Chapter 5

ANGLE MODULATION:
FREQUENCY and PHASE
MODULATIONS(FM,PM)
 Outlines

Introduction
Concepts of instantaneous frequency
Bandwidth of angle modulated signals
Narrow-band and wide-band frequency
modulations
Generation of FM signals
Demodulation of FM signals
superhetrodyne FM radio
 Introduction
Angle modulation: either frequency modulation
(FM) or phase modulation (PM).
Basic idea: vary the carrier frequency (FM) or
phase (PM) according to the message signal.
 While AM is linear process, FM and PM are
highly nonlinear.
FM/PM provide many advantages (main
noise immunity, interference, exchange of
power with bandwidth ) over AM, at a cost of
larger transmission bandwidth.
Demodulation may be complex, but modern
ICs allow cost-effective implementation.
Example: FM radio (high quality, not
expensive receivers).
 Concepts of Instantaneous
Frequency
A general form of an angle modulated signal is given
by
S EM (t ) A cos i (t ) A cos(2 f ct i (t ))

i (t ) is the instantaneous angle

i (t )is the instantaneous phase deviation.
The instantaneous angular frequency of S EM (t )

d i (t ) d i (t )
i (t ) c
dt dt
 The instantaneous frequency of S EM (t )

1 d i (t ) 1 d i (t )
f i (t ) fc
2 dt 2 dt

The instantaneous frequency deviation

1 d i (t )
f i (t )
2 dt
 Example

for the signal below find the instantaneous

frequency and maximum frequency
deviation.

x (t ) A cos(10 t t )
2
 Phase modulation (PM)

For phase modulation (PM), the instantaneous

phase deviation is i (t ) kp m (t )

S PM (t ) A cos [2 f c t k p m (t )]

kp is the phase sensitivity of the PM modulator

expressed in (rad/ V) if m(t) is in Volts
The instantaneous frequency of S PM (t )
dm (t )
f i (t ) f c k p
dt
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
For Frequency Modulation (FM), the
instantaneous phase deviation is
t
i (t ) k f m

( )d

t

S FM (t ) A cos 2 f c t k f m ( )d

kf is the frequency sensitivity of the FM
modulator expressed in rad/ V s if m(t) in Volts.
The instantaneous frequency of S FM (t )
kf
f i (t ) f c m (t )
2
Angle modulation viewed as FM or
PM
 m (t ) Phase S PM (t )
Modulator
Frequency S FM (t )
m (t ) Modulator

m (t )
Phase S FM (t )
Modulator

m (t ) d Frequency S PM (t )
dt Modulator
 A PM/FM modulator may be used to
generate an FM/PM waveform
FM is much more frequently used than PM
All the properties of a PM signal may be
deduced from that of an FM signal
In the remaining part of the chapter we
deal mainly with FM signals.
 Example 5.1
Sketch FM and PM waves for the modulating
signal m(t) shown in Fig. 5.4a. The constants kf
and kp are 2x105 and 10 r, espectively, and
the carrier frequency fc is 100 MHz..
Example
 Bandwidth of Angle Modulated
Signals
1) FM signals

S FM (t ) A cos(2 f c t ) k f a (t ) sin(2 f c t )
k f2 2 k f3 3
A a (t ) cos(2 f c t ) a (t ) sin(2 f c t ) ...
2! 3!
t
where a (t ) m ( )d

 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM):
|k f a (t ) | 1

SNBFM (t ) A cos(2f ct ) k f a(t )sin(2f ct )

BNBFM 2 B
Narrow-Band Phase Modulation (NBPM):
|k P m (t ) | 1

SNBPM (t ) A cos(2f ct ) k p m(t )sin(2f ct )

B N B PM 2 B
 Generation of NBFM

m(t)
 Generation of NBPM

m(t)
 If |k f a (t ) |1
BFM 2 (f B) 2 B ( 1)
k f mp f
f
2 B
f: maximum carrier frequency deviation
: deviation ratio or modulation index
m P max m (t )

Wide- Band Frequency Modulation (WBFM)

|kf a(t)|>>1 or >100
BWBFM 2 f
 For phase modulation: if |k m (t ) |1
P

B PM 2(f B ) 2B ( 1)
'
k pm
f m P' max m ' (t )
p

BW BPM 2 f
 Single tone modulation
Let m (t ) cos 2 f m t

xFM (t ) A cos2 fct sin(2 f mt )

x FM (t ) A J n ( ) cos 2 ( f c n f m )t
n
 B FM 2f m ( 1)
kf
f
2
f

fm
The results is valid only for sinusoidal signal
The single tone method can be used for
finding the spectrum of an FM wave when
m(t) is any periodic signal.
 Example 1
A single tone FM signal is
x FM (t)=10 cos[ 2 (10 )t+ 8 sin(2 (10 )t)]
6 3

Determine
a) the carrier frequency fc
b) the modulation index
c) the peak frequency deviation
d) the bandwidth of xFM(t)
 Example 2
A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by
a sinusoidal signal such that the peak
frequency deviation is f=50 KHz. Determine
the approximate bandwidth of the FM signal if
the frequency of the modulating sinusoid fm is
a) 500 kHz, b) 500 Hz, c) 10 kHz.
 Example 3
An angle modulated signal with carrier
frequency 100kHz is
xEM (t)=10 cos[ 2fct+ 5 sin(3000 t)+10 sin(2000 t) ]

Find
a) the power of xFM(t)
b) the frequency deviation f
c) The deviation ratio
d) the phase deviation
e) the bandwidth of xFM(t).
 Example 5.3 (Txt book)
a) Estimate BFM and BPM for m(t) when
kf= 2x105 rad/sV and kp= 5 rad/V

b) Repeat the problem if the amplitude of m(t)

is doubled.
 Features of Angle Modulation
Channel bandwidth may be exchanged for
improved noise performance. Such trade-off
is not possible with AM
Angle modulation is less vulnerable than AM
to small signal interference from adjacent
channels and more resistant to noise.
Immunity of angle modulation to
nonlinearities thus used for high power
systems as microwave radio.
 FM is used for: radio broadcasting, sound
signal in TV, two-way fixed and mobile
radio systems, cellular telephone systems,
and satellite communications.

PM is used extensively in data

communications and for indirect FM.

WBFM is used widely in space and

satellite communication systems.

WBFM is also used for high fidelity radio

transmission over rather limited areas.
 Generation of FM Signals

There are two ways of generating FM

waves:

Indirect generation

Direct generation
 Indirect Generation of NBFM

m(t)
 Indirect Generation of
Wideband FM
In this method, a narrowband frequency-
modulated signal is first generated and then a
frequency multiplier is used to increase the
modulation index.

m(t) xFM(t)
Frequency
NBFM
Multiplier
m(t) fc Frequency
NBFM Multiplier N fc
Frequency Converter

xFM(t) BPF

Local Oscillator
(fLo)
 Armstrong Indirect FM Transmitter
fc2=12.8MHz
m(t) Frequency
f2= 1.6 kHz
NBFM Multiplier
x64
fc1=200 kHz
f1= 25 Hz fc3=1.9 MHz
f3= 1.6 kHz
Frequency
Power BPF
Multiplier
Amplifier
x48
fc4= 91.2MHz Crystal
f4= 76.8 kHz Oscillator
10.9 MHz
 Direct Generation
The modulating signal m(t) directly controls
the carrier frequency. [ f (t ) f k m (t ) ]
i c f

A common method is to vary the inductance or

capacitance of a voltage controlled oscillator.
 In Hartley or Colpitt oscillator , the frequency is
given by
1

LC
We can show that for k m(t) << C0

k m(t ) c
1
c 1
2C0 LC 0
Varactor Modulator Circuit
 Advantage - Large frequency deviations are
possible and thus less frequency multiplication
is needed.

Disadvantage - The carrier frequency tends to

drift and additional circuitry is required for
frequency stabilization.

To stabilize the carrier frequency, a phase-

locked loop can be used.
 Example 5.6

Discuss the nature of distortion inherent in the

Armstrong FM generator

Amplitude distortion
Frequency distortion
 Example
A given angle modulated signal has a peak
frequency deviation of 20 Hz for an input
sinusoid of unit amplitude and a frequency of
50 Hz. Determine the required frequency
multiplication factor, N, to produce a peak
frequency deviation of 20 kHz when the input
sinusoid has unit amplitude and a frequency
of 100Hz, and the angle-modulation used is
(a) FM; (b) PM
 Demodulation of FM Signals
x(t ) A cos c t (t )
FM d (t )
y (t ) k
Demodulator dt
Demodulation of an FM signal requires a
system that produces an output proportional to
the instantaneous frequency deviation of the
input signal.
Such system is called a frequency
discriminator.
 A frequency-selective network with a transfer
function of the form |H()|= a +b over the
FM band would yield an output proportional
to the instantaneous frequency.

There are several possible examples for

frequency discriminator, the simplest is the
FM demodulator by direct differentiation
 FM demodulator by direct differentiation

t

s c (t ) A 2 f c k f m (t ) sin 2 f c t k f
'
m ( )d

The basic idea is to convert FM into AM
and then use AM demodulator.
 Bandpass Limiter
Hard BPF
Limiter

Input-output characteristic of a hard limiter

 Any signal which exceeds the preset limits are
simply chopped off
 Practical Frequency Demodulators
There are several possible networks for
frequency discriminator
FM slope detector
Balanced discriminator
Quadrature Demodulator

Another superior technique for the

demodulation of the FM signal is to use the
Phased locked loop (PLL)
FM Slope Detector
FM Slope Detector
FM Slope Detector
Balanced Discriminator
Balanced Discriminator (Cont.)
Balanced Discriminator (Cont.)
 Quadrature Demodulator
FM is converted into PM
PM detector is used to recover message
signal
Quadrature Demodulator
 Transfer function of
Quadrature demodulator
 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
d i (t )
e0 (t ) k
vin (t ) A sin( c t i ) dt
vin(t) x(t) Loop Filter e0(t)
H(s)

vout(t) Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)

vout (t ) B cos( c t o )
 Zero-Crossing Detectors
Zero-Crossing Detectors are also used because
of advances in digital integrated circuits.
These are the frequency counters designed to
measure the instantaneous frequency by the
number of zero crossings.
The rate of zero crossings is equal to the
instantaneous frequency of the input signal
 Summary
Concepts of instantaneous frequency
FM and PM signals
Bandwidth of angle modulated signals
NBFM and WBFM
Generation of FM signals
Direct and indirect generation
Demodulation of FM signals
frequency discriminator
PLL
 Suggested Problems
5.1-1 5.1-2 5.1-3 5.2-1 5.2-
2 5.2-3 5.2-4 , 5.2-5 5.2-6 .

5.2-7 5.3-1 5.3-2 5.4-1 5.4-2