = 0.611 V
Vout = KVxVy = 0.102 (+2 ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0.611 = (‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬3+) (‫ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬
Related Problem What is the output voltage in Figure 17-11 if the 5 kQ potentiometer is
set to its
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ‬kQ 5 ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺿﺒﻂ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬11-17 ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
maximum resistance?
‫ﺃﻗﺼﻰ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ؟‬
826 & COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Offset Adjustment
Due to internal mismatches, small offset voltages are usually at the inputs and the output of
an IC linear multiplier. External circuits to nul] out the offset voltages are shown in Figure
17-12. The resistive voltage dividers on the inputs allow the actual input voltages to be
greater than the recommended maximum for the device. For example, the MC1495 has a
maximum input voltage of 5 V. The voltage dividers allow a maximum of 10 V to be ap-
plied if the resistors are of equal value. The zener diodes in the input offset adjust circuit
keep the inputs on pins 8 and 12 from exceeding the maximum of 5 V.

FIGURE 17-12 +15 V

Basic MC1495 multiplier with both
Rx Ry
scale factor and offset circuitry.

10 11 5 6
R, 9
Vy 2
-—O- O
Ry MC1495 \
tL linear multiplier OT
R = 14
3 4 O
V}
Ry J
—— 3 13 8 12 O7
~ -ISV
Ry Rip
Re

Ri Output offset
adjust

¥-input offset N-input offset

adjust adjust
9
+15 vo-—W—4 p>—ANA—o
-15 V
Rg my Ry Ws

Basic Applications of the Multiplier

Applications of linear multipliers are numerous. Some basic applications are now presented.

Multiplier The most obvious application of a linear multiplier is, of course, to multiply
two voltages as indicated in Figure 17~—13.

FIGURE 17-13

Multiplier.
P po KVyV,

Squaring Circuit A special case of the multiplier is a squaring circuit that is realized by
simply applying the same voltage to both inputs by connecting the inputs together as shown
in Figure 17-14.

FIGURE 17-14

Squaring circuit. .
\ -——————————_6 KV?
 11:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
826 & COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ ﻭﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬826
Offset Adjustment
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻓﺴﺖ‬
Due to internal mismatches, small offset voltages are usually at the inputs and the
output of
‫ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺨﺮﺟﺎﺕ‬،‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ‬
an IC linear multiplier. External circuits to nul] out the offset voltages are shown in Figure
‫ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺟﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬null ‫ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ‬.IC ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
17-12. The resistive voltage dividers on the inputs allow the actual input voltages to be
‫ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻣﻘﺴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺑﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬.17-12
greater than the recommended maximum for the device. For example, the MC1495 has
a
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬MC1495 ‫ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬.‫ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻟﻠﺠﻬﺎﺯ‬
maximum input voltage of 5 V. The voltage dividers allow a maximum of 10 V to be ap-
.‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬10 ‫ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻣﻘﺴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺑﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬.‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬5 ‫ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻫﻮ‬
plied if the resistors are of equal value. The zener diodes in the input offset adjust circuit
‫ ﺛﻨﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﻨﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬.‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ‬
keep the inputs on pins 8 and 12 from exceeding the maximum of 5 V.
.‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬5 ‫ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻭﻫﻮ‬12 ‫ ﻭ‬8 ‫ﺣﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻃﺮﺍﻑ‬
FIGURE 17-12 +15 V
‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬15+ 12-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Basic MC1495 multiplier with both
‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ‬MC1495 ‫ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ‬
Rx Ry
‫ﺁﺭ ﺇﻛﺲ ﺭﺍﻱ‬
scale factor and offset circuitry.
.‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﻭﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ‬
10 11 5 6
٦ ٥ ١١ ١٠
R, 9
9 ،‫ﺭ‬
Vy 2
2 ‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
-—O- O
‫ ﺃﻭﻩ‬-‫——ﺃﻭ‬
Ry MC1495 \
\ MC1495 ‫ﺭﺍﻱ‬
=tL linear multiplier OT
=tL ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬OT
R 14
 14 ‫ﺹ‬
34O
‫ﺱ‬43
V}
{‫ﻓﻲ‬
Ry J
‫ﺭﺍﻱ ﺝ‬
—— 3 13 8 12 O7
‫ ﺃﺡ‬١٢ ٨ ١٣ ٣ ——
~ -ISV
~ -ISV
Ry Rip
‫ﺭﻱ ﺭﻳﺐ‬
Re
‫ﻳﻜﺮﺭ‬
Ri Output offset
‫ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺭﻱ‬
adjust
‫ﻳﻌﺪﻝ‬
¥-input offset N-input offset
‫ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬-N ‫ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ‬-¥
adjust adjust
‫ﺿﺒﻂ ﺿﺒﻂ‬
9
‫ﺹ‬
+15 vo-—W—4 p>—ANA-—15o V
ANA-—15o V—<‫ ﺹ‬W—4—-‫ ﺻﻮﺕ‬15+
Rg my Ry Ws
RG ‫ ﺑﻠﺪﻱ ﺭﻱ‬Ws
Basic Applications of the Multiplier
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ‬
Applications of linear multipliers are numerous. Some basic applications are now
presented.
.‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬.‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺔ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ‬
Multiplier The most obvious application of a linear multiplier is, of course, to multiply
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻭﺿﻮﺣﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ‬
two voltages as indicated in Figure 17~—13.
.13-~17 ‫ﺟﻬﺪﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-13
13-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
MultiplPi er. po KVyV,
,‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﻒ‬.‫ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺇﻳﻪ‬
Squaring Circuit A special case of the multiplier is a squaring circuit that is realized by
‫ﺣﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬
simply applying the same voltage to both inputs by connecting the inputs together as
shown
‫ﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﻚ ﺳﻮﻯ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻼ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﻴﻦ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻣﻌﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ‬
in Figure 17-14.
.14-17 ‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-14
14-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Squaring circuit. .
. .‫ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ‬
\ -——————————_6 KV?
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ؟‬6_——————————- \
 THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER) @& 827

FIGURE 17-15

KV Vout r Divide circuit.

Your = =

Divide Circuit The circuit in Figure 17-15 shows the multiplier placed in the feedback
loop of an op-amp. The basic operation is as follows. There is a virtual ground at the in-
verting (—) input of the op-amp and therefore the current at the inverting input is negligi-
ble. Therefore, /, and /, are equal. Since the inverting input voltage is 0 V, the voltage across
R, is KV,Voyrz and the current through R, is

— KVVour
7
R,
The voltage across R, is Vy, so the current through R, is
Vv
1, = —
Ry
Since J, = —h,

KVyWVour _ _ Vx
R, R,

Solving for Vout,

V. _ VR,
OUT — KV,R>

If R, = KR,,

Vy
Vour = y
y

Square Root Circuit The square root circuit is a special case of the divide circuit where
Vour is applied to both inputs of the multiplier as shown in Figure 17-16.

FIGURE 17-16

Square root circuit.

M0 Vouy = VVy
 12:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER) @& 827
827 &@ (‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
FIGURE 17-15
15-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
KV Vout r Divide circuit.
KV Vout r ‫ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ‬.
Your = =
= = ‫ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺹ ﺑﻚ‬
Divide Circuit The circuit in Figure 17-15 shows the multiplier placed in the feedback
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺪﺓ‬15-17 ‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
loop of an op-amp. The basic operation is as follows. There is a virtual ground at the in-
‫ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺃﺭﺽ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﺿﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.‫ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻊ ﺃﻣﺒﻴﺮ‬
verting (—) input of the op-amp and therefore the current at the inverting input is
negligi-
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺴﻴﺔ )—( ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻣﻬﻤﻞ‬
ble. Therefore, /, and /, are equal. Since the inverting input voltage is 0 V, the voltage
across
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ‬،‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0 ‫ ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮﺏ ﻫﻮ‬.‫ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺎﻥ‬،/ ‫ ﻭ‬،/ ،‫ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.‫ﺑﻠﻲ‬
R, is KV,Voyrz and the current through R, is
R، ‫ ﻫﻮ‬KV، Voyrz ‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ‬R، ‫ﻫﻮ‬
— KVVour
‫ ﻛﻔﻔﻮﺭ‬-
7
‫ﺡ‬
R,
،‫ﺹ‬
The voltage across R, is Vy, so the current through R, is
‫ ﻫﻮ‬R ‫ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﺒﺮ‬،Vy ‫ ﻫﻮ‬R ‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ‬
Vv
‫ﺕ‬
1, = —
١, = —
Ry
‫ﺭﺍﻱ‬
Since J, = —h,
،J، = —h ‫ﻣﻨﺬ‬
KVyWVour _ _ Vx
KVyWVour _ _ Vx
R, R,
،‫ ﺭ‬،‫ﺹ‬
Solving for Vout,
 ،Vout ‫ﺣﻞ ﻝ‬
V. _ VR ,
V. _ VR ,
OUT — KV,R>
<‫ ﺭ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬- ‫ﺧﺎﺭﺝ‬
If R, = KR,,
،،R، = KR ‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ‬
Vy
‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
Vour = y
‫ﺍﻧﻈﺮ = ﺫ‬
y
‫ﻭ‬
Square Root Circuit The square root circuit is a special case of the divide circuit where
‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ‬
Vour is applied to both inputs of the multiplier as shown in Figure 17-16.
.16-17 ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻼ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬Vour ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ‬
FIGURE 17-16
16-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Square root circuit.
.‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ‬
M0 Vouy = VVy
M0 ‫ = ﻓﻮﻱ‬VVy
828 m COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Mean Square Circuit In this application, the multiplier is used as a squaring circuit with
its output connected to an op-amp integrator as shown in Figure !7-17. The integrator pro-
duces the average or mean value of the squared input over time, as indicated by the inte-
gration sign (J).

FIGURE 17-17

gy
Mean square circuit,

b—O Viyp-p = | KV" dt

SECTION 17-2
REVIEW 1. Compare a four-quadrant multiplier to a one-quadrant multiplier in terms of the
inputs that can be handled.
2. If 5 Vand 1 Vare applied to the inputs ofa multiplier and its output is 0.5 V, what
is the scale factor? What must the scale factor be for an output of 5 V?
3. How do you convert a basic multiplier to a squaring circuit?

17-3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Amplitude modulation (AM) is an important method for transmitting information. Of
course, the AM superheterodyne receiver is designed to receive transmitted AM
signals. Jn this section, we take a further look at amplitude modulation and show how
the linear multiplier can be used as an amplitude-modulated device.

After completing this section, you should be able to

= Discuss the fundamentals of amplitude modulation
= Explain how AM is basically a multiplication process
® Describe sum and difference frequencies
= Discuss balanced modulation

Describe the frequency spectra

= Explain standard AM

As you learned in Section 17—1, amplitude modulation is the process of varying the am-
plitude of a signal of a given frequency (carrier) with another signal of much lower fre-
quency (modulating signal). One reason that the higher-frequency carrier signal is
necessary 1s because audio or other signals with relatively low frequencies cannot be trans-
mitted with antennas of a practical size. The basic concept of standard amplitude modula-
tion is illustrated in Figure 17-18.

A Multiplication Process
If a signal is applied to the input of a variable-gain device, the resulting output is an
amplitude-modulated signal because V,,,, = A,V;,. The output voltage is the input voltage
 13:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
828 m COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ ﻡ‬828 ‫ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﺑﻄﻮﻝ‬-
Mean Square Circuit In this application, the multiplier is used as a squaring circuit with
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻛﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ‬،‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ‬
its output connected to an op-amp integrator as shown in Figure !7-17. The integrator
pro-
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻳﺪ‬.17-7! ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬op-amp ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﻣﺨﺮﺟﺎﺗﻪ ﺑﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬
duces the average or mean value of the squared input over time, as indicated by the
inte-
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ‬
‫ﻳﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ‬
gration sign (J).
.(J) ‫ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺑﺸﺮ‬
FIGURE 17-17
17-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
yg
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ‬- ‫ﺍﻟﺬﻱ‬
Mean square circuit,
,‫ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﺮﺑﻌﺔ‬
b—O Viyp-p = | KV" dt
‫ = | ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ" ﺩ‬Viyp-p ‫ﺏ—ﻳﺎ‬
SECTION 17-2
2-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
REVIEW 1. Compare a four-quadrant multiplier to a one-quadrant multiplier in terms of
the
‫ ﻗﺎﺭﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻊ ﻭﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺭﺑﻊ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ‬.1 ‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
inputs that can be handled.
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ‬
2. If 5 Vand 1 Vare applied to the inputs ofa multiplier and its output is 0.5 V, what
‫ ﻓﻤﺎﺫﺍ‬،‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0.5 ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﺮﺟﻪ‬1 ‫ ﻭ‬5 ‫ ﻣﻦ‬.2
is the scale factor? What must the scale factor be for an output of 5 V?
‫؟‬V 5 ‫ﻫﻮ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ؟ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﺨﺮﺝ‬
3. How do you convert a basic multiplier to a squaring circuit?
‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ؟‬.3
17-3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
‫ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬17-3
Amplitude modulation (AM) is an important method for transmitting information. Of
‫ ﻝ‬.‫( ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬AM) ‫ﻳﻌﺪ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
course, the AM superheterodyne receiver is designed to receive transmitted AM
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺳﻠﺔ‬AM ‫ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬AM ‫ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ‬،‫ﻭﺑﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻝ‬
signals. Jn this section, we take a further look at amplitude modulation and show how
 ‫ ﻧﻠﻘﻲ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﻧﻮﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬
the linear multiplier can be used as an amplitude-modulated device.
.‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Discuss the fundamentals of amplitude modulation
‫= ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
= Explain how AM is basically a multiplication process
‫ ﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﺏ‬AM ‫= ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺃﻥ‬
® Describe sum and difference frequencies
‫® ﻭﺻﻒ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
= Discuss balanced modulation
‫= ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
Describe the frequency spectra
‫ﻭﺻﻒ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
= Explain standard AM
AM ‫= ﺷﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻴﺎﺭ‬
As you learned in Section 17—1, amplitude modulation is the process of varying the am-
.‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ‬،17-1 ‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
plitude of a signal of a given frequency (carrier) with another signal of much lower fre-
‫ﺳﻌﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ )ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ( ﻣﻊ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺭﺳﻮﻡ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ‬
quency (modulating signal). One reason that the higher-frequency carrier signal is
‫ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻫﻲ‬.(‫ﻛﻮﻳﻨﺴﻲ )ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
necessary 1s because audio or other signals with relatively low frequencies cannot be
trans-
‫ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ‬1
mitted with antennas of a practical size. The basic concept of standard amplitude
modula-
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬.‫ﻣﺰﻭﺩ ﺑﻬﻮﺍﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬
tion is illustrated in Figure 17-18.
.18-17 ‫ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
A Multiplication Process
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ‬
If a signal is applied to the input of a variable-gain device, the resulting output is an
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ‬،‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ‬
amplitude-modulated signal because V,,,, = A,V;,. The output voltage is the input
voltage
‫ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬.،‫؛‬V،،،، = A،V ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻷﻥ‬
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 829

Currier signa)
o—, f
i .
Amplitude
,
modulator
Sou, ——©
Modulating signal tn

/
Ina broadcast radio system. this would ‘The envelope (variation in the amplitude)
be the audio signal (voice or music). of the output signal follows the shape of
the modulating signal.

FIGURE 17-18

Basic concept of amplitude modulation.

multiplied by the voltage gain. For example, if the gain of an amplifier is made to vary si-
nusoidally at a certain frequency and an input signal is applied at a higher frequency, the
output signal will have the higher frequency. However, its amplitude will vary according to
the variation in gain as illustrated in Figure 17-19. Amplitude modulation is basically a
multiplication process (input voltage multiplied by a variable gain).

FIGURE 17-19

The amplitude of the output voltage

varies according to the gain and is
Vi, Vout = AVin the product of voltage gain and
input voltage.

Gain variation

Sum and Difference Frequencies

If the expressions for two sinusoidal signals of different frequencies are multiplied mathe-
matically, a term containing both the difference and the sum of the two frequencies is pro-
duced. Recall from ac circuit theory that a sinusoidal voltage can be expressed as

v= V,sin 2aft

where V, is the peak voltage and fis the frequency. Two different sinusoidal signals can be
expressed as follows:

v, = Vipysin 27f\t
Vo V>/p)sin 27 fot
1

Multiplying these two sinusoidal wave terms,

Vivo = (Vi )s10 2af t)( Vop)sin aft) = Vip Vap)(sin 2mf\t)(sin 27f,f)
 14:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 829
829 ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭ‬
Currier signa)
(‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﻮﺭﻳﺮ‬
o—, f
‫ﻋﻦ‬
i Ampl, it. ude Sou, ——©
©—— ،‫ ﺃﻭﺩﻱ ﺳﻮ‬.‫ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺃﻧﺎ ﺃﻣﺒﻞ‬
modulator
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ‬
Modulating signal tn
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻦ‬
//
//
Ina broadcast radio system. this would ‘The envelope (variation in the amplitude)
(‫ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﻪ ﺃﻥ "ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻒ )ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬.Ina ‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ ﺍﻹﺫﺍﻋﻲ‬
be the audio signal (voice or music). of the output signal follows the shape of
‫ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﺷﻜﻞ‬.(‫ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ )ﺻﻮﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ‬
the modulating signal.
.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﺮ‬
FIGURE 17-18
18-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Basic concept of amplitude modulation.
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
multiplied by the voltage gain. For example, if the gain of an amplifier is made to vary si-
‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻛﺴﺐ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬.‫ﻣﻀﺮﻭﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
nusoidally at a certain frequency and an input signal is applied at a higher frequency, the
‫ ﻭﻫﻮ‬،‫ ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻧﻮﺳﻮﻱ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‬
output signal will have the higher frequency. However, its amplitude will vary according
to
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺳﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻝ‬،‫ ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ‬.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ‬
the variation in gain as illustrated in Figure 17-19. Amplitude modulation is basically a
‫ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﺃ‬.19-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﻳﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
multiplication process (input voltage multiplied by a variable gain).
.(‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ )ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻣﻀﺮﻭﺑﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺴﺐ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ‬
FIGURE 17-19
19-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
The amplitude of the output voltage
‫ﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ‬
varies according to the gain and is
‫ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻜﺴﺐ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬
Vi, Vout = AVin the product of voltage gain and
Vi، Vout = AVin ‫ﺣﺎﺻﻞ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻭ‬
input voltage.
.‫ﻣﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
Gain variation
‫ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ‬
Sum and Difference Frequencies
‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
If the expressions for two sinusoidal signals of different frequencies are multiplied
mathe-
‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺈﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎ‬
matically, a term containing both the difference and the sum of the two frequencies is
pro-
-pro ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺮﺍﺭﻳﻦ ﻫﻮ‬،‫ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎ‬
duced. Recall from ac circuit theory that a sinusoidal voltage can be expressed as
:‫ ﺗﺬﻛﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.‫ﻣﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ‬
v= V,sin 2aft
‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻒ‬2 ‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ = ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬
where V, is the peak voltage and fis the frequency. Two different sinusoidal signals can
be
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﺎﻥ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﺎﻥ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺘﺎﻥ‬.‫ ﻫﻮ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬V ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
expressed as follows:
:‫ﺃﻋﺮﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬
v, = Vipysin 27f\t
v, = 27 ‫ﻓﻴﺒﻴﺴﻴﻦ‬f\t
Vo 1 V>/p)sin 27 fot
‫ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ‬27 ‫ﻉ(ﺳﻴﻦ‬/<‫ ﺕ‬1 ‫ﻓﻲ‬
Multiplying these two sinusoidal wave terms,
،‫ﺑﻀﺮﺏ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬
Vivo = (Vi )s10 2af t)( Vop)sin aft) = Vip Vap)(sin 2mf\t)(sin 27f,f)
Vivo = (Vi )s10 2af t)( Vop)sin aft) = Vip Vap)(sin 2mf\t)(sin 27f,f)
830 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

The general trigonometric identity for the product of two sinusoidal functions is

|
(sin A)(sin B) = 3 Leos(A — B) — cos(A + B)|

Applying this identity to the previous formula for v,v2,

Vin Ya)
Vy. = 5 leos(2afit — 2arf,t) — cos(2af\t + 2mfor)|
Vien Vo
= Te 2 [cos 2a(f, — fo)t — cos 2a(f, + fo)e]

Vyen Vary View V.

Equation 17-2 Vjv> = eos 2a(f, —fe)t - eos 2a(f, + fo)t

You can see in Equation 17-2 that the product of the two sinusoidal voltages V, and V; con-
tains a difference frequency (f, — f4) and a sum frequency (f, + f,). The fact that the prod-
uct terms are cosine simply indicates a 90° phase shift in the multiplication process.

Analysis of Balanced Modulation

Since amplitude modulation is simply a multiplication process, the preceding analysis is
now applied to carrier and modulating signals. The expression for the sinusoidal carrier sig-
nal can be written as
Ve = Vejp)Sin Qarfet
Cc c

Assuming a sinusoidal modulating signal, it can be expressed as

Vn mo= Vyyy)Sin
TE 27hyl
Substituting these two signals in Equation 17-2,

VYy =“0 moo Inf. — f,)t - Ase aco Qn(f. + fa)t

An output signal described by this expression for the product of two sinusoidal signals is
produced by a linear multiplier. Notice that there is a difference frequency term (f. — f,,,)
and a sum frequency term (f. + f,,), but the original frequencies,f. and f,,, do not appear
alone in the expression. Thus, the product of two sinusoidal signals contains no signal with
the carrier frequency, f, or with the modulating frequency,f,,. This form of amplitude mod-
ulation is called balanced modulation because there is no carrier frequency in the output.
The carrier frequency is “balanced out.”

The Frequency Spectra of a Balanced Modulator

A graphical picture of the frequency content of a signal is called its frequency spectrum. A
frequency spectrum shows voltage on a frequency base rather than on a time base as a wave-
form diagram does. The frequency spectra of the product of two sinusoidal signals are
shown in Figure 17-20. Part (a) shows the two input frequencies and part (b) shows the out-
put frequencies. In communications terminology, the sum frequency is called the upper-
side frequency and the difference frequency is called the lower-side frequency because
the frequencies appear on each side of the missing carrier frequency.

The Linear Multiplier as a Balanced Modulator

As mentioned, the linear multiplier acts as a balanced modulator when a carrier signal and
a modulating signal are applied to its inputs, as illustrated in Figure 17~21. A balanced
modulator produces an upper-side frequency and a lower-side frequency, but it does not
 15:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
830 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ = ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬830
The general trigonometric identity for the product of two sinusoidal functions is
‫ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻠﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻫﻲ‬
|
|
(sin A)(sin B) = 3 Leos(A — B) — cos(A + B)|
|(‫ ﺏ‬+ ‫ ﻟﻴﻮ)ﺃ — ﺏ( — ﻛﻮﺱ)ﺃ‬3 = (‫)ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ ﺃ()ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ ﺏ‬
Applying this identity to the previous formula for v,v2,
,v,v2 ‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻟـ‬
Vin Ya)
(‫ﻫﻮ ﺍﻧﺎ‬
Vy. = 5 leos(2afit — 2arf,t) — cos(2af\t + 2mfor)|
VY. = 5 2)‫ﻟﻴﻮ‬afit — 2arf,t) — cos(2af\t + 2mfor)|
Vien Vo
‫ﻓﻘﻂ ﻓﻮ‬
= Te 2 [cos 2a(f, — fo)t — cos 2a(f, + fo)e]
= Te 2 [cos 2a(f, — fo)t — cos 2a(f, + fo)e]
Vyen Vary View V.
.V ‫ﻋﺮﺽ ﻓﻴﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻓﺎﺭﻱ‬
Equation 17-2 Vjv> = eos 2a(f, —fe)t - eos 2a(f, + fo)t
Vjv> = eos 2a(f, —fe)t - eos 2a(f, + fo)t 2-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
You can see in Equation 17-2 that the product of the two sinusoidal voltages V, and V;
con-
‫؛ ﻳﺨﺪﻉ‬V ‫ ﻭ‬V ‫ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﻴﻦ‬2-17 ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
tains a difference frequency (f, — f4) and a sum frequency (f, + f,). The fact that the prod-
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬.(,f, + f) ‫( ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬f, — f4) ‫ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﺮﻕ‬
uct terms are cosine simply indicates a 90° phase shift in the multiplication process.
.‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ‬90 ‫ ﻫﻲ ﺟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬uct ‫ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ‬
Analysis of Balanced Modulation
‫ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
Since amplitude modulation is simply a multiplication process, the preceding analysis is
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻫﻮ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬،‫ﻭﺑﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺠﺮﺩ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﺏ‬
now applied to carrier and modulating signals. The expression for the sinusoidal carrier
sig-
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬.‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻪ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﺮ‬
nal can be written as
‫ ﻛـ‬nal ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ‬
Ve = Vejp)Sin Qarfet
Ve = ‫ﻓﻴﺠﺐ(ﺳﻴﻦ ﻗﺮﻓﻴﺖ‬
Cc c
 ‫ﻧﺴﺨﺔ ﺝ‬
Assuming a sinusoidal modulating signal, it can be expressed as
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻛـ‬،‫ﺑﺎﻓﺘﺮﺍﺽ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬
Vn = Vyyy)Sin 27hy l
Vn = Vyyy)Sin 27hy l
mo TE
TE‫ﻝ‬
Substituting these two signals in Equation 17-2,
،2-17 ‫ﺍﺳﺘﺒﺪﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
VYy = “0 moo Inf. — f,)t - Ase aco Qn(f. + fa)t
VYy = "0 moo Inf. — f,)t - Ase aco Qn(f. + fa)t
An output signal described by this expression for the product of two sinusoidal signals is
‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺻﻮﻓﺔ ﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻫﻲ‬
produced by a linear multiplier. Notice that there is a difference frequency term (f. — f,,,)
(,,,f. — f) ‫ ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ‬
and a sum frequency term (f. + f,,), but the original frequencies,f. and f,,, do not appear
‫ ﻻ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ‬،،،f‫ ﻭ‬.f،‫ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ‬،(،،f. + f) ‫ﻭﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ‬
alone in the expression. Thus, the product of two sinusoidal signals contains no signal
with
‫ﻭﺣﺪﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻻ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻊ‬
the carrier frequencyf,, or with the modulating frequencyf,,, . This form of amplitude
mod-
‫ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬. ،،،f‫ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬،f‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
ulation is called balanced modulation because there is no carrier frequency in the
output.
.‫ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬
The carrier frequency is “balanced out.”
."‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ "ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
The Frequency Spectra of a Balanced Modulator
‫ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻠﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
A graphical picture of the frequency content of a signal is called its frequency spectrum.
A
‫ ﺃ‬.‫ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺑﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
frequency spectrum shows voltage on a frequency base rather than on a time base as a
wave-
‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﻮﺟﺔ‬
form diagram does. The frequency spectra of the product of two sinusoidal signals are
‫ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻫﻲ‬.‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻳﻔﻌﻞ‬
shown in Figure 17-20. Part (a) shows the two input frequencies and part (b) shows the
out-
‫ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﺀ )ﺃ( ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺰﺀ )ﺏ( ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻲ‬.20-17 ‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
put frequencies. In communications terminology, the sum frequency is called the upper-
 .‫ ﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬.‫ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ‬
side frequency and the difference frequency is called the lower-side frequency because
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻲ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻷﻧﻪ‬
the frequencies appear on each side of the missing carrier frequency.
.‫ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻘﻮﺩﺓ‬
The Linear Multiplier as a Balanced Modulator
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
As mentioned, the linear multiplier acts as a balanced modulator when a carrier signal
and
‫ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻭ‬،‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺫﻛﺮﻧﺎ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ‬
a modulating signal are applied to its inputs, as illustrated in Figure 17~21. A balanced
‫ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬.21~17 ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺗﻬﺎ‬
modulator produces an upper-side frequency and a lower-side frequency, but it does
not
‫ ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻔﻌﻞ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ‬
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION ® 831

Carrier frequency FIGURE 17-20

Illustration of the input and output
frequency spectra for a linear
Modulating frequency multiplier.

Sin fe
(a) Input frequencies

Lower-side frequency Upper-side frequency

fi — fin Se tdin

(b) Output frequencies

P FIGURE 17-21

> The linear multiplier as a balanced

Fin modulator.

| lo ee f
oOo“ fe ~ fin io fe + fn

So

produce a carrier frequency. Since there is no carrier signal, balanced modulation is some-
times known as suppressed-carrier modulation. Balanced modulation is used in certain
types of communications such as single side-band systems, but it is not used in standard
AM broadcast systems.

EXAMPLE 17-3
Determine the frequencies contained in the output signal of the balanced modulator in
Figure 17-22.

FIGURE 17-22
f. =5 MHz0————_

f, = 10 kHz 0

Solution The upper-side frequency is

ft. + fy = 5 MHz + 10 kHz = 5.01 MHz

 16:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
AMPLITUDE MODULATION ® 831
831 ® ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
Carrier frequency FIGURE 17-20
20-17 ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Illustration of the input and output
‫ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﻟﻺﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬
frequency spectra for a linear
‫ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻠﺨﻄﻴﺔ‬
Modulating frequency multiplier.
.‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
Sin fe
‫ﺳﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ‬
(a) Input frequencies
‫) ﺃ ( ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
Lower-side frequency Upper-side frequency
‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ‬
fi — fin Se tdin
‫ﻓﻲ — ﻓﻴﻦ ﺹ ﺗﺪﻳﻦ‬
(b) Output frequencies
‫)ﺏ( ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬
P FIGURE 17-21
21-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
> The linear multiplier as a balanced
‫< ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
Fin modulator.
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺰﻋﺎﻧﻒ‬
| lo ee f
|F
oOo“ fe ~ fin io fe + fn
oOo" fe ~ fin io fe + fn
So
‫ﻟﺬﺍ‬
produce a carrier frequency. Since there is no carrier signal, balanced modulation is
some-
.‫ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺃﻣﺮﺍ ﻣﺎ‬،‫ ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻟﻌﺪﻡ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺣﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬.‫ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬
times known as suppressed-carrier modulation. Balanced modulation is used in certain
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ‬.‫ﺍﻷﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺒﻮﺗﺔ‬
types of communications such as single side-band systems, but it is not used in standard
‫ ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻲ‬،‫ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻱ‬
AM broadcast systems.
.AM ‫ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ‬
EXAMPLE 17-3
3-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
Determine the frequencies contained in the output signal of the balanced modulator in
‫ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻠﻤﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
Figure 17-22.
.22-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-22
22-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
f. =5 MHz0————_
F. =5 0‫_———— ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
f, = 10 kHz 0
0 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10 = ،‫ﻭ‬
Solution The upper-side frequency is
‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻫﻮ‬
ft. + fy = 5 MHz + 10 kHz = 5.01 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬5.01 = ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10 + ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬5 = ‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬+ ‫ﻗﺪﻡ‬
832 COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

The lower-side frequency is

fo ~fn = 5 MHz — 10 kHz = 4.99 MHz

Related Problem Explain how the separation between the side frequencies can be increased using the
same carrier frequency.

Standard Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In standard AM systems, the output signal contains the carrier frequency as well as the sum
and difference side frequencies. The frequency spectrum in Figure |7--23 illustrates stan-
dard amplitude modulation.

FIGURE 17-23 Carrier

The output frequency spectrum of a
standard amplitude modulator.

f ~ fin f to + Sn

The expression for a standard amplitude-modulated signal is

V. p V, V,. 1) Vin
Equation 17-3 Vv out = Vipin Qaft + cos 2a (f. — fn)t — Pn og 2a(f. + fade
2

Notice in Equation 17~3 that the first term is for the carrier frequency and the other two terms
are for the side frequencies. Let’s see how the carrier-frequency term gets into the equation.
If a de voltage equal to the peak of the carrier voltage is added to the modulating signal
before the modulating signal is multiplied by the carrier signal, a carrier-signal term appears
in the final result as shown in the following steps. Add the peak carrier voltage to the mod-
ulating signal, and you get the following expression:

Vin
ep) + Y, in(p)SIN 27,yf

Multiply by the carrier signal.

Vout = (V.r,)sin 2af.t) (Voip) + V,n(p)sin af pt)

Ve¢pysin Qf. + VicpyYin(p) (Sin Qaf.t) (sin 2h pt)

carrier term product term

Apply the basic trigonometric identity to the product term.

Vi = V2,ysin Zaft + Ve p) Val ees Qm(f. — f,)t —

V.. Vin

out
sa ) cos 2rr(f. + finr)t

This result shows that the output of the multiplier contains a carrier term and two side-
frequency terms. Figure 17-24 illustrates how a standard amplitude modulator can be im-
plemented by a summing circuit followed by a linear multiplier. Figure 17-25 shows a
possible implementation of the summing circuit.
 17:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
832 COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬832
The lower-side frequency is
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻫﻮ‬
fo ~fn = 5 MHz — 10 kHz = 4.99 MHz
fo ~fn = 5 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬4.99 = ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10 — ‫ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
Related Problem Explain how the separation between the side frequencies can be
increased using the
‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‬
same carrier frequency.
‫ﻧﻔﺲ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬
Standard Amplitude Modulation (AM)
(AM) ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
In standard AM systems, the output signal contains the carrier frequency as well as the
sum
‫ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬AM ‫ﻓﻲ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬
and difference side frequencies. The frequency spectrum in Figure |7--23 illustrates stan-
‫ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ‬23--7| ‫ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬.‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
dard amplitude modulation.
.‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬
FIGURE 17-23 Carrier
‫ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬23-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
The output frequency spectrum of a
‫ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﺃ‬
standard amplitude modulator.
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
f ~ fin f to + Sn
Sn + ‫ﻭ ~ ﺯﻋﻨﻔﺔ ﻭ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
The expression for a standard amplitude-modulated signal is
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﻫﻮ‬
Equation 17-3 Vv = Vipin Qaft + V. p V, cos 2a (f. — fn)t — PV,. 1n) Vin og 2a(f. + fade
‫ ﺗﺘﻼﺷﻰ‬+ .f)‫ﺃ‬og 2 ‫ﻥ( ﻓﻴﻦ‬Vv = Vipin Qaft + V. p V, cos 2a (f. — fn)t — PV,. 1 3-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
out 2
2 ‫ﺧﺎﺭﺝ‬
Notice in Equation 17~3 that the first term is for the carrier frequency and the other two
terms
‫ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻣﺨﺼﺺ ﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﻴﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ‬3~17 ‫ﻻﺣﻆ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
are for the side frequencies. Let’s see how the carrier-frequency term gets into the
equation.
.‫ ﺩﻋﻮﻧﺎ ﻧﺮﻯ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬.‫ﻫﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ‬
If a de voltage equal to the peak of the carrier voltage is added to the modulating signal
 ‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻤﺖ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
before the modulating signal is multiplied by the carrier signal, a carrier-signal term
appears
‫ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬،‫ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
in the final result as shown in the following steps. Add the peak carrier voltage to the
mod-
‫ ﺃﺿﻒ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ‬.‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬
ulating signal, and you get the following expression:
:‫ ﻭﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬،ulting ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
Vi+n Y ,
،‫ﻥ ﺹ‬+‫ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬
ep) in(p)SIN 27,y f
‫ﺹ ﻭ‬،SIN 27(‫ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻲ( ﻓﻲ )ﻉ‬
Multiply by the carrier signal.
.‫ﺍﺿﺮﺏ ﺑﺈﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬
Vout = (V.r,)sin 2af.t) (Voip) + V,n(p)sin af pt)
Vout = (V.r,)sin 2af.t) (Voip) + V,n(p)sin af pt)
Ve¢pysin Qf. + VicpyYin(p) (Sin Qaf.t) (sin 2h pt)
Ve¢pysin Qf. + VicpyYin(p) (Sin Qaf.t) (sin 2h pt)
carrier term product term
‫ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬
Apply the basic trigonometric identity to the product term.
.‫ﻗﻢ ﺑﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻠﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬
Veep) Val
‫ﻧﺎﺋﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ( ﻓﺎﻝ‬
Vi = V2,ysin Zaft + ees Qm(f. — f,)t —
Vi = V2,ysin Zaft + ees Qm(f. — f,)t —
V.. sa Vin ) cos 2rr(f. + finr)t
V.. sa Vin ) cos 2rr(f. + finr)t
out
‫ﺧﺎﺭﺝ‬
This result shows that the output of the multiplier contains a carrier term and two side-
‫ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻧﺎﻗﻞ ﻭﺍﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﺍﻧﺐ‬
frequency terms. Figure 17-24 illustrates how a standard amplitude modulator can be
im-
.‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻤﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻌﺎﻻ‬24-17 ‫ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬.‫ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
plemented by a summing circuit followed by a linear multiplier. Figure 17-25 shows a
‫ ﺃ‬25-17 ‫ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬.‫ﺗﻜﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺗﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ‬
possible implementation of the summing circuit.
.‫ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ‬
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 833

Veups Vivin + Ming Si 270 ft

5 n 2nf,fo—-4

Viana Macys Visi py Yinp)

L—o V=,,,sin 2 f.¢ + ——— cos Inf. — ff — ————cos 2m f. +,
\ si a 7 .

FIGURE 17-24

Basic block diagram of an amplitude modulator.

R, R, FIGURE 17-25

Vian © AW AW Implementation of the summing

Ry circuit in the amplitude modulator.
Vivi sin 2 ft o——\AA,——

DO Vinay & Vinci 20 fil

EXAMPLE 17-4
A carrier frequency of 1200 kHz is modulated by a sinusoidal wave with a frequency
of 25 kHz by a standard amplitude modulator. Determine the output frequency
spectrum.

Solution The lower-side frequency is

fe — fy = 1200 kHz — 25 kHz = 1175 kHz
The upper-side frequency is
fe + fy = 1200 kHz + 25 kHz = 1225 kHz
The output contains the carrier frequency and the two side frequencies as shown in
Figure 17-26.

FIGURE 17-26

So thn

—> f
LI75kHz 1200kHz 1225 kHz
 18:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 833
833 ‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭ‬
Veups Vivin + Ming Si 270 ft
Veups Vivin + Ming Si 270 ‫ﻗﺪﻡ‬
5 n 2nf,fo—-4
٤-—‫ﻑ‬,‫ﺥ ﻥ ﺃﻧﻒ‬
Viana Macys Visi py Yinp)
)
L—o V=,,,sin 2 f.¢ + ——— cos Inf. — ff — ————cos 2m f. +,
L—o V=,,,sin 2 f.¢ + ——— cos Inf. — ‫ ﻡ ﻭ‬2 ‫ﻭﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻴﻬﺎ — ———— ﻛﻮﺱ‬. +،
\ si a 7 .
. 7 ‫\ ﺳﻲ ﻭ‬
FIGURE 17-24
24-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Basic block diagram of an amplitude modulator.
.‫ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻲ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
R, R, FIGURE 17-25
25-17 ‫ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،‫ ﺭ‬،‫ﺹ‬
Vian © AW AW Implementation of the summing
‫ﻓﻴﺎﻥ © ﻧﻌﻢ ﻧﻌﻢ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ‬
Ry circuit in the amplitude modulator.
.‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺭﺍﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ‬
Vivi sin 2 ft o——\AA,——
——,AA\—— ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻗﺪﻣﻴﻦ ﺃﻭ‬
DO Vinay & Vinci 20 fil
‫ ﻓﻠﺲ‬20 ‫ﻓﻴﻨﺎﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎﺀ‬
EXAMPLE 17-4
4-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
A carrier frequency of 1200 kHz is modulated by a sinusoidal wave with a frequency
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬1200 ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻟﻎ‬
of 25 kHz by a standard amplitude modulator. Determine the output frequency
‫ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬25
spectrum.
.‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ‬
Solution The lower-side frequency is
‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻫﻮ‬
fe — fy = 1200 kHz — 25 kHz = 1175 kHz
‫ ﺧﺬ‬١١٧٥ = ‫ ﺧﺬ — ﺃﺥ ﺧﺬ‬١٢٠٠ = ‫ﻓﻲ — ﻓﻲ‬
The upper-side frequency is
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻫﻮ‬
fe + fy = 1200 kHz + 25 kHz = 1225 kHz
 ‫ﻓﻲ ‪ +‬ﻓﻲ = ‪ ١٢٠٠‬ﺧﺬ ‪ +‬ﺃﺥ ﺧﺬ = ‪ ١٢٢٥‬ﺧﺬ‬
‫‪The output contains the carrier frequency and the two side frequencies as shown in‬‬
‫ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ‬
‫‪Figure 17-26.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.26-17‬‬
‫‪FIGURE 17-26‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪26-17‬‬
‫‪So thn‬‬
‫ﻭﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫‪—> f‬‬
‫—< ﻑ‬
‫‪LI75kHz 1200kHz 1225 kHz‬‬
‫ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪ 1200‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪ 1225‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪LI75‬‬
834 =& COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Related Problem Compare the output frequency spectrum in this example to that of a balanced
modulator having the same inputs.

Amplitude Modulation with Voice or Music

To this point in our discussion, we have considered the modulating signal to be a pure si-
nusoidal signal just to keep things fairly simple. If you receive an AM signal modulated by
a pure sinusoidal signal in the audio frequency range, you will hear a single tone from the
receiver's speaker.
An audio signal (voice or music) consists of many sinusoidal components within a range
of frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. For example, if a carrier frequency is ampli-
tude modulated with voice or music with frequencies from 100 Hz to 10 kHz, the frequency
spectrum is as shown in Figure 17-27. Instead of one lower-side and one upper-side fre-
quency as in the case of a single-frequency modulating signal, a band of lower-side fre-
quencies and a band of upper-side frequencies correspond to the sum and difference
frequencies of each sinusoidal component of the voice or music signal.

FIGURE 17-27 Carrier

Example ofa frequency spectrum for 1000 kHz

a voice or music signal.

Lower-side band Upper-side band

990 kHz 999.9 kHz 1000.1 kHz 1010 kHz.

SECTION 17-3
REVIEW 1. What is amplitude modulation?
2. What is the difference between balanced modulation and standard AM?
3. What two input signals are used in amplitude modulation? Explain the purpose of
each signal.
4. What are the upper-side frequency and the lower-side frequency?
5. How can a balanced modulator be changed to a standard amplitude modulator?

17-4 THE MIXER

The mixer in the receiver system discussed in Section 17—] can be implemented with a
linear multiplier as you will see in this section. The basic principles of linear
multiplication of sinusoidal signals are covered, and you will see how sum and
difference frequencies are produced. The difference frequency is a critical part of the
operation of many types of receiver systems.

After completing this section, you should be able to

= Discuss the basic function of a mixer
= Explain why a mixer is a linear multiplier

= Describe the frequencies in the mixer and JF portion of a receiver

 19:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
834 =& COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ =& ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬834
Related Problem Compare the output frequency spectrum in this example to that of a
balanced
‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻗﺎﺭﻥ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ ﺑﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ‬
modulator having the same inputs.
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ‬
Amplitude Modulation with Voice or Music
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ‬
To this point in our discussion, we have considered the modulating signal to be a pure si-
.‫ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺮﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺧﺎﻟﺼﺔ‬،‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﻨﺎ‬
nusoidal signal just to keep things fairly simple. If you receive an AM signal modulated
by
‫ ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬AM ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻠﻘﻴﺖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻹﺑﻘﺎﺀ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺭ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣﺪ ﻣﺎ‬
a pure sinusoidal signal in the audio frequency range, you will hear a single tone from the
‫ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺴﻤﻊ ﻧﻐﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ‬،‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﻧﻘﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
receiver's speaker.
.‫ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬
An audio signal (voice or music) consists of many sinusoidal components within a range
‫ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ )ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ( ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ‬
of frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. For example, if a carrier frequency is ampli-
‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬20 ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬20 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ‬
tude modulated with voice or music with frequencies from 100 Hz to 10 kHz, the
frequency
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10 ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬100 ‫ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ‬
spectrum is as shown in Figure 17-27. Instead of one lower-side and one upper-side fre-
‫ ﺑﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺳﻔﻠﻲ ﻭﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻋﻠﻮﻱ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺣﺮ‬.27-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
quency as in the case of a single-frequency modulating signal, a band of lower-side fre-
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ‬،‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ‬
quencies and a band of upper-side frequencies correspond to the sum and difference
‫ﺗﺘﻮﺍﻓﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻭﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
frequencies of each sinusoidal component of the voice or music signal.
.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻜﻮﻥ ﺟﻴﺒﻲ ﻟﻺﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻴﻘﻴﺔ‬
FIGURE 17-27 Carrier
‫ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬27-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Example ofa frequ ency spectrum for 1000 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1000 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟـ‬
a voice or music signal.
.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻴﺔ‬
Lower-side band Upper-side band
‫ﺷﺮﻳﻂ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﺷﺮﻳﻂ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ‬
990 kHz 999.9 kHz 1000.1 kHz 1010 kHz.
.‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1010 ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1000.1 ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬yayaya.ya ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬990
SECTION 17-3
3-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
REVIEW 1. What is amplitude modulation?
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ؟‬.1 ‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
2. What is the difference between balanced modulation and standard AM?
‫ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ؟‬AM ‫ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻭ‬.2
3. What two input signals are used in amplitude modulation? Explain the purpose of
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻲ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺘﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ؟ ﺷﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ‬.3
each signal.
.‫ﻛﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
4. What are the upper-side frequency and the lower-side frequency?
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ؟‬.4
5. How can a balanced modulator be changed to a standard amplitude modulator?
‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ؟‬.5
17-4 THE MIXER
‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ‬17-4
The mixer in the receiver system discussed in Section 17—] can be implemented with a
‫ —[ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺃ‬17 ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻤﺖ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
linear multiplier as you will see in this section. The basic principles of linear
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻄﻴﺔ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺳﺘﺮﻭﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
multiplication of sinusoidal signals are covered, and you will see how sum and
‫ ﻭﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺮﻯ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭ‬،‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﻄﻴﺔ ﺗﻜﺎﺛﺮ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬
difference frequencies are produced. The difference frequency is a critical part of the
‫ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺟﺰﺀﺍ ﻣﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ‬.‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
operation of many types of receiver systems.
.‫ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Discuss the basic function of a mixer
‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻼﻁ‬
= Explain why a mixer is a linear multiplier
‫= ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻟﻤﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎ ﺧﻄﻴﺎ‬
= Describe the frequencies in the mixer and JF portion of a receiver
‫ ﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬JF ‫= ﻗﻢ ﺑﻮﺻﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﺝ ﻭﺟﺰﺀ‬
 THE MIXER ® 835

The mixer is basically a frequency converter because it changes the frequency of a sig- —
nal to another value. The mixer in a receiver system takes the incoming modulated RF
signal (which is sometimes amplified by an RF amplifier and sometimes not) along with
the signal from the local oscillator and produces a modulated signal with a frequency
equal to the difference of its two input frequencies (RF and LO). The mixer also produces
a frequency equal to the sum of the input frequencies. The mixer function is illustrated in
Figure 17-28.

FIGURE 17-28
es : . Modulated sum and
Modulated carrier signal.f . ri / ‘ The mixer function.
= - ——_ Mixer -———_ difference frequencies
(from RF amplifier or antenna)
f, +f. and f, —S

Local oscillator signal./

In the case of receiver applications, the mixer must produce an output that has a fre-
quency component equal to the difference of its input frequencies. From the mathematical
analysis in Section 17-3, you can see that if two sinusoidal signals are multiplied, the prod-
uct contains the difference frequency and the sum frequency. Thus, the mixer is actually a
linear multiplier as indicated in Figure 17-29.

Mixer (multiplier) FIGURE 17-29

The mixer as a linear multiplier.

\ V5, \ Vi; zi
sin 21. ——+ }_____» — : cos Int f, — fr
( > cos Inf, a + fy
th

EXAMPLE 17-5
Determine the output expression for a multiplier with one sinusoidal input having a
peak voltage of 5 mV and a frequency of 1200 kHz and the other input having a peak
voltage of 10 mV and a frequency of 1655 kHz.

Solution The two input expressions are

v, = (5 mV)sin 277(1200 kHz)¢

vy = (10 mV)sin 27( 1655 kHz)t
Multiplying,

viv, = (5 mV)(10 mV){sin 27(1200 kHz)r][sin 27 (1655 kHz)¢]

 20:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE MIXER ® 835
835 ® ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ‬
—
—
The mixer is basically a frequency converter because it changes the frequency of a sig-
.‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﺤﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﻐﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ‬
nal to another value. The mixer in a receiver system takes the incoming modulated RF
nal ‫ ﻳﺄﺧﺬ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩ‬.‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‬
signal (which is sometimes amplified by an RF amplifier and sometimes not) along with
‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ )ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﻭﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ﻻ( ﺟﻨﺒﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﻨﺐ‬
the signal from the local oscillator and produces a modulated signal with a frequency
‫ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻭﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
equal to the difference of its two input frequencies (RF and LO). The mixer also produces
‫ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬.(LO ‫ ﻭ‬RF) ‫ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
a frequency equal to the sum of the input frequencies. The mixer function is illustrated in
‫ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
Figure 17-28.
.28-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-28
28-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
eMosd ulated carri: er si. gnal.f . Mri odulas/ tume adnd ‘ The mixer function.
.‫ ‘ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ‬gnal.f Mri odulas/ tume addnd .‫ ﻧﻌﻢ‬:eMosd ‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬
= - ——_ Mixer -———_ difference frequencies
‫———_ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ‬- ‫ ——_ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺴﺮ‬- =
(from RF amplifier or antenna)
(‫)ﻣﻦ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ‬
f, +f. and f, —S
‫ﺱ‬- ،‫ ﻭ‬.‫ﻭ‬+ ،‫ﻭ‬
Local oscillator signal./
/.‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬
In the case of receiver applications, the mixer must produce an output that has a fre-
.‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﺨﺮﺟﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺮ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
quency component equal to the difference of its input frequencies. From the
mathematical
‫ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ‬.‫ﻣﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻪ‬
analysis in Section 17-3, you can see that if two sinusoidal signals are multiplied, the
prod-
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬،‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ‬،3-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
uct contains the difference frequency and the sum frequency. Thus, the mixer is actually
a
uct ‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺃ‬،‫ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.‫ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
linear multiplier as indicated in Figure 17-29.
.29-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Mixer (multiplier) FIGURE 17-29
29-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ )ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ( ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
The mixer as a linear multiplier.
.‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻛﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ‬
\ V5, \ Vi; zi
\ V5، \ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ؛ ﺯﻱ‬
sin 21. ——+ }_____» — : cos Int f, — f( r > cos Inf, a + fth y
cos Int f, — f( r > cos Inf, a + fth y : — «_____{ +—— .21 ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬
EXAMPLE 17-5
5-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
Determine the output expression for a multiplier with one sinusoidal input having a
‫ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻣﻊ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺟﻴﺒﻲ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻟﻪ‬
peak voltage of 5 mV and a frequency of 1200 kHz and the other input having a peak
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻟﻪ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ‬1200 ‫ ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬5 ‫ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
voltage of 10 mV and a frequency of 1655 kHz.
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1655 ‫ ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬10 ‫ﺟﻬﺪ‬
Solution The two input expressions are
‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺗﻌﺒﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻫﻤﺎ‬
v, = (5 mV)sin 277(1200 kHz)¢
™ (‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1200)277 ‫ ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ(ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬5) = ،‫ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬
vy = (10 mV)sin 27( 1655 kHz)t
‫ × ﺱ(ﺕ‬1655) 27 ‫ ﺗﻠﻔﺰﻳﻮﻥ( ﺍﺑﻦ‬10) = ‫ﺃﻧﺖ‬
Multiplying,
،‫ﺿﺮﺏ‬
viv, = (5 mV)(10 mV){sin 27(1200 kHz)r][sin 27 (1655 kHz)¢]
[™ (‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1655) 27 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ( ﺹ[ ]ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬1200)27 ‫ ﻣﻴﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ( }ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬10) (‫ ﻣﻴﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬5)
= ،‫ﻓﻴﻒ‬
836 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Applying the trigonometric identity, (sin A)(sin B) = 4[cos(A — B) — cos(A + B)],

(5 mV)(LO mV)
out = —————~ cos 277(1655 kHz — 1200 kHz)r
7

(5 mV)(10 mV)
— —————0s 277 (1655 kHz + 1200 kHz)t

No
Vou = (25 pV)cos 277(455 kHz)t — (25 pV)cos 277(2855 kHz)é

Related Problem What is the value of the peak amplitude and frequency of the difference frequency
component in this example?

In the receiver system, both the sum and difference frequencies from the mixer are ap-
plied to the IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier. The IF amplifier is actually a tuned am-
plifier that is designed to respond to the difference frequency while rejecting the sum
frequency. You can think of the IF amplifier section of a receiver as a band-pass filter plus
an amplifier because it uses resonant circuits to provide the frequency selectivity. This is il-
lustrated in Figure 17-30.

FIGURE 17-30 Mixer (multiplier)

Example of frequencies in the mixer

and IF portion of a receiver. r 290. MEY rin = 19007 MHz IF 1) FNAME
, fig = 10.7 MHz amplifier come

= 100.7 MHz

EXAMPLE 17-6
Determine the output frequency of the IF amplifier for the conditions shown in
Figure 17-31.

FIGURE 17-31

an =
Rh Was
380 kHz. ——————>
IF wos }—————_»
yj.
. amplifier AME

f, = 1035 kHz

Solution The IF amplifier produces only the difference frequency signal on its output.

Sou = Sug = fo — f- = 1035 kHz — 580 kHz = 455 kHz

Related Problem Based on your basic knowledge of the superheterodyne receiver from Section 17-1,
determine the IF output frequency when the incoming RF signal changes to 1550 kHz.
 21:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
836 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ @ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬836
Applying the trigonometric identity, (sin A)(sin B) = 4[cos(A — B) — cos(A + B)],
،[(sin A)(sin B) = 4[cos(A — B) — cos(A + B) ،‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻠﺜﻴﺔ‬
(5 mV)(LO mV)
(‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ( )ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬5)
= —————~ cos 277(1655 kHz — 1200 kHz)r
= —————~ cos 277(1655 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1200 — ‫)ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬r
out 7
7 ‫ﺧﺎﺭﺝ‬
(5 mV)(10 mV)
(‫ ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬10)(‫ ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬5)
— —————0 s 277 (1655 kHz + 1200 kHz)t
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ( ﻃﻦ‬1200 + ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1655) 277 ‫ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬0 ————— —
oN
‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬
Vou = (25 pV)cos 277(455 kHz)t — (25 pV)cos 277(2855 kHz)é
Vou = (25pV)cos 277(455 ‫)ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬t — (25pV)cos 277(2855 ‫)ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬é
Related Problem What is the value of the peak amplitude and frequency of the
difference frequency
‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻭﺓ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
component in this example?
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ؟‬
In the receiver system, both the sum and difference frequencies from the mixer are ap-
.‫ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
plied to the IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier. The IF amplifier is actually a tuned am-
.‫ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ‬IF ‫ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.(‫ )ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬IF ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻠﻪ ﺑﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
plifier that is designed to respond to the difference frequency while rejecting the sum
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻤﻢ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ‬
frequency. You can think of the IF amplifier section of a receiver as a band-pass filter plus
‫ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻹﺿﺎﻓﻲ‬IF ‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻗﺴﻢ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.‫ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ‬
an amplifier because it uses resonant circuits to provide the frequency selectivity. This is
il-
‫ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻏﻴﺮ‬.‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﻧﻴﻦ ﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
lustrated in Figure 17-30.
.30-17 ‫ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-30 Mix er (mul tiplier)
(‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ )ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ‬30-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Example of frequencies in the mixer
‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ‬
and IF portion of a receiver. r 290. MEY rin = 19007 MHz IF 1) FNAME
 FNAME (1 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﺫﺍ‬19007 = ‫ ﺭﻳﻦ‬MEY .290 ‫ ﺹ‬.‫ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
, fig = 10.7 MHz amplifier come
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬10.7 = ‫ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،
= 100.7 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ‬100.7 =
EXAMPLE 17-6
6-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
Determine the output frequency of the IF amplifier for the conditions shown in
‫ ﻟﻠﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ‬IF ‫ﺣﺪﺩ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ‬
Figure 17-31.
.31-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-31
31-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
an Rh Was IF
IF ‫ ﻛﺎﻥ‬Rh‫ﻭ‬
= 380 kHz. ——————> wos }—————_»yj .
. wos }—————_»yj <—————— .‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬380 =
. amplifier AME
AME ‫ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬.
f, = 1035 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1035 = ،‫ﻭ‬
Solution The IF amplifier produces only the difference frequency signal on its output.
.‫ ﺑﺈﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺮﺟﻪ‬IF ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Sou = Sug = fo — f- = 1035 kHz — 580 kHz = 455 kHz
‫ ﺧﺬ‬٤٥٥ = ‫ ﺧﺬ‬٥٨٠ — ‫ ﺧﺬ‬١٠٣٥ = ‫ﺳﻮ = ﺻﺞ = ﻑ — ﻑ‬
Related Problem Based on your basic knowledge of the superheterodyne receiver from
Section 17-1,
،1-17 ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﻚ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
determine the IF output frequency when the incoming RF signal changes to 1550 kHz.
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1550 ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ‬IF ‫ﺣﺪﺩ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺧﺮﺝ‬
 AM DEMODULATION ® 837

SECTION 17-4
REVIEW 1. What is the purpose of the mixer in a superheterodyne receiver?
2. How does the mixer produce its output?
3. Ifa mixer has 1000 kHz on one input and 350 kHz on the other, what frequencies
appear on the output?

17-5 AM DEMODULATION
The linear multiplier can be used to demodulate or detect an AM signal as well as to
perform the modulation process that was discussed in Section 17-3. Demodulation can
be thought of as reverse modulation. The purpose is to get back the original
modulating signal (sound in the case of standard AM receivers). The detector in the
AM receiver can be implemented using a multiplier, although another method using
peak envelope detection is common.
After completing this section, you should be able to

= Describe AM demodulation

® Discuss a basic AM demodulator

™ Discuss the frequency spectra

The Basic AM Demodulator

An AM demodulator can be implemented with a linear multiplier followed by a low-pass

filter, as shown in Figure 17-32. The critical frequency of the filter is the highest audio fre-
quency that is required for a given application (15 kHz, for example).

Audio modulated IF
Audio

oli, — x ae |
.
1p ————___1

0 15 kHz
Filter response

FIGURE 17-32

Basic AM demodulator.

Operation in Terms of the Frequency Spectra

Let’s assume a carrier modulated by a single tone with a frequency of |0 kHz is received
and converted to a modulated intermediate frequency of 455 kHz, as indicated by the fre-
quency spectra in Figure 17-33. Notice that the upper-side and lower-side frequencies are
separated from both the carrier and the IF by 10 kHz.
 22:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
AM DEMODULATION ® 837
837 ® ‫ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
SECTION 17-4
4-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
REVIEW 1. What is the purpose of the mixer in a superheterodyne receiver?
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ؟‬.1 ‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
2. How does the mixer produce its output?
‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﺨﺮﺟﺎﺗﻪ؟‬.2
3. Ifa mixer has 1000 kHz on one input and 350 kHz on the other, what frequencies
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ؟‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ‬350‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻭ‬1000 ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬Ifa
‫ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺧﻼﻁ‬.3
appear on the output?
‫ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ؟‬
17-5 AM DEMODULATION
‫ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬17-5
The linear multiplier can be used to demodulate or detect an AM signal as well as to
‫ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻓﻬﺎ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬AM ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻹﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
perform the modulation process that was discussed in Section 17-3. Demodulation can
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬.3-17 ‫ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺖ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
be thought of as reverse modulation. The purpose is to get back the original
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻫﻮ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﺻﻞ‬.‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻼ ﻋﻜﺴﻴﺎ‬
modulating signal (sound in the case of standard AM receivers). The detector in the
‫ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﻓﻲ‬.(‫ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬AM ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ )ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
AM receiver can be implemented using a multiplier, although another method using
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‬،‫ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ‬AM ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
peak envelope detection is common.
.‫ﻳﻌﺪ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﻣﻐﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻭﺓ ﺃﻣﺮﺍ ﺷﺎﺋﻌﺎ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Describe AM demodulation
AM ‫= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
® Discuss a basic AM demodulator
‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬AM ‫® ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
™ Discuss the frequency spectra
‫™ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
The Basic AM Demodulator
‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬AM ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺰﻳﻞ‬
An AM demodulator can be implemented with a linear multiplier followed by a low-pass
‫ ﺑﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ ﻣﺘﺒﻮﻋﺎ ﺑﺘﻤﺮﻳﺮﺓ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬AM ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
filter, as shown in Figure 17-32. The critical frequency of the filter is the highest audio
fre-
 ‫ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺝ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺻﻮﺗﻲ‬.32-17 ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،‫ﻣﺮﺷﺢ‬
quency that is required for a given application (15 kHz, for example).
.(‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬15) ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ‬
Audio modulated IF
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺇﺫﺍ‬
Audio
‫ﺻﻮﺗﻲ‬
oli, — x ae |
| ‫ ﻧﻌﻢ‬x — ,‫ﺍﻟﻐﻨﺎﺀ‬
.
.
1p ————___1
1___ ———— ‫ ﻉ‬1
0 15 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬15 0
Filter response
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻔﻴﺔ‬
FIGURE 17-32
32-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Basic AM demodulator.
.‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬AM ‫ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
Operation in Terms of the Frequency Spectra
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
Let’s assume a carrier modulated by a single tone with a frequency of |0 kHz is received
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬0| ‫ﻟﻨﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺣﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺑﻨﻐﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
and converted to a modulated intermediate frequency of 455 kHz, as indicated by the
fre-
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ﻭﺗﺤﻮﻳﻠﻪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﻗﺪﺭﻩ‬
quency spectra in Figure 17-33. Notice that the upper-side and lower-side frequencies
are
‫ ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ‬.33-17 ‫ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
separated from both the carrier and the IF by 10 kHz.
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10 ‫ﻣﻔﺼﻮﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻴﻂ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
838 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

FIGURE 17-33 Carrier IF

An AM signal converted to IF.

Receiver
subsystem
—>] —
(through IF
(kHz) amplifier) (kHz)
990 1000 L010 f 445 455 465 f

When the modulated output of the IF amplifier is applied to the demodulator along with
the IF, sum and difference frequencies for each input frequency are produced as shown in
Figure 17-34. Only the 10 kHz audio frequency is passed by the filter. A drawback to this
type of AM detection is that a pure IF must be produced to mix with the modulated IF.

FIGURE 17-34 455 kHz — 445 kHz = 10 kHz

Example of demodulation.
+45 kH2 455 KHz + 445 kHz = 900 KHz
455 kHz o4 Low-pass L—-O 1() kHz

465 kHz 465 kHz — 455 kHz = 10 kHz filter

465 kHz. + 455 kHz = 920 kHz

SECTION 17-5
REVIEW 1. What is the purpose of the filter in the linear multiplier demodulator?
2. Ifa 455 kHz IF modulated by a 1 kHz audio frequency is demodulated, what
frequency or frequencies appear on the output of the demodulator?

17-6 IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS

In this section, amplifiers for intermediate and audio frequencies are introduced. A
typical IF amplifier is discussed and audio preamplifiers and power amplifiers are
covered. As you have learned, the IF amplifier in a communications receiver provides
amplification of the modulated IF signal out of the mixer before it is applied to the
detector. After the audio signal is recovered by the detector, it goes to the audio preamp
where it is amplified and applied to the power amplifier that drives the speaker.

After completing this section, you should be able to

= Describe IF and audio amplifiers

= Discuss the function of an IF amplifier

= Explain how the local oscillator and mixer operate with the IF amplifier
™ State the purpose of the audio amplifier
= Discuss the LM386 audio power amplifier

IF Amplifiers
The IF amplifier in a receiver is a tuned amplifier with a specified bandwidth operating at a cen-
ter frequency of 455 kHz for AM and 10.7 MHz for FM. The IF amplifier is one of the key fea-
tures of a superheterodyne receiver because it is set to operate at a single resonant frequency
that remains the same over the entire band of carrier frequencies that can be received. Figure
17-35 illustrates the basic function of an IF amplifier in terms of the frequency spectra.
 23:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
838 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ @ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬838
FIGURE 17-33 Carrier IF
IF ‫ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬33-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
An AM signal converted to IF.
.IF ‫ ﺇﻟﻰ‬AM ‫ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
Receiver
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬
subsystem
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻋﻲ‬
—>] —
—>] —
(through IF
‫)ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺇﺫﺍ‬
(kHz) amplifier) (kHz)
(‫)ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ( ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ( )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
990 1000 L010 f 445 455 465 f
990 1000 L010 f 445 455 465 f
When the modulated output of the IF amplifier is applied to the demodulator along with
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻊ‬IF ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
the IF, sum and difference frequencies for each input frequency are produced as shown
in
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ‬IF ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ‬
Figure 17-34. Only the 10 kHz audio frequency is passed by the filter. A drawback to this
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻴﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ‬10 ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.34-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
type of AM detection is that a pure IF must be produced to mix with the modulated IF.
.‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ‬IF ‫ ﻧﻘﻲ ﻟﺨﻠﻄﻪ ﻣﻊ‬IF ‫ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ‬AM ‫ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ‬
FIGURE 17-34 455 kHz — 445 kHz = 10 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10 = ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬445 — ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 17-34 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
+45 kH2 455 KHz + 445 kHz = 900 KHz
‫ ﺧﺬ‬٩٠٠ = ‫ ﺧﺬ‬٤٤٥ + ‫ ﺧﺬ‬٤٥٥ ‫ ﻛﺤﻖ‬٤٥+
Example of demodulation.
.‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
455 kHz o4 Low-pass L—-O 1() kHz
‫)( ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬L—-O 1 ‫ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬o4 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455
465 kHz 465 kHz — 455 kHz = 10 kHz filter
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ‬10 = ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 — ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬465 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬465
465 kHz. + 455 kHz = 920 kHz
‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬920 = ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 + .‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬465
SECTION 17-5
5-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
1. What is the purpose of the filter in the linear multiplier demodulator?
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ؟‬.1
REVIEW
‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
2. Ifa 455 kHz IF modulated by a 1 kHz audio frequency is demodulated, what
‫ ﻓﻤﺎﺫﺍ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻠﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺻﻮﺗﻲ‬Ifa 455 ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬.2
frequency or frequencies appear on the output of the demodulator?
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ؟‬
17-6 IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS
‫ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬17-6
In this section, amplifiers for intermediate and audio frequencies are introduced. A
‫ ﺃ‬.‫ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ‬
typical IF amplifier is discussed and audio preamplifiers and power amplifiers are
‫ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬IF ‫ﺗﻤﺖ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
covered. As you have learned, the IF amplifier in a communications receiver provides
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬IF ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ‬،‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺖ‬.‫ﻣﻐﻄﺎﺓ‬
amplification of the modulated IF signal out of the mixer before it is applied to the
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬IF ‫ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
detector. After the audio signal is recovered by the detector, it goes to the audio
preamp
‫ ﺗﺬﻫﺐ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬،‫ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ‬.‫ﻛﺎﺷﻒ‬
where it is amplified and applied to the power amplifier that drives the speaker.
.‫ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻤﻪ ﻭﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Describe IF and audio amplifiers
‫ ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬IF ‫= ﻭﺻﻒ‬
= Discuss the function of an IF amplifier
IF ‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
= Explain how the local oscillator and mixer operate with the IF amplifier
IF ‫= ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﻊ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
™ State the purpose of the audio amplifier
‫™ ﺍﺫﻛﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
= Discuss the LM386 audio power amplifier
LM386 ‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻲ‬
IF Amplifiers
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺇﺫﺍ‬
The IF amplifier in a receiver is a tuned amplifier with a specified bandwidth operating at
a cen-
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ ﺫﻭ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ‬IF ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ‬
ter frequency of 455 kHz for AM and 10.7 MHz for FM. The IF amplifier is one of the key
fea-
.‫ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ‬IF ‫ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.FM ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻟـ‬10.7 ‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻟـ‬455 ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ‬
tures of a superheterodyne receiver because it is set to operate at a single resonant
frequency
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻷﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻃﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺭﻧﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‬
that remains the same over the entire band of carrier frequencies that can be received.
Figure
‫ ﺷﻜﻞ‬.‫ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬
17-35 illustrates the basic function of an IF amplifier in terms of the frequency spectra.
.‫ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬IF ‫ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬35-17 ‫ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
 IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS ®& 839

Frequency band
passed by IF aniplifier

Mixer
output

450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz 2.45 MHz 2.455 MHz 2.46 MHz

| | :
Mixer

° J
0.995 MHz 1 MHz 1.005 MHz x > 450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz
4

1.455 MHz

Local
oscillator

FIGURE 17-35

An illustration of the basic function of the IF amplifier in an AM receiver.

Assume, for example, that the received carrier frequency off, = 1 MHz is modulated by
an audio signal with a maximum frequency of f,, = 5 kHz, indicated in Figure 17—35 by the
frequency spectrum on the input to the mixer. For this frequency, the local oscillator is at a
frequency of
f, = 1 MHz + 455 kHz = 1.455 MHz

The mixer produces the following sum and difference frequencies as indicated in Figure 17-35.

f, + f. = 1.455 MHz + | MHz = 2.455 MHz

f, — f. = 1.455 MHz — 1 MHz = 455 kHz
f, + Uf. + fy) = 1.455 MHz + 1.005 MHz = 2.46 MHz
fo + Ge — fy) = 1.455 MHz + 0.995 MHz = 2.45 MHz
f, — Gf. + fy) = 1.455 MHz — 1.005 MHz = 450 kHz
f, — (f — fy) = 1.455 MHz — 0.995 MHz = 460 kHz

Since the IF amplifier is a frequency-selective circuit, it responds only to 455 kHz and
any side frequencies lying in the 10 kHz band centered at 455 kHz. All of the frequencies
out of the mixer are rejected except the 455 kHz IF, all lower-side frequencies down to
450 kHz, and all upper-side frequencies up to 460 kHz. This frequency spectrum is the au-
dio modulated intermediate frequency.
Although the detailed circuitry of the IF amplifier may differ from one system to another, it
always has a tuned (resonant) circuit on the input or on the output or on both. Figure 17—36(a)
shows a basic IF amplifier with tuned transformer coupling at the input and output. The gen-
eral frequency response curve is shown in Figure 17—36(b).
 24:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS ®& 839
IF 839 &® ‫ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Frequency band
‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
passed by IF aniplifier
IF animplifier ‫ﻣﺮﺕ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬
Mixer
‫ﺧﻼﻁ‬
output
‫ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺝ‬
450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz 2.45 MHz 2.455 MHz 2.46 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬2.46 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬2.455 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬2.45 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬460 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬450
||:
||:
Mixer
‫ﺧﻼﻁ‬
0.995 MHz 1 MHz 1.00 5 MHz ° x J > 450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬460 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬455 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬x J > 450 ° ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬5 1.00 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬1 ‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬0.995
4
٤
1.455 MHz
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ‬1.455
Local
‫ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬
oscillator
‫ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬
FIGURE 17-35
35-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
A n illustration of the basic function of the IF amplifi er in an AM receiver.
.AM ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬IF ‫ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﻟﻠﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ‬
Assume, for example, that the received carrier frequency off , = 1 MHz is modulated by
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻠﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬1 = ،‫ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻒ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ‬
،‫ﻟﻨﻔﺘﺮﺽ‬
an audio signal with a maximum frequency of f,, = 5 kHz, indicated in Figure 17—35 by
the
‫ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬35-17 ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬f،، = 5 ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻗﺼﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
frequency spectrum on the input to the mixer. For this frequency, the local oscillator is at
a
a ‫ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻋﻨﺪ‬،‫ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬.‫ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ‬
frequency of
‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻝ‬
‫‪f, = 1 MHz + 455 kHz = 1.455 MHz‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪ 455 +‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 1.455‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪f، = 1‬‬
‫‪The mixer produces the following sum and difference frequencies as indicated in Figure‬‬
‫‪17-35.‬‬
‫ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪.35-17‬‬
‫‪f, + f. = 1.455 MHz + | MHz = 2.455 MHz‬‬
‫ﻭ‪ + ،‬ﻭ‪ 1.455 = .‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ ‪ | +‬ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 2.455‬ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ‬
‫‪f, — f. = 1.455 MHz — 1 MHz = 455 kHz‬‬
‫ﻭ‪ - ،‬ﻭ‪ 1.455 = .‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ — ‪ 1‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 455‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
‫‪f, + Uf. + fy) = 1.455 MHz + 1.005 MHz = 2.46 MHz‬‬
‫ﻭ‪ + ،‬ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ‪ + .‬ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ( = ‪ 1.455‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪ 1.005 +‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 2.46‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
‫‪+ 0.995 MHz = 2.45 MHz‬‬
‫‪ 0.995 +‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 2.45‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
‫‪fo + Ge — fy) = 1.455 MHz‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪fo + Ge — f) = 1.455‬‬
‫‪f, — Gf. + fy) = 1.455 MHz — 1.005 MHz = 450 kHz‬‬
‫ﻭ‪ — ،‬ﻓﺮﻧﻚ ﻏﻴﻨﻲ‪ fy) = 1.455 + .‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ — ‪ 1.005‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 450‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
‫‪f, — (f — fy) = 1.455 MHz — 0.995 MHz = 460 kHz‬‬
‫ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ — ‪ 0.995‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = ‪ 460‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪f، — (f — fy) = 1.455‬‬
‫‪Since the IF amplifier is a frequency-selective circuit, it responds only to 455 kHz and‬‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻥ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ‪ IF‬ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺩﺩ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﺴﺘﺠﻴﺐ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟـ ‪ 455‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭ‬
‫‪any side frequencies lying in the 10 kHz band centered at 455 kHz. All of the frequencies‬‬
‫ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ‪ 10‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ ‪ 455‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‪ .‬ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ‬
‫‪out of the mixer are rejected except the 455 kHz IF, all lower-side frequencies down to‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ‪ 455‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪ ،IF‬ﻭﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺻﻮﻻ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫‪450 kHz, and all upper-side frequencies up to 460 kHz. This frequency spectrum is the‬‬
‫‪au-‬‬
‫‪ 450‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‪ ،‬ﻭﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺼﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ‪ 460‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‪ .‬ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻫﻮ‬
‫‪dio modulated intermediate frequency.‬‬
‫ﺩﻳﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻀﻤﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‪.‬‬
‫‪Although the detailed circuitry of the IF amplifier may differ from one system to another,‬‬
‫‪it‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ‪ IF‬ﻗﺪ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ‪ ،‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫‪always has a tuned (resonant) circuit on the input or on the output or on both. Figure‬‬
‫)‪17—36(a‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻃﺔ )ﺭﻧﺎﻧﺔ( ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪)36-17‬ﺃ(‬
‫‪shows a basic IF amplifier with tuned transformer coupling at the input and output. The‬‬
‫‪gen-‬‬
‫ﻳﻌﺮﺽ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ‪ IF‬ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻗﺘﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﺤﻮﻝ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺮﺍﻝ‪-‬‬
‫‪eral frequency response curve is shown in Figure 17—36(b).‬‬
‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ‪) 36-17‬ﺏ(‪.‬‬
840 =&® COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

FIGURE 17-36

A basic IF amplifier with a tuned

circuit on the input and output.

f (kHz)

Audio Amplifiers
Audio amplifiers are used in a receiver system following the detector to provide amplification
of the recovered audio signal and audio power to drive the speaker(s), as indicated in Figure
17-37. Audio amplifiers typically have bandwidths of 3 kHz to 15 kHz depending on the re-
quirements of the system. IC audio amplifiers are available with a range of capabilities.

MNO
WiHANI HN fvwwuyfii|Ui iy
HN \v“ ———»
hy au
detector
Audio
Ss
amplifier Sound waves
Recovered audio Amplified audio

\udio modulated IF

FIGURE 17-37

The audio amplifier in a receiver system.

The LM386 Audio Power Amplifier This device is an example of a low-power audio ampli-
fier that is capabie of providing several hundred milliwatts to an 8 speaker. It operates from
any de supply voltage in the 4 V to 12 V range, making it a good choice for battery operation.
The pin configuration of the LM386 is shown in Figure 17-38(a). The voltage gain of the
LM386 is 20 without external connections to the gain terminals, as shown in Figure 17—38(b).
A voltage gain of 200 is achieved by connecting a 10 wF capacitor from pin | to pin 8, as shown
in Figure 17—38(c). Voltage gains between 20 and 200 can be realized by a resistor (Rg) and
capacitor (Cg) connected in series from pin | to pin 8 as shown in Figure 17—38(d). These ex-
ternal components are effectively placed in parallel with an internal gain-setting resistor.

Co CG Rg

Gain [1 ai (2)
o—— oo

Q3)

(a) (b) A, = 20 (c) A, = 200 (d) 20 <A, < 200

FIGURE 17-38

Pin configuration and gain connections for the LM386 audio amplifier.
 25:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
840 =&® COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ =&® ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬840
FIGURE 17-36
36-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
A basic IF amplifier with a tuned
‫ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺿﺒﻄﻪ‬IF ‫ﻣﻀﺨﻢ‬
circuit on the input and output.
.‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬
f (kHz)
(‫ﻭ )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
Audio Amplifiers
‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
Audio amplifiers are used in a receiver system following the detector to provide
amplification
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻀﺨﻴﻢ‬
of the recovered audio signal and audio power to drive the speaker(s), as indicated in
Figure
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،(‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺮﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ )ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻟﻺﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
17-37. Audio amplifiers typically have bandwidths of 3 kHz to 15 kHz depending on the
re-
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ‬15 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬3 ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻳﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ‬.17-37
quirements of the system. IC audio amplifiers are available with a range of capabilities.
.‫ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ‬IC ‫ ﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.‫ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬
MNO iy au
MNO iy ‫ﺃﻭ‬
Audio
‫ﺻﻮﺗﻲ‬
WiH ANI HN fvwwuyfiiU| i hHN y \v“ ———» detector Recovered audio am pliSfis er
Amplified audio Sound waves
WiH ‫ﻭ‬HN fvwwuyfiiU| i hHN y \v“ ———» ‫ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻌﺎﺩ‬am pliSfis er ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ‬
\udio modulated IF
\udio ‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻀﻤﻴﻦ‬IF
FIGURE 17-37
37-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
The audio amplifier in a receiver system.
.‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
The LM386 Audio Power Amplifier This device is an example of a low-power audio
ampli-
 .‫ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﺜﺎﻻ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬LM386 ‫ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻲ‬
fier that is capabie of providing several hundred milliwatts to an 8 speaker. It operates
from
‫ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻦ‬.‫ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺻﻮﺕ‬8 ‫ﻭﻫﻮ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺌﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻲ ﻭﺍﻁ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ‬
any de supply voltage in the 4 V to 12 V range, making it a good choice for battery
operation.
.‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻠﻪ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﺍ ﺟﻴﺪﺍ ﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻄﺎﺭﻳﺔ‬،‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬12 ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﺇﻟﻰ‬4 ‫ﺃﻱ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺇﻣﺪﺍﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ‬
The pin configuration of the LM386 is shown in Figure 17-38(a). The voltage gain of the
‫ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻣﻦ‬.(‫)ﺃ‬38-17 ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬LM386 ‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺑﻮﺱ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺹ ﺑـ‬
LM386 is 20 without external connections to the gain terminals, as shown in Figure
17—38(b).
.(‫)ﺏ‬38-17 ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،‫ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻼﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ‬LM386 20 ‫ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ‬
A voltage gain of 200 is achieved by connecting a 10 wF capacitor from pin | to pin 8, as
shown
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ‬،8 ‫ ﻭﺍﻁ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ | ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﺑﻮﺱ‬10 ‫ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﻣﻜﺜﻒ‬200 ‫ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻗﺪﺭﻩ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻢ‬
in Figure 17—38(c). Voltage gains between 20 and 200 can be realized by a resistor (Rg)
and
‫( ﻭ‬Rg) ‫ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ‬200 ‫ ﻭ‬20 ‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻣﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ‬.(‫)ﺝ‬38-17 ‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
capacitor (Cg) connected in series from pin | to pin 8 as shown in Figure 17—38(d). These
ex-
‫ ﻫﺆﻻﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﻴﻦ‬.(‫)ﺩ‬38-17 ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬8 ‫ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ | ﻟﻠﺪﺑﻮﺱ‬
(Cg) ‫ﻣﻜﺜﻒ‬
ternal components are effectively placed in parallel with an internal gain-setting
resistor.
.‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻱ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ‬
Co CG Rg
CG RG ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺔ‬
Gain [1 ai (2)
(2) ‫ ﺁﻱ‬1] ‫ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺢ‬
o—— oo
‫ﺃﻭﻩ ﻧﻌﻢ‬
Q3)
(‫ﻗﻊ‬
 FREQUENCY MODULATION & 841

A typical application of the LM386 as a power amplifier in a radio receiver is shown in

Figure 17-39. Here the detected AM signal is fed to the inverting input through the volume
control potentiometer, R;, and resistor Ry. C, ts the input coupling capacitor and C} is the
power supply decoupling capacitor. R, and C; filter out any residual RF or IF signal that
may be on the output of the detector. R; and C, provide additional filtering before the au-
dio signal is applied to the speaker through the coupling capacitor Cy.

+9 V FIGURE 17-39
C Cy
Input from The LM386 as an AM audio power
detector amplifier.
luF P

Cy
C3 |
0.0022 uF J 30 WE nq
Volume u
control

SECTION 17-6
REVIEW . What is the purpose of the IF amplifier in an AM receiver?
=

. What is the center frequency of an AM IF amplifier?

BWHN

. Why is the bandwidth of an AM receiver IF amplifier 10 kHz?

. Why must the audio amplifier follow the detector in a receiver system?
. Compare the frequency response of the IF amplifier to that of the audio amplifier.
wm

17-7 FREQUENCY MODULATION

As you have seen, modulation is the process of varying a parameter of a carrier signal
with an information signal. Recall that in amplitude modulation the parameter of
amplitude is varied. In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of a carrier is varied
above and below its normal or at-rest value by a modulating signal. This section
provides a further look into FM and discusses the differences between an AM and an
FM receiver.
After completing this section, you should be able to

= Describe frequency modulation

® Discuss the voltage-controlled oscillator
® Explain frequency demodulation

In a frequency-modulated (FM) signal, the carrier frequency is increased or decreased

according to the modulating signal. The amount of deviation above or below the carrier fre-
quency depends on the amplitude of the modulating signal. The rate at which the frequency
deviation occurs depends on the frequency of the modulating signal.
 26:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
FREQUENCY MODULATION & 841
841‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻭ‬
A typical application of the LM386 as a power amplifier in a radio receiver is shown in
‫ ﻛﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮ‬LM386 ‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻟـ‬
Figure 17-39. Here the detected AM signal is fed to the inverting input through the
volume
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺸﻔﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬AM ‫ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬.39-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
control potentiometer, R;, and resistor Ry. C, ts the input coupling capacitor and C} is the
‫{ ﻫﻮ‬C‫ ﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﺍﻗﺘﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭ‬Ry. C، ts ‫ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ‬،R ،‫ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
power supply decoupling capacitor. R, and C; filter out any residual RF or IF signal that
‫ ﻣﺘﺒﻘﻴﺔ‬IF ‫ ﺃﻭ‬RF ‫ ﻭ ﺝ؛ ﻗﻢ ﺑﺘﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬،‫ ﺹ‬.‫ﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬
may be on the output of the detector. R; and C, provide additional filtering before the
au-
‫ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺗﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﺩﻗﺔ‬،C‫ ﺹ ؛ ﻭ‬.‫ﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
dio signal is applied to the speaker through the coupling capacitor Cy.
.Cy ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺮﺍﻥ‬dio ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
+9 V FIGURE 17-39
39-17 ‫ ﺃﻧﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬+
C Cy
‫ﺝ ﺳﻲ‬
Input from The LM386 as an AM audio power
AM ‫ ﻛﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ‬LM386 ‫ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ‬
detector amplifier.
.‫ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
luF P
P ‫ﻟﻮﻑ‬
Cy
‫ﻗﺒﺮﺻﻲ‬
C3 |
3
0.0022 uF J 30 WE nq
J 30 WE nq ‫ ﻓﺎﺋﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻫﺞ‬0.0022
Volume
‫ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬
u
‫ﻓﻲ‬
control
‫ﻳﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬
SECTION 17-6
6-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
REVIEW . What is the purpose of the IF amplifier in an AM receiver?
 ‫؟‬AM ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬IF ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬. ‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
=.
=.
What is the center frequency of an AM IF amplifier?
‫؟‬AM IF ‫ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰﻱ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬
W NH
WNH
. Why is the bandwidth of an AM receiver IF amplifier 10 kHz?
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ؟‬10 ‫ ﻫﻮ‬AM IF ‫ ﻟﻤﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬.
B.
.‫ﺏ‬
Why must the audio amplifier follow the detector in a receiver system?
‫ﻟﻤﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ؟‬
. Compare the frequency response of the IF amplifier to that of the audio amplifier.
.‫ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬IF ‫ ﻗﺎﺭﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬.
mw
‫ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻭﺍﻁ‬
17-7 FREQUENCY MODULATION
‫ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬17-7
As you have seen, modulation is the process of varying a parameter of a carrier signal
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬،‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺭﺃﻳﺖ‬
with an information signal. Recall that in amplitude modulation the parameter of
‫ ﺃﺫﻛﺮ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﺔ‬.‫ﻣﻊ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬
amplitude is varied. In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of a carrier is varied
‫ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬،(FM) ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‬
above and below its normal or at-rest value by a modulating signal. This section
‫ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬.‫ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺣﺔ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
provides a further look into FM and discusses the differences between an AM and an
AN‫ ﻭ‬AM ‫ ﻭﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ‬FM ‫ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
FM receiver.
.‫ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺇﻑ ﺇﻡ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Describe frequency modulation
‫= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
® Discuss the voltage-controlled oscillator
‫® ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
® Explain frequency demodulation
‫® ﺷﺮﺡ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
In a frequency-modulated (FM) signal, the carrier frequency is increased or decreased
‫ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻳﻨﻘﺺ‬،(FM) ‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
according to the modulating signal. The amount of deviation above or below the carrier
fre-
‫ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻭ ﺃﺳﻔﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ‬.‫ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
quency depends on the amplitude of the modulating signal. The rate at which the
frequency
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬.‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
deviation occurs depends on the frequency of the modulating signal.
.‫ﻳﺤﺪﺙ ﺍﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
842 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

Figure 17-40 illustrates both a square wave and a sine wave modulating the frequency of a
carrier. The carrier frequency is highest when the modulating signal is at its maximum positive
amplitude and is lowest when the modulating signal is at its maximum negative amplitude.

fo ag
/ A
f

\ A
/

—————————— SS

EN FNY IN

\ \ }

(a) Frequency modulation with a square wave (b) Frequency modulation with a sine wave

FIGURE 17-40
Examples of frequency modulation.

A Basic Frequency Modulator

Frequency modulation is achieved by varying the frequency of an oscillator with the mod-
ulating signal. A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is typically used for this purpose, as
illustrated in Figure 17-41.

FIGURE 17-41
Voltage-controlled
Frequency modulation with a oscillator
voltage-controlled oscillator. vco. FM
output

Generally, a variable-reactance type of voltage-controlled oscillator is used in FM applica-

tions. The variable-reactance VCO uses the varactor diode as a voltage-variable capacitance,
as illustrated in Figure 17-42, where the capacitance is varied with the modulating voltage, V,,,.

FIGURE 17-42

Basic variable-reactance VCO. V.

— | | > | PM

elle
 27:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
842 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ = ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬842
Figure 17-40 illustrates both a square wave and a sine wave modulating the frequency of
a
a ‫ ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬40-17 ‫ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
carrier. The carrier frequency is highest when the modulating signal is at its maximum
positive
‫ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺗﻪ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ‬
amplitude and is lowest when the modulating signal is at its maximum negative
amplitude.
.‫ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻗﺼﻰ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ‬
fo ag
‫ﻟﺤﺞ‬
/
/
f
F
A
‫ﺃ‬
\A
‫\ﺃ‬
/
/
—————————— SS
‫ﺱ‬.‫—————————— ﺱ‬
EN FNY IN
‫ ﻓﻲ‬FNY‫ﻭ‬
\\}
\\}
(a) Frequency modulation with a square wave (b) Frequency modulation with a sine wave
‫)ﺃ( ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﻣﺮﺑﻌﺔ )ﺏ( ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ‬
FIGURE 17-40
40-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Examples of frequency modulation.
.‫ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
A Basic Frequency Modulator
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
Frequency modulation is achieved by varying the frequency of an oscillator with the
mod-
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬
ulating signal. A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is typically used for this purpose, as
‫( ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ‬VCO) ‫ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬.ulating ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
illustrated in Figure 17-41.
.41-17 ‫ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-41
41-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Voltage-co ntrolled
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
Frequency modulation with a oscillator
‫ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬
voltage-controlled oscillator. vco. FM
vco. FM .‫ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
output
‫ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺝ‬
Generally, a variable-reactance type of voltage-controlled oscillator is used in FM
applica-
.FM ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺫﻭ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ‬،‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ‬
tions. The variable-reactance VCO uses the varactor diode as a voltage-variable
capacitance,
،‫ ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻛﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬VCO ‫ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‬.‫ﺷﺆﻭﻥ‬
as illustrated in Figure 17-42, where the capacitance is varied with the modulating
voltage, V,,,.
.،،،V ‫ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺑﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ‬،42-17 ‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
FIGURE 17-42
42-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Basic variable-reactance VCO. V.
VCO ‫ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬.‫ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬.
— | | > | PM
‫— | | < | ﻣﺴﺎﺀ‬
ell e
‫ﺇﻳﻞ‬
 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ™ 843

FM Demodulation

Except for the higher frequencies, the standard broadcast FM receiver is basically the same
as the AM receiver up through the IF amplifier. The main difference between an FM re-
ceiver and an AM receiver, other than the frequency band, is the method used to recover the
audio signal from the modulated IF.
There are several methods for demodulating an FM signal. These include slope detec-
tion, phase-shift discrimination, ratio detection, quadrature detection, and phase-locked
loop demodulation. Most of these methods are covered in detail in communications
courses. However, because of its importance in many types of applications, we wil] cover
the phase-locked loop (PLL) demodulation in the next section.

SECTION 17-7
REVIEW 1. How does an FM signal carry information?
2. On what principle are most VCOs used in FM based?

17-8 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL)

In the last section, the PLL was mentioned as a way to demodulate an FM signal. In
addition to FM demodulation, PLLs are used in a wide variety of communications
applications, which include TV receivers, tone decoders, telemetry receivers, modems,
and data synchronizers, to name a few. Many of these applications are covered in
electronic communications courses. In fact, entire books have been written on the finer
points of PLL operation, analysis, and applications. The approach in this section is
intended only to present the basic concept and give you an intuitive idea of how PLLs
work and how they are used in FM demodulation. A specific PLL integrated circuit is
also introduced. ,

After completing this section, you should be able to

= Describe a phase-locked loop (PLL)
= Draw a basic block diagram for the PLL
= Discuss the phase detector and state its purpose

= State the purpose of the VCO

= State the purpose of the low-pass filter
= Explain lock range and capture range

= Discuss the LM565 PLL and explain how it can be used as an FM demodulator

The Basic PLL Concept

The phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback circuit consisting of a phase detector, a low lo—
pass filter, and a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). Some PLLs also include an amplifier
in the loop, and in some applications the filter is not used.
The PLL is capable of locking onto or synchronizing with an incoming signal. When the
phase of the incoming signal changes, indicating a change in frequency, the phase detec-
tor’s output increases or decreases just enough to keep the VCO frequency the same as the
frequency of the incoming signal. A basic PLL block diagram is shown in Figure 17-43.
 28:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ™ 843
PLL) ™ 843) ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
FM Demodulation
FM ‫ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
Except for the higher frequencies, the standard broadcast FM receiver is basically the
same
‫ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻫﻮ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬FM ‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ‬،‫ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ‬
as the AM receiver up through the IF amplifier. The main difference between an FM re-
FM ‫ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬.IF ‫ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ‬AM ‫ﻛﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬
ceiver and an AM receiver, other than the frequency band, is the method used to
recover the
‫ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬،‫ ﺑﺨﻼﻑ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،AM ‫ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ‬
audio signal from the modulated IF.
.‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ‬IF ‫ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
There are several methods for demodulating an FM signal. These include slope detec-
‫ ﻭﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﻛﺸﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺤﺪﺭ‬.FM ‫ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻃﺮﻕ ﻹﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
tion, phase-shift discrimination, ratio detection, quadrature detection, and
phase-locked
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺸﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺸﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﻭﻗﻔﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
loop demodulation. Most of these methods are covered in detail in communications
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬.‫ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ‬
courses. However, because of its importance in many types of applications, we wil] cover
‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻨﺎ ﺳﻨﺘﻨﺎﻭﻟﻪ‬،‫ ﻭﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻫﻤﻴﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ‬،‫ ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭﺍﺕ‬
the phase-locked loop (PLL) demodulation in the next section.
.‫( ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬PLL) ‫ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
SECTION 17-7
7-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
REVIEW 1. How does an FM signal carry information?
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ؟‬FM ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﺤﻤﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬.1 ‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
2. On what principle are most VCOs used in FM based?
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ؟‬FM ‫ ﻓﻲ‬VCOs ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ‬.2
17-8 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL)
(PLL) ‫ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻔﻞ‬17-8
In the last section, the PLL was mentioned as a way to demodulate an FM signal. In
‫ ﻓﻲ‬.FM ‫ ﻛﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﻹﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬PLL ‫ ﺗﻢ ﺫﻛﺮ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ‬
addition to FM demodulation, PLLs are used in a wide variety of communications
‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬PLLs ‫ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‬،FM ‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
applications, which include TV receivers, tone decoders, telemetry receivers, modems,
،‫ ﻭﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺩﻡ‬،‫ ﻭﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ‬،‫ ﻭﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﻓﻚ ﺗﺸﻔﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻐﻤﺎﺕ‬،‫ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ‬
and data synchronizers, to name a few. Many of these applications are covered in
 ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ‬.‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ ﻻ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺮ‬،‫ﻭﻣﺰﺍﻣﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
electronic communications courses. In fact, entire books have been written on the finer
‫ ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻛﺘﺐ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺩﻕ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ‬.‫ﺩﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ‬
points of PLL operation, analysis, and applications. The approach in this section is
‫ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺞ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﻫﻮ‬.‫ ﻭﺗﺤﻠﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺗﻬﺎ‬PLL ‫ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ‬
intended only to present the basic concept and give you an intuitive idea of how PLLs
PLLs ‫ﻳﻬﺪﻑ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻭﺇﻋﻄﺎﺋﻚ ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﺑﺪﻳﻬﻴﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‬
work and how they are used in FM demodulation. A specific PLL integrated circuit is
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺓ ﻫﻲ‬PLL ‫ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬.FM ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻭﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬
also introduced. ,
, .‫ﻗﺪﻡ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬
After completing this section, you should be able to
‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬،‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
= Describe a phase-locked loop (PLL)
(PLL) ‫= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
= Draw a basic block diagram for the PLL
PLL ‫= ﺍﺭﺳﻢ ﻣﺨﻄﻄﺎ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎ ﻟـ‬
= Discuss the phase detector and state its purpose
‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﺫﻛﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻨﻪ‬
= State the purpose of the VCO
VCO ‫= ﺍﺫﻛﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ‬
= State the purpose of the low-pass filter
‫= ﺍﺫﻛﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬
= Explain lock range and capture range
‫= ﺷﺮﺡ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻭﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ‬
= Discuss the LM565 PLL and explain how it can be used as an FM demodulator
FM ‫ ﻭﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﻛﻤﺰﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬LM565 PLL ‫= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ‬
The Basic PLL Concept
‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬PLL ‫ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ‬
The phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback circuit consisting of a phase detector, a low
lo—
- ‫ ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬،‫( ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻣﺮﺗﺪﺓ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬PLL) ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
pass filter, and a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). Some PLLs also include an amplifier
‫ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬PLLs ‫ ﺗﺸﺘﻤﻞ ﺑﻌﺾ‬.(VCO) ‫ ﻭﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬،‫ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ‬
in the loop, and in some applications the filter is not used.
.‫ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻔﻴﺔ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ‬
The PLL is capable of locking onto or synchronizing with an incoming signal. When the
‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬.‫ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻔﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺰﺍﻣﻨﺘﻬﺎ‬PLL ‫ﺇﻥ‬
phase of the incoming signal changes, indicating a change in frequency, the phase
detec-
‫ ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬،‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ﺗﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬
tor’s output increases or decreases just enough to keep the VCO frequency the same as
the
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ‬VCO ‫ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﺃﻭ ﻳﻨﻘﺺ ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺭ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
frequency of the incoming signal. A basic PLL block diagram is shown in Figure 17-43.
.43-17 ‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬PLL ‫ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬.‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬
844 B COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

FIGURE 17-43 Output ts: proportional to

Low-pass ' PIO}
V, Phase phase difference of ¥; and ¥,,.
Basic PLL block diagram. filter
f ——| detector O

° mv

VIS

Voltage-
controlled
oscillator
VCO

The general operation of a PLL 1s as follows. The phase detector compares the phase
difference between the incoming signal, V,, and the VCO signal, V,. When the frequency
of the incoming signal, f;, is different from that of the VCO frequency,f,, the phase angle
between the two signals is also different. The output of the phase detector and the filter is
proportional to the phase difference of the two signals. This proportional voltage is fed to
the VCO, forcing its frequency to move toward the frequency of the incoming signal until
the two frequencies are equal. At this point, the PLL is locked onto the incoming fre-
quency. If f; changes, the phase difference also changes, forcing the VCO to track the in-
coming frequency.

The Phase Detector

The phase-detector circuit in a PLL is basically a linear multiplier. The following analysis
illustrates how it works in a PLL application. The incoming signal, V;, and the VCO signal,
V,, applied to the phase detector can be expressed as

= V,sin(2af,t + 0,)
V,sin(2af,t + 6,)
II
<

where 6, and @, are the relative phase angles of the two signals. The phase detector multi-
plies these two signals and produces a sum and difference frequency output, V,, as follows:

V, d V,sin(27f,t + 6;) X V,sin(2af,t + @,)

ivo VV.
cos[2af;t + 6;) — (2af,t + 0,)] - x cosl (2mf;t + 0;) + (2af,t + 0,)]

When the PLL is locked,

fi=fo
and

2afit = 27f,t

Therefore, the detector output voltage is

Va = iVo
[cos(6; — 6,) — cos(4afit + 6; + 6,)]

The second cosine term in the above equation is a second harmonic term (2 x 27f,f) and
is filtered out by the low-pass filter.
 29:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
844 B COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ ﺏ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬844
FIGURE 17-43 Output ts: proportional to
‫ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ‬:‫ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬43-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Low-pass ' PIO}
{PIO' ‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬
V, Phase phase difference of ¥; and ¥,,.
V، ‫؛ ﻭ‬¥ ‫ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬¥،،.
Basic PLL block diagram. filter
‫ ﻣﻨﻘﻲ‬.‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬PLL ‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
f ——| detector O
O ‫ﻭ ——| ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
° mv
‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬°
VIS
‫ﻓﻴﺲ‬
Voltage-
-‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﻰ‬
controlled
‫ﺧﺎﺿﻊ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ‬
oscillator
‫ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬
VCO
VCO
The general operation of a PLL 1s as follows. The phase detector compares the phase
‫ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻳﻘﺎﺭﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬.‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬PLL 1s‫ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻟﻞ‬
difference between the incoming signal, V,, and the VCO signal, V,. When the frequency
‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬.VCO V ‫ ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬V ‫ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬
of the incoming signal, f;, is different from that of the VCO frequencyf,,, the phase angle
‫ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬،،،VCO ‫ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫؛‬f ،‫ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬
between the two signals is also different. The output of the phase detector and the filter
is
‫ ﻣﺨﺮﺝ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻫﻮ‬.‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬
proportional to the phase difference of the two signals. This proportional voltage is fed
to
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻲ ﻝ‬.‫ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ‬
the VCO, forcing its frequency to move toward the frequency of the incoming signal
until
VCO، ‫ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ‬
the two frequencies are equal. At this point, the PLL is locked onto the incoming fre-
.‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩ‬PLL ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻔﻞ‬،‫ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﻥ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺎﻥ‬
quency. If f; changes, the phase difference also changes, forcing the VCO to track the in-
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻞ‬VCO ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﺒﺮ‬،‫ ﻳﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ‬،‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻭ؛ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ‬.‫ﻛﻮﻳﻨﺴﻲ‬
coming frequency.
. ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻡ‬
The Phase Detector
‫ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ‬
The phase-detector circuit in a PLL is basically a linear multiplier. The following analysis
‫ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.‫ ﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ‬PLL ‫ﺇﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻲ‬
illustrates how it works in a PLL application. The incoming signal, V;, and the VCO signal,
،VCO ‫ ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬،‫؛‬V ،‫ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬.PLL ‫ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ‬
V,, applied to the phase detector can be expressed as
‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻛـ‬V ‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ‬
= V,sin(2af,t + 0,)
(،0 + ‫ ﺭ‬،2AF) ‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬،‫= ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬
V,sin(2af,t + 6,)
(،6 + ‫ﺭ‬،2AF) ‫ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬
< II
‫> ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‬
where 6, and @, are the relative phase angles of the two signals. The phase detector
multi-
‫ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪﺩ‬.‫ ﻭ@ ﻫﻲ ﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ‬6 ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
plies these two signals and produces a sum and difference frequency output, V,, as
follows:
:‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬،V ،‫ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﻓﺮﻕ ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
V, V,sin(27f,t + 6;) X V,sin(2af,t + @,)
V، V،27) ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬f،t + 6‫ )؛‬X V،2) ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ‬af،t + @،)
d
‫ﺩ‬
VV.
VV.
i vo cos[2af;t + 6;) — (2af,t + 0,)] - x cosl (2mf;t + 0;) + (2af,t + 0,)]
i vo cos[2af;t + 6;) — (2af,t + 0,)] - x cosl (2mf;t + 0;) + (2af,t + 0,)]
When the PLL is locked,
،PLL ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻔﻞ‬
fi=fo
‫ﻓﻲ=ﻑ‬
and
‫ﻭ‬
2afit = 27f,t
2afit = 27f,t
Therefore, the detector output voltage is
‫ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻟﻠﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻫﻮ‬
Va = i Vo [cos(6; — 6,) — cos(4afit + 6; + 6,)]
Va = i Vo [cos(6; — 6,) — cos(4afit + 6; + 6,)]
The second cosine term in the above equation is a second harmonic term (2 x 27f,f) and
‫( ﻭ‬x 27f,f 2) ‫ﺣﺪ ﺟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‬
is filtered out by the low-pass filter.
.‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺼﻔﻴﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬
 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) @ 845

The control voltage on the output of the filter is expressed as

V.. = ViV,
cos 6, Equation 17-4

where 6, = 6, — @,, where 6, is the phase error. The filter output voltage is proportional to
the phase difference between the incoming signal and the VCO signal and is used as the
control voltage for the VCO. This operation is illustrated in Figure 17-44.

Filter passband FIGURE 17-44

o\
A fo Basic phase detector/filter operation.

KIL
| >< Si 7 fo 2fj + fo) |

f | fi ~ fo

So

EXAMPLE 17-7
A PLL is locked onto an incoming signal with a frequency of 1 MHz at a phase angle
of 50°. The VCO signal is at a phase angle of 20°. The peak amplitude of the incoming
signal is 0.5 V and that of the VCO output signal is 0.7 V.
(a) What is the VCO frequency?
(b) What is the value of the control voltage being fed back to the VCO at this point?

Solution (a) Since the PLL is in lock,f, = f, = 1 MHz.

(b) 6, = 0; — 8, = 50° — 20° = 30°

iV, (0.5 V)(0.7 V)
Ve. = ~5 008 6, = COS 30° = (0.175 V)cos 30° = 0.152 V

Related Problem _ If the phase angle of the incoming signal changes instantaneously to 30°, indicating a
change in frequency, what is the instantaneous VCO control voltage?

The Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

Voltage-controlled oscillators can take many forms. A VCO can be some type of LC or crys-
tal oscillator, or it can be some type of RC oscillator or multivibrator. No matter the exact
type, most VCOs employed in PLLs operate on the principle of variable reactance using
the varactor diode as a voltage-variable capacitor.
The capacitance of a varactor diode varies inversely with reverse-bias voltage. The ca-
pacitance decreases as reverse voltage increases and vice versa.
 30:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) @ 845
PLL) @ 845) ‫ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻔﻞ‬
The control voltage on the output of the filter is expressed as
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﺑـ‬
V.. = ViV , cos 6, Equation 17-4
V.. = ViV، cos 6، 4-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
where 6, = 6, — @,, where 6, is the phase error. The filter output voltage is proportional
to
‫ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻣﻊ‬.‫ ﻫﻮ ﺧﻄﺄ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬6 ‫ ﺣﻴﺚ‬،@ - ،6 = ،6 ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
the phase difference between the incoming signal and the VCO signal and is used as the
‫ ﻭﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻙ‬VCO ‫ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬
control voltage for the VCO. This operation is illustrated in Figure 17-44.
.44-17 ‫ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬.VCO‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻝ‬
Filter passband FIGURE 17-44
17-44 ‫ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
fo o\ Basic phase detector /filter operation.
fo o\ ‫ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺘﺮ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬/‫ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬.
A
‫ﺃ‬
KIL
‫ﻗﺘﻞ‬
| > < Si 7 fo 2fj + fo) |
| (‫ ﻟـ‬+ 2fj ‫ ﻟـ‬7 ‫| < > ﺍﻧﻈﺮ‬
f | fi ~ fo
‫ﻑ | ﻓﻲ ~ ﻑ‬
So
‫ﻟﺬﺍ‬
EXAMPLE 17-7
7-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
A PLL is locked onto an incoming signal with a frequency of 1 MHz at a phase angle
‫ ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬1 ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬PLL ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻔﻞ‬
of 50°. The VCO signal is at a phase angle of 20°. The peak amplitude of the incoming
‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻮﻯ ﻟﻠﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬.‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬20 ‫ ﺑﺰﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻃﻮﺭ ﻗﺪﺭﻫﺎ‬VCO ‫ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ‬.‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬50 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
signal is 0.5 V and that of the VCO output signal is 0.7 V.
.‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0.7 ‫ ﻫﻲ‬VCO ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺧﺮﺝ‬0.5 ‫ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻫﻲ‬
(a) What is the VCO frequency?
‫؟‬VCO ‫)ﺃ( ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
(b) What is the value of the control voltage being fed back to the VCO at this point?
‫ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ؟‬VCO ‫)ﺏ( ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺘﻪ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
Solution (a) Since the PLL is in lock,f , = f, = 1 MHz.
.f، = f، = 1 MHz ،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ )ﺃ( ﺑﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ‬
(b) 6, = 0; — 8, = 50° — 20° = 30°
‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬30 = ‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬20 — ‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬50 = ،8 — ‫؛‬0 = ،6 (‫)ﺏ‬
iV, (0.5 V)(0.7 V)
(‫ﺵ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬.0) (‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0.5) ،‫ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻊ‬
Ve. = ~5 008 6, = COS 30° = (0.175 V)cos 30° = 0.152 V
‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬cos 30° = 0.152(‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬COS 30° = (0.175 = ،6 008 5~ = .‫ﻫﺎﺀ‬
Related Problem _ If the phase angle of the incoming signal changes instantaneously to
30°, indicating a
‫ ﻓﻬﺬﺍ ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃ‬،‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ‬30 ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ _ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺕ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
change in frequency, what is the instantaneous VCO control voltage?
‫؟‬VCO ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻈﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
The Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
(VCO) ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
Voltage-controlled oscillators can take many forms. A VCO can be some type of LC or
crys-
-cry ‫ ﺃﻭ‬LC ‫ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ‬VCO ‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬.‫ﻟﻠﻤﺬﺑﺬﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﺨﺬ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻻ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ‬
tal oscillator, or it can be some type of RC oscillator or multivibrator. No matter the
exact
‫ ﻻ ﻳﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ‬.‫ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻬﺰﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪﺩ‬RC ‫ ﺃﻭ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ‬،‫ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺗﺎﻝ‬
type, most VCOs employed in PLLs operate on the principle of variable reactance using
‫ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‬PLLs ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ‬VCOs ‫ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ‬
the varactor diode as a voltage-variable capacitor.
.‫ﺍﻟﺼﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻛﻤﻜﺜﻒ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
The capacitance of a varactor diode varies inversely with reverse-bias voltage. The ca-
-‫ ﻛﺎﻟﻴﻔﻮﺭﻧﻴﺎ‬.‫ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﻜﺴﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺤﻴﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺴﻲ‬
pacitance decreases as reverse voltage increases and vice versa.
.‫ﺗﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺴﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬
846 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

In a PLL, the control voltage fed back to the VCO is applied as a reverse-bias voltage to
the varactor diode within the VCO. The frequency of oscillation is inversely related to ca-
pacitance for an RC type oscillator by the formula

1
to ~ 2tRC
and for an LC type oscillator by the formula

These formulas show that frequency increases as capacitance decreases and vice versa.
Capacitance decreases as reverse voltage (control voltage) increases. Therefore, an in-
crease in control voltage to the VCO causes an increase in frequency and vice versa. Basic
VCO operation is illustrated in Figure 17-45. The graph in part (b) shows that at the nom-
inal control voltage, Veq,om, the oscillator is running at its nominal or free-running fre-
quency, fornom- An increase in V, above the nominal value forces the oscillator frequency to
increase, and a decrease in V, below the nominal value forces the oscillator frequency to de-
crease. There are, of course, limits on the operation as indicated by the minimum and max-
imum points. The transfer function or conversion gain, K, of the VCO is normally expressed
as a certain frequency deviation per unit change in control voltage.

K = he
AV,

FIGURE 17-45

Basic VCO operation.

Socmax)

Jotnom)

Control voltage .
Soonin)
v.o—+, VCO

c
Veunin) Viecnom) Veumax)

(a) (b)

EXAMPLE 17-8
The output frequency of a certain VCO changes from 50 kHz to 65 kHz when the
control voltage increases from 0.5 V to 1 V. What is the conversion gain, K?

_ Af, — 6S kHz — 50kHz — 15 kHz = 30 kHz/V

Solution
AV. 1V-05V 0.5V
Related Problem If the conversion gain of a certain VCO is 20 kHz/V, how much frequency deviation
does a change in control voltage from 0.8 V to 0.5 V produce? If the VCO frequency is
250 kHz at 0.8 V, what is the frequency at 0.5 V?

Basic PLL Operation

When the PLL is locked, the incoming frequency, f;, and the VCO frequency, f,, are equal.
However, there is always a phase difference between them called the static phase error The
phase error, 6,, is the parameter that keeps the PLL locked in. As you have seen, the filtered
voltage from the phase detector is proportional to 6, (Equation 17-4). This voltage controls
the VCO frequency and is always just enough to keepf, = f.
 31:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
846 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ @ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬846
In a PLL, the control voltage fed back to the VCO is applied as a reverse-bias voltage to
‫ ﻛﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻧﺤﻴﺎﺯ ﻋﻜﺴﻲ‬VCO ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺘﻪ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ‬،PLL ‫ﻓﻲ‬
the varactor diode within the VCO. The frequency of oscillation is inversely related to ca-
.‫ ﻭﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺬﺑﺬﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﻜﺴﻴﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻛﺎﻟﻴﻔﻮﺭﻧﻴﺎ‬.VCO ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ‬
pacitance for an RC type oscillator by the formula
‫ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ‬RC ‫ﺷﺪﺓ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻧﻮﻉ‬
1
١
to
‫ﻝ‬
~ 2tRC
~ 2tRC
and for an LC type oscillator by the formula
‫ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ‬LC ‫ﻭﻟﻠﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ‬
These formulas show that frequency increases as capacitance decreases and vice versa.
.‫ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬
Capacitance decreases as reverse voltage (control voltage) increases. Therefore, an in-
-‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻓﻲ‬،‫ ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬.(‫ﺗﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺴﻲ )ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬
crease in control voltage to the VCO causes an increase in frequency and vice versa.
Basic
‫ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬.‫ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬VCO ‫ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
VCO operation is illustrated in Figure 17-45. The graph in part (b) shows that at the nom-
- ‫ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﺀ )ﺏ( ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻻﺳﻢ‬.45-17 ‫ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬VCO ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬
inal control voltage, Veq,om, the oscillator is running at its nominal or free-running fre-
.‫ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﺍﻻﺳﻤﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ‬،Veq,om ،‫ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ‬
quency, fornom- An increase in V, above the nominal value forces the oscillator
frequency to
quency، fornom- ‫ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ‬V، ‫ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﺠﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬
increase, and a decrease in V, below the nominal value forces the oscillator frequency to
de-
‫ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﻳﺠﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍﺟﻊ‬،V ‫ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﺼﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ‬
crease. There are, of course, limits on the operation as indicated by the minimum and
max-
.‫ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﺩﻧﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ‬.‫ﺗﺠﻌﺪ‬
imum points. The transfer function or conversion gain, K, of the VCO is normally
expressed
VCO ‫ ﻟـ‬،K ،‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺃﻭ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ‬.imum ‫ﻧﻘﺎﻁ‬
as a certain frequency deviation per unit change in control voltage.
.‫ﻛﺄﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬
K = he
‫ﻙ = ﻫﻮ‬
AV,
،‫ﻝ‬
FIGURE 17-45
45-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Basic VCO operation.
.‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬VCO ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬
Socmax)
(‫ﺳﻮﻛﻤﺎﻛﺲ‬
Jotnom)
(‫ﺟﻮﺗﻨﻮﻡ‬
Control voltage .
.‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬
v.o—+, VCO Soonin)
v.o—+، VCO ‫)ﺳﻮﻧﻴﻦ‬
c
‫ﺝ‬
Veunin) Viecnom) Veumax)
(‫ﻓﻴﻮﻧﻴﻦ( ﻓﻴﻜﻨﻮﻡ( ﻓﻴﻮﻣﺎﻛﺲ‬
(a) (b)
(‫)ﺃ( )ﺏ‬
EXAMPLE 17-8
8-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
The output frequency of a certain VCO changes from 50 kHz to 65 kHz when the
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻨﺪ‬65 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬50 ‫ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ‬VCO ‫ﻳﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟـ‬
control voltage increases from 0.5 V to 1 V. What is the conversion gain, K?
‫؟‬K ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ‬.V 1 ‫ ﺇﻟﻰ‬V 0.5 ‫ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
_ Af, — 6S kHz — 50kHz — 15 kHz
_ Af, — ШС О — 50X — 15X
= 30 kHz/V
‫ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬/‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬30 =
Solution AV. 1V-05V 0.5V
‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0.5 ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬05-‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬1 .‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﻣﻌﻄﻞ‬
Related Problem If the conversion gain of a certain VCO is 20 kHz/V, how much
frequency deviation
‫ ﻓﻤﺎ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،‫ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬/‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬20 ‫ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻫﻮ‬VCO ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻟـ‬
does a change in control voltage from 0.8 V to 0.5 V produce? If the VCO frequency is
‫ ﻫﻮ‬VCO ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ؟ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬0.5 ‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﺇﻟﻰ‬0.8 ‫ﻫﻞ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ‬
250 kHz at 0.8 V, what is the frequency at 0.5 V?
‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ؟‬0.5 ‫ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻋﻨﺪ‬،‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬0.8 ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻨﺪ‬250
Basic PLL Operation
 ‫ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬PLL ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬
When the PLL is locked, the incoming frequencyf,; , and the VCO frequencyf,,, are equal.
.‫ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺎﻥ‬،،،VCOf ‫ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬، ‫؛‬،f ‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩ‬،PLL ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻔﻞ‬
However, there is always a phase difference between them called the static phase error
The
‫ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺧﻄﺄ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻛﻦ‬،‫ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ‬
phase error, 6,, is the parameter that keeps the PLL locked in. As you have seen, the
filtered
‫ ﺗﻤﺖ ﺗﺼﻔﻴﺘﻪ‬،‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺭﺃﻳﺖ‬.PLL ‫ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻔﻞ‬،6 ،‫ﺧﻄﺄ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
voltage from the phase detector is proportional to 6, (Equation 17-4). This voltage
controls
‫ ﻳﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ‬.(4-17 ‫ )ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬6 ‫ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ‬
the VCO frequency and is always just enough to keepf , = f.
.keepf , = f ‫ ﻭﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻔﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟـ‬VCO ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ® 847

Figure 17-46 shows the PLL and two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency but with
a phase difference, 6,. For this condition the PLL is in lock and the VCO control voltage is
constant. If f, decreases, @, increases to @,, as illustrated in Figure 17-47. This increase in
8, is sensed by the phase detector causing the VCO control voltage to decrease, thus de-
creasing f, until f, = f, and keeping the PLL in lock. If f; increases, 8, decreases to 6,, as il-
lustrated in Figure 17-48. This decrease in 8, causes the VCO control voltage to increase,
thus increasing f, untilf, = f, and keeping the PLL in lock.

FIGURE 17-46

Vv;/\ PLL in lock under static condition

; fi Phase
Ma (f, = frand constant 8,).
Constant Low-pass
-pas Oo
: Vv detector
filter
lJ 8
|= 4
tol
Lt
nee Io
iv
Vv,
ttI 4 ,
tet V,
I Constant
; f VCO

FIGURE 17-47
! Mi
\" Etabe Low-pass
PLL action when f, decreases.
Oo | —oO
detector filter
6

Vv. t,

VCO

ji| 1
Jt
f
| \
| |

Pa
{ i

el
e

as

D
 32:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ® 847
PLL) ® 847) ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
Figure 17-46 shows the PLL and two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency but with
‫ ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻟﻬﻤﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﻌﻬﻤﺎ‬PLL ‫ ﺧﻂ‬17-46 ‫ﻭﻳﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
a phase difference, 6,. For this condition the PLL is in lock and the VCO control voltage is
‫ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬VCO ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬PLL ‫ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ‬.،6 ،‫ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
constant. If f, decreases, @, increases to @,, as illustrated in Figure 17-47. This increase in
‫ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ‬.47-17 ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬،@ ‫ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ‬،@ ،f ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻧﻘﺼﺖ‬.‫ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
8, is sensed by the phase detector causing the VCO control voltage to decrease, thus de-
‫ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ‬،VCO ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺸﻌﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬،8
creasing f, until f, = f, and keeping the PLL in lock. If f; increases, 8, decreases to 6,, as il-
-il ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ‬، 6 ‫ ﻳﻨﻘﺺ ﺇﻟﻰ‬، 8 ، ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻭ؛ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ‬.‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،f، = f ‫ ﺣﺘﻰ‬،f ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻌﻴﺪ‬
lustrated in Figure 17-48. This decrease in 8, causes the VCO control voltage to increase,
،VCO ‫ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬8 ‫ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬.48-17 ‫ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
thus increasing f, untilf , = f, and keeping the PLL in lock.
.‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،f، untilf، = f ‫ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ‬
FIGURE 17-46
46-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Vv;/ \ PLL in lock under s tatic condition
Vv;/ \ PLL ‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‬
; fi Phase ConsMta a nt Low-p-apasss Oo (f, = frand constant 8,).
; fi ‫ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ‬ConsMta a nt Low-p-apass Oo (f، = 8 ‫ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺭﺍﻧﺪ‬،).
: Vv detector filter
Vv ‫ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ‬:
lJ 8
8 ‫ﺇﻝ ﺟﻲ‬
|= 4
|= ٤
tol
‫ﺭﺳﻮﻡ‬
Lt
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺯﻡ ﺃﻭﻝ‬
nee iv
‫ﻻ ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ‬
Io
‫ﻫﺬﺍ‬
tt
‫ﺗﻲ ﺗﻲ‬
Vv, I 4 ,
،‫ ﺃﻧﺎ ﺡ‬،‫ﺑﻒ‬
tet V,
 ,‫ﺗﻴﺖ ﺏ‬
I Constant
‫ﺃﻧﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ‬
; f VCO
‫; ﻭ ﻓﻜﻮ‬
! Mi FIGURE 17-47
47-17 ‫! ﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ‬
PLL action when f, decreases.
.f ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺ‬PLL ‫ﻋﻤﻞ‬
\" Etabe Low-pass
".‫"ﺇﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮﺓ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬
Oo | detector filter —oO
oO— ‫ﻭ | ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
6
‫ﻁ‬
Vv. t,
‫ ﺭ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺠﺮﺩ‬
7
‫ﺡ‬
VCO
VCO
ji 1 f
‫ ﻭ‬1 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
| Jt
‫ﺕ‬.‫| ﺝ‬
|\
|\
||
||
{P a i
‫}ﻉ ﻁ‬
el
‫ﻫﻮ‬
e
‫ﺇﻧﻬﺎ‬
sa
‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬
D
‫ﺩ‬
848 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

FIGURE 17-48

PLL action when f, increases. { Phase \ Low-pass 5

o—————>} detector .
filter
8

1
VCO

T ‘ T f
| f it
| 1 lt |
| ' ia
\ | it
1 1 \ ii)
| | 1 |
i | il
! | tl
| | 9. it 801
iV 1 | I~ 11 fr
a | \ a) /
/ \4 | / \ tt | \
/ \ I | / il f \
/ \1 | / \t ‘i
\! | \ | | \
/ 1 | \i | \
Vo1 | I)
4 | ! V4 ! |
\ / \ | \ |
\ | \ |
\ | / | |
\ / \ j \ |

iS \ VV

Lock Range Once the PLL is locked, it will track frequency changes in the incoming sig-
nal. The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock is called the lock range
or tracking range. Limitations on the hold-in range are the maximum frequency deviations
of the VCO and the output limits of the phase detector. The hold-in range is independent of
the bandwidth of the low-pass filter because, when the PLL is in lock, the difference fre-
quency (f; — f,) is zero or a very low instantaneous value that falls well within the band-
width. The hold-in range is usually expressed as a percentage of the VCO frequency.
Capture Range Assuming the PLL is not in lock, the range of frequencies over which it
can acquire lock with an incoming signal is called the capture range. Two basic conditions
are required for a PLL to acquire lock. First, the difference frequency (f, — f;) must be low
enough to fall within the filter’s bandwidth. This means that the incoming frequency must
not be separated from the nominal] or free-running frequency of the VCO by more than the
bandwidth of the low-pass filter. Second, the maximum deviation, Af,,,,, of the VCO fre-
quency must be sufficient to allow f, to increase or decrease to a value equal to f;. These
conditions are illustrated in Figure |7—49; and when they exist, the PLL will “pull” the
VCO frequency toward the incoming frequency untilf, = fj.

The LM565 Phase-Locked Loop

The LM565 is a good example of an integrated circuit PLL. The circuit consists of a VCO,
a phase detector, a low-pass filter formed by an internal resistor and an external capacitor,
and an amplifier. The free-running VCO frequency can be set with external components. A
block diagram is shown in Figure 17—50. The LM565 can be used for the frequency range
from 0.001 Hz to 500 kHz.
 33:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
848 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ = ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬848
FIGURE 17-48
48-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
PLL action when f, increases. { Phase \ Low-pass 5
5 ‫ } ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ \ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬.f ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ‬PLL ‫ﻋﻤﻞ‬
o—————>} detector fil. ter
o—————>} ‫ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ‬
8
‫ﺽ‬
\
\
1
١
VCO
VCO
T| ‘f Ti t f
‫ ﺗﻲ ﺗﻲ ﻭ‬f' |‫ﺕ‬
| 1 lt |
| ‫ ﻟﺘﺮ‬1 |
| ' ia
‫ ﻫﻲ‬- ‫| ﻫﻮ‬
\ | it
‫ ﻫﻲ‬- ‫\ | ﻫﻮ‬
1 1 \ ii)
(‫ \ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ‬1 1
||1|
||١|
i | il
‫ﺃﻧﺎ | ﺍﻝ‬
! | tl
‫! | ﻟﻴﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺔ‬
| | 9. it 801
| | 9. 801
iV 1 | I~ 11 fr
‫ ﺍﻻﺏ‬11 ~ ‫ | ﺃﻧﺎ‬1 ‫ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻊ‬
a | \ a) /
/ (‫ﺃ | \ ﺃ‬
/ \4 | / \ tt | \
\ | ‫ \ ﺙ‬/ | 4\ /
/ \ I | / il f \
 \ ‫ ﻭ‬/ | ‫ \ ﺃﻧﺎ‬/
/ \1 | / \t ‘i
‫ \ ﺭ 'ﺃﻧﺎ‬/ | 1\ /
\! | \ | | \
\! | \ | | \
/ 1 | \i | \
\ | ‫ | \ﺃﻧﺎ‬1 /
Vo1 | I)
Vo1 | ‫)ﻭ‬
4 | ! V4 ! |
| !‫ﺡ | ! ﺗﻌﺎﻝ‬
\/\|\|
\/\|\|
\|\|
\|\|
\|/||
\|/||
\/\j\|
|\‫\ﻱ‬/\
iS \ VV
VV \ ‫ﻫﻮ‬
Lock Range Once the PLL is locked, it will track frequency changes in the incoming sig-
.‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﺘﺘﺒﻊ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ‬،PLL ‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﺑﻤﺠﺮﺩ ﻗﻔﻞ‬
nal. The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock is called the lock
range
‫ ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ ﺍﺳﻢ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ ﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟـ‬.‫ﻧﺎﻝ‬
or tracking range. Limitations on the hold-in range are the maximum frequency
deviations
‫ﺃﻭ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻭﺿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻖ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻻﻧﺤﺮﺍﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬
of the VCO and the output limits of the phase detector. The hold-in range is
independent of
‫ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺰ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﻋﻦ‬.‫ ﻭﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬VCO ‫ﻣﻦ‬
the bandwidth of the low-pass filter because, when the PLL is in lock, the difference fre-
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ‬
quency (f; — f,) is zero or a very low instantaneous value that falls well within the band-
-‫( ﻫﻮ ﺻﻔﺮ ﺃﻭ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻟﺤﻈﻴﺔ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺗﻘﻊ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ‬,f; - f) ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻢ‬
width. The hold-in range is usually expressed as a percentage of the VCO frequency.
.VCO ‫ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺜﺒﻴﺖ ﻛﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻣﺌﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬.‫ﻋﺮﺽ‬
Capture Range Assuming the PLL is not in lock, the range of frequencies over which it
‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯﻩ‬،‫ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﺑﺎﻓﺘﺮﺍﺽ ﺃﻥ‬
can acquire lock with an incoming signal is called the capture range. Two basic
conditions
 ‫ ﺷﺮﻃﻴﻦ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﻴﻦ‬.‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻔﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ‬
are required for a PLL to acquire lock. First, the difference frequency (f, — f;) must be low
‫;( ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺎ‬f, — f) ‫ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬،‫ ﺃﻭﻻ‬.‫ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬PLL ‫ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻟـ‬
enough to fall within the filter’s bandwidth. This means that the incoming frequency
must
‫ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ‬.‫ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﻠﻮﻗﻮﻉ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺷﺢ‬
not be separated from the nominal] or free-running frequency of the VCO by more than
the
‫ ﺑﺄﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ‬VCO ‫ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻓﺼﻠﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻻﺳﻤﻲ[ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ ﻟـ‬
bandwidth of the low-pass filter. Second, the maximum deviation, Af,,,,, of the VCO fre-
VCO ‫ ﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬،،،،،Af ،‫ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻟﻼﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ‬،‫ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ‬.‫ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬
quency must be sufficient to allow f, to increase or decrease to a value equal to f;. These
‫ ﻫﺆﻻﺀ‬.‫؛‬f ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺼﺎﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ‬f ‫ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻤﺎﺡ ﻟـ‬
conditions are illustrated in Figure |7—49; and when they exist, the PLL will “pull” the
‫ ﺳﻮﻑ "ﻳﺴﺤﺐ" ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻒ‬PLL ‫ ﻓﺈﻥ‬،‫؛ ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ‬49-7| ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ ﻣﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
VCO frequency toward the incoming frequency untilf , = fj.
.F ، = fj ‫ ﺑﺎﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺣﺘﻰ‬VCO ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬
The LM565 Phase-Locked Loop
‫ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻔﻞ‬LM565 ‫ﺣﻠﻘﺔ‬
The LM565 is a good example of an integrated circuit PLL. The circuit consists of a VCO,
،VCO ‫ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ‬.PLL ‫ ﻣﺜﺎﻻ ﺟﻴﺪﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬LM565 ‫ﻳﻌﺪ‬
a phase detector, a low-pass filter formed by an internal resistor and an external
capacitor,
،‫ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﻣﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ‬،‫ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
and an amplifier. The free-running VCO frequency can be set with external components.
A
‫ ﺃ‬.‫ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺤﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ‬VCO ‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ‬.‫ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ‬
block diagram is shown in Figure 17—50. The LM565 can be used for the frequency
range
‫ ﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ‬LM565 ‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‬.50-17 ‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻄﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
from 0.001 Hz to 500 kHz.
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬500 ‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬0.001 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) = 849

FIGURE 17-49

Illustration of the conditions fora

PLL to acquire lock.

o—— Af — >]

— - = F f

Difference frequency falls J, must be able to deviate an amount A f

into filter's passband.

(a)

al = ~

f
J : i, 7 if

(b)f; - f, decreases as f, deviates towards f,.

The free-running frequency of the VCO is set by the values of R, and C; in Figure 17-50
according to the following formula. The frequency is in hertz when the resistance is in ohms
and the capacitance is in farads.
1.2
PARC,
= ==
:
Equation 17-5

He
+v Low-pass filter
oO = ]

(10)
— 2) Ls; ]- i 13.6kQ
| ||
+ 0 0 it (VCO control voltage)
.
Diff inputs (3) |. hese . AmplifierpM (6) cael eon
o— . detector | . O Ref output
lase
Phase COMparat
comparatori (5) iS ao | 5 Sr
input ° (af.
VCO output Orta

VCO
- LM565
(8) (9) Q)
R, C
|

FIGURE 17-50

Block diagram of the LM565 PLL.

 34:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) = 849
PLL) = 849) ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
FIGURE 17-49
49-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Illustration of the conditions fora
‫ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ‬
PLL to acquire lock.
PLL ‫ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ‬.
o—— Af — >]
[< — ‫ﺱ —— ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬
—-=Ff
‫=ﻑ‬-—
Difference frequency falls J, must be able to deviate an amount A f
A f ‫ ﻭﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ‬،J ‫ﻳﻘﻊ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
into filter's passband.
.‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ‬
(a)
(‫)ﺃ‬
al = ~
~ = ‫ﺁﻝ‬
f
F
J : i, 7 if
‫ ﺇﺫﺍ‬7 ،‫ ﻁ‬: ‫ﻱ‬
(b)f ; - f, decreases as f, deviates towards f,.
.،f ‫ ﻳﻨﺤﺮﻑ ﻧﺤﻮ‬،f ‫ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺ ﻣﺜﻞ‬،f - ‫)ﺏ(ﻭ؛‬
The free-running frequency of the VCO is set by the values of R, and C; in Figure 17-50
50-17 ‫؛ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬C‫ ﻭ‬R ‫ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻗﻴﻢ‬VCO ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ ﻟـ‬
according to the following formula. The frequency is in hertz when the resistance is in
ohms
‫ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﻬﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻭﻡ‬.‫ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬
and the capacitance is in farads.
.‫ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺎﺭﺍﺩ‬
1.2
‫ﺃ‬.١
PA= R=C,= Eq: uation 17-5
PA = R = C، = 5-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
+v LoHw-epas s filter
+v ‫ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ‬LoHw-epas
oO = ]
[=‫ﺱ‬
(10)
(١٠)
Ls i 1| 3.6kQ ||
|| ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮﺱ‬3.6 |1 ‫ﻝ ﺱ ﻁ‬
2) ]- .
. -[ (‫ﺃ‬
— ; + 0 0 it (VCO control voltage)
(VCO ‫ )ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬0 0 + ; —
Diff inputs (3) |. hese . Amplifierp M (6) cael eon
‫( ﻛﺎﻝ ﺇﻳﻮﻥ‬6) ‫ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻡ‬.‫ ﻫﻴﺴﻪ‬.| (3) ‫ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ‬
o— . detector | . O Ref output
‫ ﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ‬. | ‫ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ‬. — ‫ﺱ‬
Phalase se COcMomppaarraatt ori (5) i S ao | 5 Sr
‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺪ‬COcMomppaarraatt ori (5) i S ao | 5 ‫ﺍﻟﺰﺟﺎﺟﺔ‬
input ° (af.
.‫ )ﻣﻦ‬° ‫ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
VCO output Ort a
‫ ﺃﻭﺭﺕ ﺃ‬VCO ‫ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬
VCO
VCO
- LM565
‫ ﻟﻤﺨﻄﺦ‬-
(8) (9) Q )
( ‫( ﺱ‬9) (8)
R, C
‫ ﺝ‬،‫ﺭ‬
|
|
FIGURE 17-50
50-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
Block diagram of the LM565 PLL.
.LM565 PLL ‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ‬
850 COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS

The lock range is given by

Equation 17-6
8fo
Sock = +
Vo Cc

where Vcc 1s the total voltage between the positive and negative de supply voltage terminals.
The capture range is given by

. 1 2T flock
Equation 17-7 =4—, /—
Fear = t5 7 (3600 2)C,
The 3600 is the value of the internal filter resistor in ohms. You can see that the capture
range is dependent on the filter bandwidth as determined by the internal resistor and the ex-
ternal capacitor Cy.

The PLL as an FM Demodulator

As you have seen, the VCO control voltage in a PLL depends on the deviation of the in-
coming frequency. The PLL will produce a voltage proportional to the frequency of the in-
coming signal which, in the case of FM, is the original modulating signal.
Figure 17-51 shows a typical connection for the LM565 as an FM demodulator. If the
IF input is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal, you get a sinusoidal signal on the
output as indicated. Since the maximum operating frequency is 500 kHz, this device must
be used in double-conversion FM receivers. A double-conversion FM receiver is one in
which essentially two mixers are used to first convert the RF to a 10.7 MHz IF and then con-
vert this to a 455 kHz IF.
The free-running frequency of the VCO is adjusted to approximately 455 kHz, which is
the center of the modulated IF range. C; can be any value, but R, should be in the range
from 2 kQ to 20 kQ. The input can be directly coupled as long as there is no dc voltage dif-
ference between pins 2 and 3. The VCO is connected to the phase detector by an external
wire between pins 4 and 5.

PM input Demodulated output

‘Ni |
(10)
\" | | f
2)
v MW o
(3) (7)
O Oy
LM565 0
(S) (6)
ee

(4)

(8) (9) ()

|.

FIGURE 17-51

The LM565 as an FM demodulator.

 35:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
850 COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
‫ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ‬850
The lock range is given by
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﻋﻄﺎﺀ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬
8fo
‫ ﻓﻮ‬8
Equation 17-6
6-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
Sock = +
+ = ‫ﺟﻮﺭﺏ‬
Vo Cc
‫ﻧﺴﺨﺔ ﻓﻮ‬
where Vcc 1s the total voltage between the positive and negative de supply voltage
terminals.
.‫ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺃﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﻣﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺐ‬Vcc 1s ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
The capture range is given by
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﻋﻄﺎﺀ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬
Equation 17-7 . =4—,1 /2—T floc k
‫ ﻓﻠﻮﻙ ﻙ‬T—2/ 1,—4= . 7-17 ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
Fear = t5 7 (3600 2)C,
،‫(ﺝ‬t5 7 (3600 2 = ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻮﻑ‬
The 3600 is the value of the internal filter resistor in ohms. You can see that the capture
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ‬.‫ ﻫﻲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺘﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﺑﺎﻷﻭﻡ‬3600
range is dependent on the filter bandwidth as determined by the internal resistor and
the ex-
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ‬
ternal capacitor Cy.
.Cy ‫ﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﻧﻬﺎﺋﻲ‬
The PLL as an FM Demodulator
FM ‫ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﻳﻞ‬PLL‫ﻭ‬
As you have seen, the VCO control voltage in a PLL depends on the deviation of the in-
.‫ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ‬PLL ‫ ﻓﻲ‬VCO ‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬،‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﺭﺃﻳﺖ‬
coming frequency. The PLL will produce a voltage proportional to the frequency of the
in-
‫ ﺟﻬﺪﺍ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻞ‬PLL ‫ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ‬. ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻡ‬
coming signal which, in the case of FM, is the original modulating signal.
.‫ ﻫﻲ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ‬،FM ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ‬
Figure 17-51 shows a typical connection for the LM565 as an FM demodulator. If the
‫ ﺇﺫﺍ‬.FM ‫ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬LM565 ‫ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ‬17-51 ‫ﻭﻳﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
IF input is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal, you get a sinusoidal signal on the
 ‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻃﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﺴﺘﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫‪output as indicated. Since the maximum operating frequency is 500 kHz, this device‬‬
‫‪must‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ‪ .‬ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻫﻮ ‪ 500‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‪ ،‬ﻓﻴﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ‬
‫‪be used in double-conversion FM receivers. A double-conversion FM receiver is one in‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ‪ FM‬ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﺩﻭﺝ‪ .‬ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ‪ FM‬ﻣﺰﺩﻭﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻫﻮ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ‬
‫‪which essentially two mixers are used to first convert the RF to a 10.7 MHz IF and then‬‬
‫‪con-‬‬
‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺧﻼﻃﻴﻦ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺃﻭﻻ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ‪ 10.7‬ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪ IF‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‬
‫‪vert this to a 455 kHz IF.‬‬
‫ﻗﻢ ﺑﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺇﻟﻰ ‪ 455‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ‪.IF‬‬
‫‪The free-running frequency of the VCO is adjusted to approximately 455 kHz, which is‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ ﻟـ ‪ VCO‬ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ ‪ 455‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻮ‬
‫‪the center of the modulated IF range. C; can be any value, but R, should be in the range‬‬
‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ‪ IF‬ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ‪ .‬ﺝ؛ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﻱ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ‪ ،R‬ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ‬
‫‪from 2 kQ to 20 kQ. The input can be directly coupled as long as there is no dc voltage‬‬
‫‪dif-‬‬
‫‪ 2‬ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻕ ﻕ ﺇﻟﻰ ‪ 20‬ﻙ ﻕ ‪ .‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻘﺘﺮﻥ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﻃﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻦ‬
‫‪ference between pins 2 and 3. The VCO is connected to the phase detector by an‬‬
‫‪external‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺭﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻃﺮﺍﻑ ‪ 2‬ﻭ ‪ .3‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ‪ VCO‬ﺑﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻨﻔﺬ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ‬
‫‪wire between pins 4 and 5.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻚ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻣﻴﺮ ‪ 4‬ﻭ ‪.5‬‬
‫‪‘Ni P|M input (10) Demodulated output‬‬
‫ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ )‪ (10‬ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ‪'Ni P | M‬‬
‫‪\" | | f‬‬
‫\" | | ﻑ‬
‫)‪2‬‬
‫ﺃ(‬
‫‪MW Oy‬‬
‫ﻣﻮ ﺃﻭﻱ‬
‫‪oO‬‬
‫ﻳﺎ‬
‫)‪(3) (7‬‬
‫)ﻉ( )ﺡ(‬
‫‪v‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ‬
‫‪LM565 0‬‬
 ٠ ‫ﻟﻤﺨﻄﺦ‬
(S) (6)
(6) (‫)ﺱ‬
ee (4)
(4) ‫ﻣﻦ‬
(8) (9) ()
() (‫)ﺽ( )ﺹ‬
|.
|.
FIGURE 17-51
51-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬
The LM565 as an FM demodulator.
LM565 ‫ ﻛﻤﺰﻳﻞ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ‬FM.
 THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ®™ 851

EXAMPLE 17-9
Determine the values for R,, C,, and C, for the LM565 in Figure 17-51 for a free-
running frequency of 455 kHz and a capture range of +10 kHz. The de supply
voltages are +6 V.

Solution Use Equation 17-5 to calculate C,. Choose R, = 4.7 kQ.

- 1.2
“° 4R,C,
1.2 1.2 “yy
Cc) =—— = -= 140
x 10°? F = 140 pF
~ 4R,f, 4(4700 2)(455 x 10° Hz)
The lock range must be determined before you can calculate C,.

8f, 8(455 kHz)

Fock = £2 = +————— = £303 kHz
Vec 12V
Use Equation 17-7 to calculate C.

I 27 feck
=4—, | —_———
Feap 2m V (3600 2)C,
fe =~ LL 2Thiock .

ce \ 2a} (3600 1)C,

C =| ! ) Qtfice _ { 1 \?__2a(303 x 10° Hz)
° \ 2m} (3600.0)f2,, \2m/ (3600.)(10 x 10° Hz)?
= 0.134 X 10°°F = 0.134 uF

Related Problem What can you do to increase the capture range from +10 kHz to +15 kHz?

| SECTION 17-8
REVIEW . List the three basic components in a phase-locked loop.
WN =

. What is another circuit used in some PLLs other than the three listed in Question 1?
. What is the basic function ofa PLL?
. What is the difference between the lock range and the capture range ofa PLL?
BR

. Basically, how does a PLL track the incoming frequency?

Mm
 36:‫ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ‬
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ®™ 851
PLL) ®™ 851) ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬
EXAMPLE 17-9
9-17 ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝ‬
Determine the values for R,, C,, and C, for the LM565 in Figure 17-51 for a free-
-free ‫ ﻟـ‬51-17 ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬LM565 ‫ ﻟـ‬C‫ ﻭ‬C‫ ﻭ‬R ‫ﺣﺪﺩ ﻗﻴﻢ‬
running frequency of 455 kHz and a capture range of +10 kHz. The de supply
‫ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺽ ﺩﻱ‬.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬10+ ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ‬455 ‫ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ‬
voltages are +6 V.
.‫ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬6+ ‫ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ‬
Solution Use Equation 17-5 to calculate C,. Choose R, = 4.7 kQ.
.‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺱ‬R، = 4.7 ‫ ﺍﺧﺘﺮ‬.,C ‫ ﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ‬5-17 ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
- 1.2
‫ﺃ‬.١ -
“° 4R,C,
"° 4R،C،
1.2 1.2 “yy
‫ "ﺹ‬1.2 1.2
Cc) =—— = -= 14x0 1 0°? F = 140 pF
‫ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻃﻨﻴﺔ‬F = 140 ‫؟‬14x0 1 0° =- = ——= (‫ﻧﺴﺨﺔ‬
~ 4R,f, 4(4700 2)(455 x 10° Hz)
~ 4R,f, 4(4700 2)(455 × 10° ‫)ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
The lock range must be determined before you can calculate C,.
.C ‫ﻳﺠﺐ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ‬
8f, 8(455 kHz)
8f، 8 (455 ‫)ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬
Fock = £2 = +————— = £303 kHz
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬303 = ————— + = ‫ ﺟﻨﻴﻪ ﺇﺳﺘﺮﻟﻴﻨﻲ‬2 = ‫ﺟﻮﻙ‬
Vec 12V
12V ‫ﺷﻲﺀ‬
Use Equation 17-7 to calculate C.
.C ‫ ﻟﺤﺴﺎﺏ‬7-17 ‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ‬
=4—,I | —_27— f—eck—
— ‫— ﻭ — ﺇﻳﻚ‬27_— | ‫ﺃﻧﺎ‬,—4=
Feap 2m V (3600 2)C,
،‫(ﺝ‬36002) ‫ﻡ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ‬2 ‫ﻓﻴﺐ‬
fe =~ LL 2Thiock .
fe =~ LL 2Thiock .
ce \ 2a} (3600 1)C,
،‫( ﺝ‬1 3600) {‫ ﺃ‬2 \ ‫ﻡ‬
C =| ! ) Qtfice _ { 1 \?__2a(303 x 10° Hz)
 (‫ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ‬Qtfice _ { 1 \?__2a(303 × 10° ( ! |= ‫ﺝ‬
° \ 2m} (3600.0)f2,, \2m/ (3600.)(10 x 10° Hz)?
° \ 2m} (3600.0)f2,, \2m/ (3600.)(10 x 10° Hz)?
= 0.134 X 10°°F = 0.134 uF
‫ ﻓﺎﺋﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻫﺞ‬0.134 = ‫ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻓﻬﺮﻧﻬﺎﻳﺖ‬10 × 0.134 =
Related Problem What can you do to increase the capture range from +10 kHz to +15
kHz?
‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ؟‬15+ ‫ ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ‬10+ ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﻓﻌﻠﻪ ﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﻣﻦ‬
| SECTION 17-8
8-17 ‫| ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ‬
=. List the three basic components in a phase-locked loop.
.‫ ﻗﻢ ﺑﺈﺩﺭﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻘﻔﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ‬.=
REVIEW
‫ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
N. What is another circuit used in some PLLs other than the three listed in Question 1?
‫؟‬1 ‫ ﺑﺨﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ‬PLLs ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ‬.‫ﻥ‬
W.
.‫ﻓﻲ‬
What is the basic function ofa PLL?
‫؟‬PLL‫ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻞ‬
. What is the difference between the lock range and the capture range ofa PLL?
‫؟‬PLL ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻭﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ‬.
RB
‫ﺏ‬.‫ﺭ‬
. Basically, how does a PLL track the incoming frequency?
‫ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩ؟‬PLL ‫ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟـ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ‬.
mM
‫ﻣﻢ‬