Chapter 3 Angle Modulation

3.1 Basic Definitions

3.2 Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
3.3 Relationship between PM and FM waves
3.4 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation
3.5 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation
3.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves
3.7 Generation of FM waves
3.8 Demodulation of FM signals
3.9 Theme Example
: FM Stereo Multiplexing
3.10 Summary and Discussion
 Cont..
 Angel modulation
 The angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the information-
bearing signal

 Lesson 1 : Angle modulation is a nonlinear process, which testifies

to its sophisticated nature. In the context of analog communications,
this distinctive property of angle modulation has two implications :
 In analytic terms, the spectral analysis of angle modulation is
complicated.
 In practical terms, the implementation of angle modulation is demanding

 Lesson 2 : Whereas the transmission bandwidth of an amplitude-

modulated wave is of limited extent, the transmission bandwidth of
an angle-modulated wave may an infinite extent, at least in theory.

 Lesson 3 : Given that the amplitude of the carrier wave is

maintained constant, we would intuitively expect that additive noise
would affect the performance of angle modulation to a lesser extent
than amplitude modulation.

2
 3.1 Basic Definitions
 Angle-modulated wave
s(t )  Ac cos[i (t )] (3.1)
 the average frequency in hertz
 t (t  t )   i (t )
f t (t ) 
2t
 The instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated signal

f i (t )  lim f t (t )
t 0

 (t  t )   i (t ) 
 lim  t 
t 0
 2t 
1 d i (t )
 (3.2)
2 dt

 i (t )  2f c t  c , for m(t )  0

3
 Cont..
1. Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous angle is varied linearly with the message signal
 i (t )  2f c t  k p m(t ) (3.3)


s (t )  Ac cos 2f ct  k p m(t )  (3.4)
2. Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which
the instantaneous frequency is varied linearly with the message signal
f i (t )  f c  k f m(t ) (3.5)
t
 i (t )  2  f i ( )d
0
t
 2f c t  2k f  m( )d
0
(3.6)

s(t )  Ac cos 2f ct  2k f  m( )d  (3.7)

 t

 0 
Table. 3.1
4
 Table.3.1 Back Next

Table 3.1

5
 3.2 Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
 Property 1 : Constancy of transmitted power
 The amplitude of PM and FM waves is maintained at a constant value equal
to the carrier amplitude for all time.
 The average transmitted power of angle-modulated waves is a constant
1 2
Pav  Ac (3.8)
2

 Property 2 : Nonlinearity of the modulation process

 Its nonlinear character
m(t )  m1 (t )  m2 (t )
s (t )  Ac cos2f c t  k p (m1 (t )  m2 (t ))
s1 (t )  Ac cos2f c t  k p m1 (t )
s2 (t )  Ac cos2f c t  k p m2 (t )

s (t )  s1 (t )  s2 (t ) Fig. 3.1
6
Fig.3.1 Back Next

7
 Cont..
 Property 3 : Irregularity of zero-crossings
 Zero-crossings are defined as the instants of time at which a waveform
changes its amplitude from a positive to negative value or the other way
around.
 The irregularity of zero-crossings in angle-modulation waves is also
attributed to the nonlinear character of the modulation process.

 The message signal m(t) increases or decreases linearly with time t, in

which case the instantaneous frequency fi(t) of the PM wave changes form
the unmodulated carrier frequency fc to a new constant value dependent on
the slope of m(t)
 The message signal m(t) is maintained at some constant value, positive or
negative, in which case the instantaneous frequency fi(t) of the FM wave
changes from the unmodulated carrier frequency fc to a new constant value
dependent on the constant value of m(t)

8
 Cont..
 Property 4 : Visualization difficulty of message waveform
 The difficulty in visualizing the message waveform in angle-modulated
waves is also attributed to the nonlinear character of angle-modulated
waves.

 Property 5 : Tradeoff of increased transmission bandwidth for

improved noise performance
 The transmission of a message signal by modulating the angle of a
sinusoidal carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence of additive noise

9
 3.3 Relationship Between PM and FM waves
 Fig. 3.3(a)
 An FM wave can be generated by first integrating the message signal
m(t) with respect to time t and then using the resulting signal as the
input to a phase modulation
 Fig. 3.3(b)
 A PM wave can be generated by first differentiating m(t) with respect
to time t and then using the resulting signal as the input to a frequency
modulator

 We may deduce the properties of phase modulation from those of

frequency modulation and vice versa

Fig. 3.3
10
 Fig.3.3 Back Next

Figure 3.3

11
 3.4 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation
 We first consider the simple case of a single-tone modulation that produces a
narrow-band FM wave
 We next consider the more general case also involving a single-tone
modulation, but this time the FM wave is wide-band

 The two-stage spectral analysis described above provides us with enough

insight to propose a useful solution to the problem
 A FM signal is m(t )  A cos(2f t ) (3.9)
m m

f i (t )  f c  k f Am cos(2f mt )
 f c  f cos(2f mt ) (3.10)

f  k f A m (3.11) f
 i (t )  2f ct  sin( 2f mt ) (3.12)
fm
The frequency deviation
i (t )  2f ct   sin( 2f mt ) (3.14)
f
 (3.13) The phase deviation of the FM wave
fm
Modulation index of the FM wave 12
 Cont..
 The FM wave is
s(t )  Ac cos2f ct   sin( 2f mt ) (3.15)
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

s(t )  Ac cos(2f ct ) cos sin( 2f mt )  Ac sin( 2f ct ) sin sin( 2f mt ) (3.16)
 If the modulation index is small compared to one radian, the approximate form
of a narrow-band FM wave is
s(t )  Ac cos(2f ct )  Ac sin( 2f ct ) sin( 2f mt ) (3.17)
cos sin( 2f mt )  1
sin sin( 2f mt )   sin( 2f mt )
1. The envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation that varies with time
2. The angel θi(t) contains harmonic distortion in the form of third- and higher
order harmonics of the modulation frequency fm
Fig. 3.4
13
 Fig.3.4 Back Next

Figure 3.4

14
 Cont..
 We may expand the modulated wave further into three frequency
components
Ac cos2 ( f c  f m )t   cos2 ( f c  f m )t  (3.18)
1
s (t )  Ac cos(2f c t ) 
2

Ac cos2 ( f c  f m )t   cos2 ( f c  f m )t  (3.19)

1
s AM (t )  Ac cos(2f c t ) 
2
 The basic difference between AM wave and a narrow-band FM wave is
that the algebraic sign of the lower side-frequency in the narrow-band
FM is reversed
 A narrow-band FM wave requires essentially the same transmission
bandwidth as the AM wave.

15
 Cont..
 Phasor Interpretation
 A resultant phasor representing the narrow-band FM wave that is
approximately of the same amplitude as the carrier phasor, but out of
phase with respect to it.
 The resultant phasor representing the AM wave has a different
amplitude from that of the carrier phasor, but always in phase with it.

Fig. 3.5
16
Fig.3.5 Back Next

Figure 3.4

17
 3.5 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation
 Assume that the carrier frequency fc is large enough to justify rewriting Eq.
3.15) in the form
s(t )  ReAc exp( j 2f ct  j sin( 2f mt ))
~ 
 Re s(t ) exp( j 2f ct ) (3.20)
 

 The complex envelope is

~
s (t )  Ac exp[ j sin( 2f mt ) ] (3.21)
~
s (t )  Ac exp[ j sin( 2f m (t  k / f m )) ]
 Ac exp[ j sin( 2f m t  2k ) ]
 Ac exp[ j sin( 2f m t ) ]
~ 
s (t )  c
n  
n exp( j 2nf m t ) (3.22)

18
 Cont..
 The complex Fourier coefficient
1 /( 2 f m ) ~
cn  f m  s (t ) exp( j 2nf m t ) dt
1 /( 2 f m )
1 /( 2 f m )
 f m Ac  exp[ j sin( 2f m t )  j 2nf m t ]dt (3.23)
1 /( 2 f m )

x  2f mt (3.24)
Ac 
cn 
2   exp[ j (  sin x  nx)]dx

(3.25)

1 
J n ( ) 
2   exp[ j ( sin x  nx)]dx

(3.26)

cn  Ac J n (  ) (3.27)
~ 
s (t )  Ac J
n  
n (  ) exp( j 2nf mt ) (3.28)

 

s (t )  Re  Ac  J n (  ) exp[ j 2 ( f c  nf m )t ] (3.29)
 n   
19
 Cont..
 In the simplified form of Eq. (3.29)

s(t )  Ac J
n  
n (  ) cos[2 ( f c  nf m )t ] (3.30)


A
S( f )  c
2
J
n  
n (  )[ ( f  f c  nf m )   ( f  f c  nf m )] (3.31)
1 
Where J n ( ) 
2   exp[ j (  sin x  nx)]dx


is the Bessel function for varying order n.

The discrete spectrum of s(t) is obtained by taking the Fourier transforms of both
sides

20
 Cont..
 Properties of single-tone FM for arbitrary modulation index β

1. For different integer values of n,

J n ( )  J n ( ), for n even (3.32)

J n ( )   J n ( ), for n odd (3.33)
2. For small values of the modulation index β

J 0 (  )  1, 
 

J1 (  )  ,  (3.34)
2 
J n (  )  0, n  2


3. The equality holds exactly for arbitrary β



 n ( )  1 (3.35)
J 2

n   Fig. 3.6
21
Fig.3.6 Back Next

Figure 3.6
22
Cont..
1. The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier component and an infinite
set of side frequencies located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at
frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm….
2. For the special case of β small compared with unity, the FM wave is
effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair of side-frequencies at
fc±fm
3. The amplitude of the carrier component of an FM wave is dependent on the
modulation index β
The average power of such a signal developed across a 1-ohm resistor is
also constant. 1 2
Pav  Ac
2

 The average power of an FM wave may also be determined form

1 2  2
P  Ac  J n (  ) (3.36)
2 

23
 3.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM waves
 Carson’s Rule
 The FM wave is effectively limited to a finite number of significant side-
frequencies compatible with a specified amount of distortion
 Two limiting cases
1. For large values of the modulation index β, the bandwidth
approaches, and is only slightly greater than the total frequency
excursion 2∆f,
2. For small values of the modulation index β, the spectrum of the FM
wave is effectively limited to the carrier frequency fc and one pair of
side-frequencies at fc±fm, so that the bandwidth approaches 2fm

 An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM wave

 1
BT  2f  2 f m  2f 1   (3.37)
 

24
 Cont..
 Universal Curve for FM Transmission Bandwidth
 A definition based on retaining the maximum number of significant
side frequencies whose amplitudes are all greater than some selected
value.
 A convenient choice for this value is one percent of the unmodulated
carrier amplitude
Table. 3.2
 The transmission bandwidth of an FM waves
 The separation between the two frequencies beyond which none of the side
frequencies is greater than one percent of the carrier amplitude obtained
when the modulation is removed.

 As the modulation index β is increased, the bandwidth occupied by the

significant side-frequencies drops toward that value over which the carrier
frequency actually deviates.

Fig. 3.9
25
 Table.3.2 Back Next

Table 3.2

26
Fig.39 Back Next

Figure 3.9

27
 Cont..
 Arbitrary Modulating Wave
 The bandwidth required to transmit an FM wave generated by an
arbitrary modulating wave is based on a worst-case tone-modulation
analysis

 The deviation ratio D

f
D (3.38)
W
Where ‘W’ is the highest frequency of modulating wave.
 The generalized Carson rule is

BT  2(f  W) (3.39)

Fig. 3.9
28
 3.7 Generation of FM Waves

 According to Eq. (3.5), the instantaneous frequency of an FM wave va

ries linearly with the message signal For the design of a frequency mo
dulator, we therefore need a device that produces an output signal wh
ose instantaneous frequency is sensitive to variations in the amplitude
of an input signal in a linear manner.
 There are two basic methods of generating frequency-modulated wav
es,
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method

Fig. 3.10
29
 3.7 Generation of FM Waves
 Direct Method
 A sinusoidal oscillator, with one of the reactive elements in the
tank circuit of the oscillator being directly controllable by the
message signal
 The tendency for the carrier frequency to drift, which is usually
unacceptable for commercial radio applications.
 To overcome this limitation, frequency stabilization of the FM
generator is required, which is realized through the use of feed-
back around the oscillator
 Indirect Method : Armstrong Modulator
 The message signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM,
which is followed by frequency multiplication to increase the
frequency deviation to the desired level.
 Armstrong wide-band frequency modulator
 The carrier-frequency stability problem is alleviated by using a highly
stable oscillator
Fig. 3.10
30
 Fig.3.10 Back Next

Figure 3.10

31
 Cont..
 A Frequency multiplier
 A memory-less nonlinear device
 The input-output relation of such a device is
v(t )  a1s(t )  a1s 2 (t )  ...  an s n (t ) (3.40 )

s(t )  Ac cos2f c t  2k f  m( )d 

t
(3.41)
 0

f i (t )  f c  k f m(t ) (3.42 )
 A new FM wave is
s (t )  Ac cos2f c't  2k 'f  m( )d 
t
'
(3.43)
 0

f i ' (t )  nf c  nk f m(t ) (3.44 )

Fig. 3.11
32
 Fig.3.11 Back Next

Figure 3.11

33
 3.8 Demodulation of FM Signals
 1. Frequency Discriminator
 The FM signal is
s (t )  Ac cos 2f c t  2k f  m( )d (3.44)
t

 0

 We can motivate the formulation of a receiver for doing this recovery

by nothing that if we take the derivative of Eq. (3.44) with respect to
time

 2Ac [ f c  k f m(t )] sin  2f ct  2k f  m( )d  (3.45)

ds(t ) t

dt  0 
d
 j 2f (3.46)
dt

 A typical transfer characteristic that satisfies this requirement is

 j 2 [ f  ( f c  BT / 2)], f c  ( BT / 2)  f  f c  ( BT / 2)
H1 ( f )   (3.47)
0, otherwise

34
 Cont..
 The slope circuit
 The circuit is also not required to have zero response outside the
transmission bandwidth
 The complex envelope of the FM signal s(t) is

S (t )  Ac exp m( ) d 
~ t
 j 2k f
 0


(3.48)

~  j 2 [ f  ( BT / 2)],  BT / 2  f  BT / 2
H 1( f )   (3.49)
0 , otherwise
~ 1 ~ ~
S1 ( f )  H1 ( f ) S ( f )
2
  1 ~ 1 1
 
j f  B T  S ( f ),  B  f  BT
  2  2
T
2 (3.50)
0,
 elsewhere
Fig. 3.12
35
Fig.3.12 Back Next

Figure 3.12

36
 Cont..
1. Multiplication of the Fourier transform by j2πf is equivalent to differentiating
the inverse Fourier transform
d ~ ~
s(t )  j 2f S ( f )
dt
2. Application of the linearity property to the nonzero part of yields
~ 1 d ~ 1 ~
s1 (t )  s(t )  jBT s(t ) (3.51)
2 dt 2
the actual response of the slope circuit due to the FM wave s(t) is given by
  2k f  
m(t ) exp j 2k f  m( )d 
~ 1 t
s1 (t )  jAc BT 1   (3.52)
2   BT    0

~ 
s1 (t )  Re  s1 (t ) exp( j 2f c t )
 
1   2k f    t 
 Ac BT 1   m(t ) cos 2f c t  2k f

 m( )d   (3.53)
2
2   BT  
0

37
Cont..
 The envelope detector
 2k f 
  m(t ) max  1, for all t
 BT 
 Under ideal conditions, the output of the envelope detector is

1   2k f  
v1 (t )  Ac BT 1   m(t ) (3.54)
2   BT  
1   2k f  
v2 (t )  Ac BT 1   m(t ) (3.55)
2   BT  

 The overall output that is bias-free

v(t )  v1 (t )  v2 (t )
 cm(t ) (3.56)
Fig. 3.13
38
 Fig.3.13 Back Next

Figure 3.13

39
 Cont..
 2. Phase-Locked Loop
 A feedback system whose operation is closely linked to frequency
modulation
 Three major components
 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
 Multiplier
 Loop filter of a low-pass kind

 Fig. 3.14, a closed-loop feedback system Fig. 3.14

 VCO has bee adjusted so that when the control signal is zero, two
conditions are satisfied
1. The frequency of the VCO is set precisely at the unmodulated carrier
frequency fc of the incoming FM wave s(t)
2. The VCO output has a 90◦-degree phase-shift with respect to the
unmodulated carrier wave.

40
 Fig.3.14 Back Next

Figure 3.14

41
 Cont..
 Suppose the incoming FM wave is
s(t )  Ac sin[ 2f ct  1 (t )] (3.57)
t
1 (t )  2k f  m( )d
0
(3.58)

 The FM wave produced by the VCO as

r (t )  Av cos[2f ct  2 (t )] (3.59)
t
2 (t )  2kv  v( )d (3.60)
0

 The multiplication of the incoming FM wave by the locally generated

FM wave produces two components
 A high-frequency component
k m Ac Av sin[ 4f c t  1 (t )  2 (t )]
 A low-frequency component
k m Ac Av sin[1 (t )  2 (t )]

42
 Cont..
 Discard the double-frequency term, we may reduce the signal applied to the
loop filter to
e(t )  km Ac Av sin[e (t )] (3.61)
 The phase error is
e (t )  1 (t )  2 (t )
t
 1 (t )  2kv  v( )d (3.62)
0
sin[e (t )]  e (t )
e(t )  k m Ac Ave (t )
K0  km kv Ac Av (3.64)
K
 0 e (t ) (3.63)
kv Loop-gain parameter of the phase lock loop
 Eq. (3.62), (3.63), (3.65), and (3.60)constitute a linearized feedback model of
the phase-locked loop

v(t )   e( )h(t   )d (3.65)


43
 Cont..
When the open-loop transfer function of a linear feedback system
has a large magnitude compared with unity for all frequencies, the
closed-loop transfer function of the system is effectively determined
by the inverse of the transfer function of the feedback path.

1. The inverse of this feedback path is described in the time domain by the
scaled differentiator
1  d2 (t ) 
v(t )    (3.66)
2kv  dt 

2. The closed-loop time-domain behavior of the phase-locked loop is described

by the overall output v(t) produced in response to the angle Φ1(t) in the
incoming FM wave s(t)

3. The magnitude of the open-loop transfer function of the phase-locked loop is

controlled by the loop-gain parameter K0

44
 Cont..
 We may relate the overall output v(t) to the input
angle Φ1(t) by

1  d1 (t ) 
v(t )    (3.67)
2kv  dt 

d 
 m( )d 
1 t
v(t )    2k f
2kv dt  0

kf
 m(t ) (3.68)
kv

Fig. 3.15
45
 Fig.3.15 Back Next

Figure 3.15

46
 3.9 Theme Example : FM Stereo Multiplexing
 The specification of standards for FM stereo transmission is influenced
by two factors
1. The transmission has to operate within the allocated FM broadcast channels
2. It has to be compatible with monophonic radio receivers

m(t )  [ml (t )  mr (t )]  [ml (t )  mr (t )] cos(4f ct )  K cos(4f ct ) (3.69)

 The multiplied signal is recovered by frequency demodulating the

incoming FM wave

Fig. 3.16
47
Fig.3.16 Back Next

Figure 3.16
48
 3.10 Summary and Discussion
 Two kinds of angle modulation
 Phase modulation (PM), where the instantaneous phase of the sinusoidal
carrier wave is varied linearly with the message signal
 Frequency modulation (FM), where the instantaneous frequency of the
sinusoidal carrier wave is varied linearly with the message signal

 Frequency modulation is typified by the equation

s (t )  Ac cos 2f c t  2k f  m( )d 

t
(3.70)
 0

 FM is a nonlinear modulation process

 In FM, the carrier amplitude and therefore the transmitted average power
is constant
 Frequency modulation provides a practical method for the tradeoff of
channel bandwidth for improved noise performance.

49
 3.11 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING Back Next

Figure 3.17 Superheterodyne AM receiver.

Fig. 4.17
50
 3.12 FM Radio Broadcasting Back Next

Commercial FM radio broadcasting utilizes the frequenc

y band 88-108 MHz for transmission of voice and music
signals. The carrier frequencies are separated by 200 k
Hz and the peak-frequency deviation is fixed at 75 kHz.

51
3.13 FM Radio Receiver Back Next

Figure 3.18 Block diagram of a superheterodyne FM radio receiver

.
52
 Noise in Angle modulated Waves Back Next

We now turn to the detection of a frequency-modulated c

arrier in noise.
 Recall that the frequency-modulated signal is given by

53
Pre-detection SNR Back Next

Fig. 3.19: Model for an FM receiver

54
Post-Detection SNR Back Next

55
Post-Detection SNR Back Next

56
Figure of Merit Back Next

57
Exercise Back Next

58
 Assignment (30%) Back Next

1. A carrier is frequency modulated by a 4-kHz sine wave resulting in an F

M signal having a maximum frequency of 107.218 MHz and a minimum fre
quency of 107.196 MHz.
a. Find the carrier swing
b. Calculate the carrier frequency
c. What is the frequency deviation of the FM signal?
d. Determine the modulation index of the FM signal.
e. Use Carson’s approximation to determine the bandwidth required to tra
nsmit the resulting FM signal.

59
 Cont.. Back Next

a. Draw the frequency spectrum of the channel centered on 99.9 MHz, showi
ng all relevant frequencies.
b. Draw the frequency spectrum of the FM band, showing details of the three
lowest-frequency channels and the three highest-frequency channels.
c. Determine the bandwidth of the FM signal by using the deviation ratio and
the Bessel table.
d. Determine the bandwidth of the FM signal by using Carson’s rule.
e. Which of the above bandwidth calculations best it’s the available channel b
andwidth?

60
 Cont.. Bak

4. If an 18-MHz band were to be considered for use with the same standards tha
t apply to the 88-108 MHz FM broadcast band, how many FM stations could be
accommodated?
5. A frequency deviation of 4-kHz results from frequency modulating a 106.00 M
Hz carrier. The modulating signal is 3500 Hz sine wave. Determine the bandwidth
of the FM signal.

61