College of Engineering &Technology

University of Sargodha

Department of Electrical Engineering Technology

ET-314
Telecommunication Technology

Lecture 08

Angle Modulation

Instructor: Engr. Erum Rehman

Angle Modulation (Phase & Frequency
Modulation)

2
Amplitude, Frequency and Phase
Modulation

With few exceptions,

Phase Modulation
(PM) is used
primarily in digital
communication

3
 Why Use a Carrier
Signal?
Carrier signals are used for two reasons:

(1)Toreduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and

reception (the optimum antenna size is ¼of a wavelength). A typical
audio frequency of 3000 Hz has a wavelength of 100 km and would
need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By comparison, a
typical FM carrier is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 meters, and
would have an 80 cm long antenna (that is 31.5 incheslong).

(2)Toallow simultaneous use of the same channel, called

multiplexing. Each unique message signal has a different
assigned carrier frequency (e.g., radio stations) and share the
samechannel. The telephone company invented modulation to
allow phone conversations to be transmitted over common phone
lines. Mandated by the FCC.

4
 Illustrating AM, PM and FM
Signals
Carrier signal
Carrier Wave

m(t)
Modulating Signal m(t)

A [Chapter
M 4]

Lathi & AM Modulated

Ding; Signal
Page 252- P
292 M
PM Modulated [Chapter
Signal 5]
F
M
FM Modulated time
5
Signal
Phase-Frequency Relationship When Frequency is
Constant
(t)  Acos((t))
(t) is generalized angle

(t)  Acos(Ct 0 )

 (t)
Ct   0

d (t)
Slope: i (t)   C
dt tt
i
0
time t
6
 Concept of Instantaneous
(t)  Acos((t))
Frequency
Angl
Modulatio
e (t) is generalized angle
n
(t)  Acos(Ct 0 )

 (t)
Ct   0
 (t)

Figure 5.1
from Lathi &
Ding; Page
d(t)
Slope: i (t)  253
dt tt
0 i  C

ti
time t
7
 Angle Modulation Gives PM
and FM
d(t) t
i (t) 
dt tt
and  (t)    ( )d
i
i 

Angle
Modulation

Phase Frequency
Modulation Modulation

Frequency modulation and phase modulation are closely related!

8
 Comparing Frequency Modulation to Phase
Modulation
# Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)

1 Frequency deviation is proportional to Phase deviation is proportional

modulating signal m(t)
2 Noise immunity is superior to PM (and of
course AM)
3 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is better than
in PM
4 FM is widely used for commercial
broadcast radio (88 MHz to 108 MHz)
5 Modulation index is proportional to
modulating signal m(t) as well as
modulating frequency fm
to modulating signal m(t)
Noise immunity better than AM
but not FM
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is
not as good as in FM
PM is primarily for some
mobile radio services
Modulation index is
proportional to modulating
signal m(t)

9
 Phase Modulation
(PM)
 (t)  Ct   0  kpm(t) Generally we let 0  0.

Equation
Let 0  0 PM (t)  A cos(Ct  kpm(t)) (5.3b) Lathi
& Ding;
Page 254
The instantaneous angular frequency (in radians/second) is

i (t)  d(t)  C  kp  C  kp m.(t)

m(t)
dt dt
In phase modulation (PM) the instantaneous angular frequency
i varies linearly w.ith the derivative of the message signal m(t)
(denoted here by m(t)).

kp is phase-deviation (sensitivity) constant. Units: radians/volt

[Actually in radians/unit of the parameter m(t).]

10
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
But in frequency modulation the instantaneous angular frequency
i varies linearly with the modulating signal m(t),
i  C  k f m(t)
t t

 (t)   (C  k f m( )) d  Ct  k  m( ) d

 f 

kf is frequency-deviation (sensitivity) constant. Units: radians/volt-sec.

Then
 Equation
 t
FM (t)  A cosCt  k f  m( ) d 
 (5.5) Lathi
   & Ding;
Page 254
FM and PM are very much related to each other.
In PM the angle is directly proportional to m(t).
In FM the angle is directly proportional to the integral of m(t), i.e.,  m(t)dt

11
 Summa
ry d(t)
Definition: Instantaneous i (t) 
frequency is dt

Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation

t

Angle  (t)  Ct  kpm(t)  (t)  Ct  k f  m( ) d



Frequency i  C  kp dm(t) i  C  k f m(t)

dt

In phase modulation m(t) drives the variation of phase .

In frequency modulation m(t) drives the variation of frequency f.

12
A Pictorial Way to View the Generation of FM
and PM
t
H(j) = 1/j
 m( ) d FM (t)
m(t) 


Phase
Modulator

Frequency Modulator

H(j) = j .
.
PM (t)
m(t) d m(t) Frequen
dt cy
Modulato
r
Phase Modulator

We require that H(j) be a reversible (or invertible) operation

so that m(t) is recoverable.

13
Equations for FM Wave with Single Tone
Modulation
Carrier signal AC cos(Ct)
Carrier frequency C  2 fC
Modulating wave m(t) Am cos(mt) A single tone frequency
Modulating frequency m  2 fm (radians/sec)
Deviation sensitivity kf
 m  mmin 
Frequency deviation f  kf Am  k f  max 
 2  2 
Modulation Index   f
fm
Instantaneous frequency fi  fC  k f Am cos(mt)  fC  f cos(mt)
  t 
Remembe FM (t)  AC cosCt  k f   m( )d    , generally
r     
  k f Am 
Modulated wave FM (t)  AC cos  Ct  sin(mt) 
  f m 
or FM (t)  AC  cos C t   sin(mt) 

Handout 13
 Generalized Angle
Modulation
The first block can be any linear time-invariant (LTI) operator – it need only
be invertible so that we can recover m(t). In general, we have

Note: h(t) is the unit impulse response

 t

GAM (t)  A cos Ct   m( )h t   d 
  

Phase Modulation: h(t)  kp (t),

Frequency Modulation: h(t)  k f u(t)

We shall focus more on Frequency Modulation in this course

and less on Phase Modulation.

15
 Average Power of a FM or PM Wave
The amplitude A is constant in a phase modulated or a
frequency modulated signal. RF power does not depend
upon the frequency or the phase of the waveform.

FM or PM (t)  A cos C t  f (k, m(t))

A2
Average Power  (always)
2

This is a result of FM and PM signals being constant

amplitude.

16
 Comparison of FM (or PM) to
AM
# Frequency Modulation (FM)
1 FM receivers have better noise
immunity
2 Noise immunity can be improved
by increasing the frequency
deviation
3 Bandwidth requirement is greater
and depends upon modulation
index
4 FM (or PM) transmitters and
receivers are more complex than
for AM
5 All transmitted power is useful so
FM is very efficient
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
AM receivers are very susceptible to
noise
No such option exists in AM
Bandwidth is less than FM or PM and
doesn’t depend upon a modulation
index
AM transmitters and receivers are less
complex than for FM (or PM)
Power is wasted in transmitting the
carrier and double sidebands in DSB
(but DSB-SCaddresses this)
17
 Phasor Interpretation of AM DSB with
Carrier
 rotates faster than 
C m

cos( t)
u C

C s

cos(mt)
l
 =s|  | = |  |
m us ls

Spectrum: DSBAM


C-  m C C + m
lower upper
sideban sideban
d d 18
Phasor Interpretation of AM DSB with Carrier
(continued)

19
 Example 5.1 in Lathi and Ding (pp.
Sketch FM256-257)
and PM waveforms for the modulating signal m(t). The constants
kf and kp are 2  105 and 10, respectively. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.
.
m(t)

FM PM

 kf
m(t)  1 108  5  m.(t);
kp
fi  f m(t)  1 108  1 105  f i  f C
2 m(t);
.m 2
C
.
mmin  1 and mmax  1 min  20, 000 and mmax  20,

 f i min  108  105 (1)  99.9 MHz,  i min

f  108  5(20, 000) 000
 99.9 MHz,
 f i max  108  105 (1)  100.1  f i max  108  5(20, 000)  100.1
MHz MHz
20
 Example 5.2 in Lathi and Ding (pp.
Sketch FM257-259)
and PM waveforms for the modulating signal m(t). The constants
kf and kp are 2  105 and /2, respectively. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.

FM

 kf
fi  f m(t)  1 108  1 105
2 m(t)
C

Since m(t) switches from +1 to -1 and vice versa, the FM wave

Frequency switches between 99.9 MHz and 100.1 MHz. This is called
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and is a digital format.
21
Example 5.2 in Lathi and Ding (pp. 257-259) –
continued
Sketch FM and PM waveforms for the modulating signal m(t). The constants
kf and kp are 2  105 and /2, respectively. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.

 kp . 8 1.
fi  f C m(t)  1 10  m(t)
2 4
PM
This is carrier PM by a digital signal
– it is Phase Shift Keying
(PSK) because digital data is
represented by phase of the
carrier wave.

PM (t)  A cosC t  kp m(t)  AcosC t   m(t) Lathi & Ding;

 2 
Page 258
PM (t)  A sin(Ct) when m(t)  1
PM (t)  A sin(Ct) when m(t)  1
22
 Case I – Narrowband FM
There are two(NBFM)
approximations for FM:

◮ Narrowband approximation (NBFM) Lathi & Ding;

◮ Wideband approximation (WBFM) Page 260

 t

NBFM: FM (t)  A cosCt  k f  m( ) d    f  f
   fm B
t
If k f  m( ) d  1, we have NBFM.

t
1
Let k f  m( ) d  k f sin(mt),

 = 0.2
Then bandwidth BFM  2 fm

NBPM requires  << 1 radian (fC- f m) (fC+ f m) f

fC
(typically less than 0.2 radian)

23
 Narrowband FM (NBFM)
Equation
Start with design equation for tone frequency fm:   f  f
fm B
B (t)  A cos 
FM 2  fCt   sin(2 f mt) 
N

B (t)  AC cos 
CFM 2  f t cos 
 sin(2  fmt)  A sin 2  fCt sin  sin(2 f t)m 
N
C

Note: cos sin(2 fmt)  1, and sin sin(2 fmt)   sin(2 fmt)
C

FM
N
2  fCt    sin2 fCt  sin(2 fmt)
B (t)  A cos 

1
B (t)  AC cos 
CFM 2  f t    AC cos
 2 ( fC  f m)t   cos2 ( fC  f m)t 
N
NBFM
C 2
Result from AM modulation with tone frequency:

AM (t)  AC cos2 f t   1  AC cos2 ( fC  f m)t   cos2 ( fC  f m)t  AM

C 2 
The difference is the sign (i.e., phase) of the difference frequency term.
Conclusion: The NBFM bandwidth is comparable to that of AM.
 Bandwidth: BT  2 fm

24
 Case II – Wideband FM (WBFM)
WBPM requires  >> 1 radian
For wideband FM we have a nonlinear process, with single tone
modulation:
FM
WB
(t)  Re  AC exp  j2 f C t  j sin(2 f mt) 
We need to expand the exponential into a Fourier series so
that
we can analyze  WB (t).
FM

 (t)  A C  Jn ( )  cos2 ( fC  nf m )t 
WB
FM
  f  f
n fm B
where the coefficients J n (  ) are Bessel functions.

Spectral analysis from tone modulation of WBFM: Lathi & Ding; pp. 264-270
We will not cover this section in ES442 but rather focus upon a physical
Interpretation of the spectrum spread.

25
FM (or PM) Requires Much More bandwidth
Than
A AM A
t f

fC
A Carrier Signal (frequency fc ) A
t f

fm
A Message Signal (frequency fm) A
AM f
t

A WBFM
A Amplitude Modulated Signal
t f

Frequency Modulated (FM) Signal

26
FM Spectra as Function of Modulation
Index   Number Bandwidth
of
NBF Sideband
 = 0.2 s¶
M 0.1 2 2 fm
0.3 4 4 fm
0.5 4 4 fm
 = 1.0 1.0 6 6 fm
2.0 8 8 fm
5.0 16 16 fm
10.0 28 28 fm
=5
Single tone modulation

 = 10
  f
fm

BT or BW

27
 Spectra of an FM
Signal
Single-tone
A  = 0.2 A
modulation

  f  = 1.0
fm

f increasing, f is constant,
fm is constant  =5 fm is decreasing

 = 10

From A. Bruce Carlson, Communication Systems, An Introduction to Signals

and Noise in Electrical Communication, 2nd edition, 1975; Chapter 6, Figure
6.5, Page 229.
28
Measured Spectra of an FM Radio
Signal

Voice modulation
200 kHz

noise

29
 Selecting an FM
BroadcastStation
FM Radio covers from 88 MHz to
108 MHz 100 stations – 200 kHz spacing
between FM stations

30
 Specifications for Commercial FM
Transmissions
Service Type Frequen Channel Maximu Highe
cy Bandwidt m st
Band h Deviatio Audio
n
Commercial FM 88.0 to 108.0 200 kHz 75 kHz 15 kHz
Radio Broadcast MHz
Television 4.5 MHz 100 kHz 25 kHz 15 kHz
Sound above the monaural
(analog) picture &
carrier 50 kHz
frequency
stereo
Public safety – 50 MHz and 20 kHz 5 kHz 3 kHz
Police, Fire, 122 MHz to
Ambulance, Taxi, 174 MHz
Forestry, Utilities,
& Transportation
Question:
Amateur, CE class For FM
216 broadcast
MHz to what 3 kHz
15 kHzis the modulation 3 kHz
index ?
A & Business 470 MHz
band Radio
31
 FM Bandwidth and the Modulation
Index 
Lathi & Ding – Chapter 5 – see pages 261 to
263
Narrowband FM (NBFM) –  << 1 radian
BNB  2B where B is the bandwidth of m(t)
FM

Wideband FM (WBFM) –  >> 1 radian

WB
BFM  2(f  B)  2B(  Carson's Rule
1) or BT  2(f  f m )

Peak frequency deviation is  = kf Am

f f
Modulation index   
fm B

32
 Phasor Construction of an FM
Signal

We are constrained by
constant amplitude for
C
both FM and PM signals.

This is NBFM. The next

slide shows an animation
of this in operation.


C

33
 Sidebands Constructed From Phasors in FM
Modulation
Animation showing how phase modulation works in the phasor picture -- phase
modulation with a sinusoidal modulation waveform and a modulation depth of π/4
radians. The blue line segments represent the phasors at the carrier and the
harmonics of the modulation frequency.

34
 Direct Generation of FM Signal Using
a VCO

VDD

m(t)
LCTank Circuit

Voltage
FM
NB
(t)
Control
m(t)

Varactor
1
diodes os
c L1Ce
q

35
Indirect Generation of an FM Signal Using
Multiplication

In this method, a narrowband frequency-modulated

signal is first generated and then a frequency
multiplier is used to increase the modulation index.
The concept is shown below:
m(t)  (t)
NB
FM
FM
WB
(t)
Frequen
NBFM cy
Multiplie
r
A frequency multiplier is used to increase both the
carrier frequency and the modulation index by integer N.

36
 Armstrong Indirect FM Transmitter
Example
pp. 275- fC 2  12.8 MHz
 (t)
NB Lathi & Ding;
FM
277 fC f2  1.6 kHz
NBFM X64
fC 1  200 kHz generation Multiplier
f1  25 Hz FM
NB
(t)
fC 3  1.9 MHz
FM
WB
(t) f3 1.6kHz
X48
P Multiplier BPF
The
fC 4  91.2 MHzA
mixer
f4  76.8 kHz does
f LO  10.9 MHz not
change
Crystal f
Note: These numbers are
Oscillator
related to an FM broadcast
radio station.
37
Generation of Narrowband Frequency Modulation
(NBFM)
 t

FM (t)  A cosCt  k f  m( ) d 
  
NBFM requires  << 1 radian
DSB-SC
modulator
m(t) NBFM
 kf 

Asin(ct)
-/2 Carrier

Lathi & Acos(ct)

Ding;
Figure
5.10
Page 276
38
Generation of Narrowband Phase Modulation
(NBPM)
PM (t)  A cos(Ct  kpm(t))

m(t) NBPM
kp 

Asin(ct)
-/2
Acos(ct)

39
 Advantages of
FM
Advantages of frequency modulation
1.Resilient to noise: The main advantage of frequency modulation is a reduction
in noise. As most noise is amplitude based, this can be removed by running the
received signal through a limiter so that only frequency variations remain.

2.Resilient to signal strength variations: In the same way that amplitude

noise can be removed, so too can signal variations due to channel degradation
because it does not suffer from amplitude variations as the signal level varies. This
makes FM ideal for use in mobile applications where signal levels constantly vary.

3.Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter: As only frequency

changes contain the information carried, amplifiers in the transmitter need not be
linear.

4.Enables greater efficiency : The use of non-linear amplifiers (e.g., class Cand
class D/E amplifiers) means that transmitter efficiency levels can be higher. This
results from linear amplifiers being inherently inefficient.

40
 Disadvantages of
FM
Disadvantages of frequency modulation
1.Requires more complicated demodulator: One of the disadvantages is
that the demodulator is a more complicated, and hence more expensive than
the very simple diode detectors used in AM.

2.Sidebands extend to infinity either side: The sidebands for an FM

transmission theoretically extend out to infinity. Tolimit the bandwidth of the
transmission, filters are used, and these introduce some distortion of the signal.

41
 Practical Frequency Demodulators
Frequency discriminators can be built using various ways:
• FM slope detector
• Balanced discriminator
• Quadrature demodulators
• Phase locked loops (superior technique)
• Zero crossing detector

42
FM Slope Detector Performs FM to AM
Conversion
Envelope
Detector

FM (t)

Slope sets frequency to

voltage conversion factor

43
 Balanced Discriminator (Foster-Seeley
Discriminator)

Tuned Envelope
Circuit Detector Centered around
fc

• • f
FM (t)
•

Transfer Characteristics

44
 Quadrature Demodulator – Block
Diagram
FM signal is converted into PM signal

PM signal is used to recover the message signal m(t)

FM (t)

Phase m(t)
Low-Pass
Phase Comparat
Filter
Shifting or Circuit
Circuit
Signal delay t0 times
carrier frequency fC Phase Detector
= 90 degrees (or /2).

45
Using XOR Gate for Phase Frequency
Detector

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
XOR 1 1 0

46
 Quadrature Demodulator –
Implementation

FM (t) m(t)

FM (t)

Phase shifter
(or delay time)

47
 Phase-Locked
Loops
A PLLconsists of three basic components:
 Phase detector
 Loop filter
 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
PLL Diagram:
Output
AcosCt i (t)
signal is
H(s phase
)
Phase Low-Pass Bias
Detector Filter Generator

Oscillator
(VCO)
eo
2Bcos Ct  o (t)
(t)
48
Zero-Crossing
Detectors

49
Zero-Crossing Detector
Illustration

https://www.slideshare.net/avocado1111/angle-modulation-35636989

50
 Exampl
e

FM (t)  10 cos 2 (106 )t  8sin(2 (103 )t)

f
FM (t)

51
 Solution to Example
Start with the basic FM equation:
FM (t)  AC  cos 2 fC t   sin(2 f mt) 
Compare this to
 
FM (t)  10 cos 2 (106 )t  8sin(2 (103 )t) 

(a) We see by inspection that fc = 1,000,000 Hz and fm = 1000Hz.

(b) The modulation index is  = 8.
(c) The peak deviation frequency f is
f    f m  8 1000  8, 000 Hz
(d) The bandwidth is

BFM  2 f m (   1)  2, 000(8  1)  18, 000 Hz

52
 Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis
in FM
FM Channel noise acts as interference in
Interference

FM and is uniform over the entire BW.

Voice and music have more energy at
PM lower frequencies, so we need to
FM with Pre- and De-emphasis filters “emphasize “their upper frequencies
by filtering. However, the HFemphasis
Frequency f must be removed at the receiver using
a de-emphasis filter.

(Used commercially in recording

industry) Channel
m(t) Pre- FM FM De-
emphas Transmitter  Receiver emphas
is Filter is Filter
R1
AWG Noise R1
C
R2
C

Filtering improves SNRin FM transmission.

53
 Typical Pre-Emphasis and De-
Emphasis Filters
Transmitter Receiver
Pre-emphasis Filter De-emphasis
Filter R1 Lathi &
Ding;
Chapter 5,
R pp. 286-289
R2 C
C 1

Vout 1  jR1C Vout 1

H()   H()  
Vin 1  j R1 R2 C Vin 1  jR1C

H() (dB) H() (dB)

-6 dB/octave
+6 dB/octave

2.1 33 2.1
kHz kHz kHz
1 1 log() 1 log()
R1C R 1 R2 C R1C

54
 Analog and Digital FM Cellular
1G analogTelephones
cellular telephone (1983) – AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service)
First use of cellular concept
Used 30 kHz channel spacing (but voice BW was B= 3 KHz)
Peak frequency deviation f = 12 kHz, and
BT = 2(f + B) = 2(12 kHz + 3 kHz) = 30 kHz
Two channels (30 kHz each); one for uplink and one for downlink
Used FM for voice and FSKfor data communication
No protection from eavesdroppers

Successor to AMPS was GSM (Global System for Mobile) in early 1990s
GSM is 2G cellular telephone
Still used by nearly 50% of world’s population
GSM was a digital communication system
Modulating signal is a bit stream representing voice signal
Used Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) – later in EE 442
Channel bandwidth is 200 kHz (simultaneously shared by 32 users
This is 4.8 times improvement over AMPS

More to come on cellular . . .

55
 Digital Carrier Modulation – ASK, FSK
and PSK

Amplitud
e Shift
Keying

Frequenc
y Shift
Keying

Phase
Shift
Keying

Digital Signals

56
Questions?

57