Module–1: Introduction

1.1 Signals and systems: Review

Signal is a function of time (variables) that carry information. System is an assemblage of
entities/objects, real or abstract, comprising a whole with each every component/element
interacting or related to another one. Examples of signals are motion, sound, picture, video,
traffic light, etc. Similarly some more examples are:

 Electrical signals --- voltages and currents in a circuit

 Acoustic signals --- audio or speech signals (analog or digital)
 Video signals --- intensity variations in an image (e.g. a CAT scan)
 Biological signals --- sequence of bases in a gene
 Noise: unwanted signal

Systems process input signals to produce output signals. Examples of systems are natural
system (ecosystem), human-made system (machines, computer storage system), abstract
system (traffic, computer programs), descriptive system (plans).

1.1.1 Measuring Signals

Figure 1.1: Representation of a signal. A: Amplitude T: Time period and ɸ0: Angular frequency

1.1.2 Basic definitions of signal:

Voltage – the force which moves an electrical current against resistance.
Waveform – the shape of the signal (Figure 1.1 is a sine wave) derived from its amplitude and
frequency over a fixed time.
Amplitude – the maximum value of a signal, measured from its average state.
Frequency (pitch) – the number of cycles produced in a second – Hertz (Hz). Relate this to
the speed of a processor eg 1.4 Giga Hertz or 1.4 billion cycles per second.

1.1.3 Continuous time (CT) and discrete time (DT) signals:

CT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent variable that

ranges over the real numbers and are denoted as x(t). DT signals take on real or complex
values as a function of an independent variable that ranges over the integers and are denoted
as x[n]. Note the subtle use of parentheses and square brackets to distinguish between CT and
DT signals.
 Figure 1.2: Analog and discrete time signal

After quantization a DT signal can become a digital signal.

1.1.4 Periodic and aperiodic signals:

Periodic signals are those that are constructed from a specific shape that repeats regularly
after a specific amount of time T0, [i.e., a periodic signal f(t) with period T0 satisfies f(t) =
f(t+nT0) for all integer values of n], while aperiodic signals do not repeat regularly.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3: (a)Periodic Signal (b) aperiodic signal

1.2 Fourier analysis

Fourier analysis is frequently used operator to converter time domain signal into frequency
domain. Fourier series and Fourier transforms are used to determine frequency response of
periodic and aperiodic signals respectively.

1.2.1 Fourier Series:

A periodic function of time v(t) having a fundamental periodic T0 can be represented as an

infinite sum of sinusoidal waveforms. This summation is called a Fourier series, may be
written in several forms. One such form is the following:


 2 nt    2 nt 
v (t )  A0   An cos     Bn sin 
T0  n  T0 
 (1.1)
n 

 

n 0 n 0

The constant A0 is the average value of v(t) given by:

 T0 /2
1
A0 
T0 
 T0 /2
v (t )dt (1.2)

While the Fourier coefficients An and Bn are given as:

T0 /2
2  2 nt 
An 
T0 
 T0 /2
v (t ) cos 
 T0
 dt

T0 /2
2  2 nt 
Bn 
T0 
 T0 /2
v (t ) sin 
 T0 
 dt

An alternative form of the Fourier series is:


 2 nt 
v (t )  C0   Cn cos   n  (1.3)
n 

 T0 
n 0

where, C0, Cn and ϕn are related to A0, An, and Bn by the equations:

C0  A0

Cn  An2  Bn2

 Bn 
n  tan 1  
 An 

The Fourier series of a periodic function is thus seen to consist of a summation of harmonics
of a fundamental frequency f0 = 1/T0. The coefficients Cn are called spectral amplitudes; that
is Cn is the amplitude of the spectral component Cn cos (2πnf0t – ϕn) at frequency nf0.
Atypical amplitude spectrum of a periodic waveform is shown in below figure.

Figure 1.4: Spectral amplitude of periodic waveform

1.2.2 Fourier Transform:

A periodic waveform may be expressed as a sum of spectral components. These components

have finite amplitudes and are separated by finite frequency intervals f0 = 1/T0. The
normalized power of the waveform is finite, as is also the normalized energy of the signal in
an interval T0. Now suppose we increase without limit the period T0 of the waveform. Thus,
say in Figure 4 the pulse cantered around t = 0 remains in place, but all other pulses move out
word away from t = 0 as T0   , then eventually we would be left with a single pulse non-
periodic waveform.
As T0   , the spacing between spectral components becomes infinitesimal. The
frequency of the spectral component, which in the Fourier series was a discontinuous variable
with a one to one correspondence with the integers, becomes instead a continuous variable.
The normalized energy of the non-periodic waveform remains finite, but, since the waveform
is not repeated, its normalized power becomes infinitesimal. The spectral amplitudes
similarly become infinitesimal. The Fourier series for the periodic waveform


v (t )  V e
n 
n
j 2 nf 0t

become

 V ( f )e
j 2 ft
v (t )  df (1.4)


The finite spectral amplitudes Vn are analogous to the infinitesimal spectral amplitudes V(f)df.
The quantity V(f)is called the amplitude spectral density or more generally the Fourier
transform of v(t). The Fourier transform is given by:

 v(t )e
 j 2 ft
V( f )  dt (1.5)


In correspondence with Vn which is given by

T0 /2
1
Vn 
T0 
 T0 /2
v (t )e  j 2 nf0t dt

These Fourier analyses are essential for computing bandwidth (B) of a signal. Bandwidth is
defined as a band containing all frequencies between upper cut-off and lower cut-off
frequencies. Sometimes bandwidth is also defined as the difference between the positive
upper and lower frequencies in a continuous set of frequencies. It is typically measured in
hertz, and may sometimes refer to passband bandwidth, sometimes to baseband bandwidth,
depending on context.
Example: Sketch the spectrum of a rectangular function given in below figure.
m( t )
A

T T t

2 2

Figure 1.5: Rectangular function

 T /2

 m(t )e dt  
 j 2 ft
Sol: M ( f )  Ae  j 2 ft dt
  T /2

A t T /2 A  e j fT  e  j fT   sin( fT ) 
  e  j 2 ft      AT    AT sinc( fT )
 j 2 f t  T /2 f  2j    fT 

Thus, the spectrum is as given below

M( f )

AT

f
 
5
T

4
T

3
T

2
T

1
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T 

Figure 1.6: Spectrum of rectangular function (sinc function)

Ideal band width of this signal is infinite. But band width of a signal is as minimum as
possible. So, the practical B of this rectangular signal is 1/T.

Frequency shifting property:

If FT m(t )  M ( f ) then

FT m (t )e j 2 f ct   M ( f  f c ) ; FT m ( t )e  j 2 f ct   M ( f  f c )

M ( f  fc )  M ( f  fc )
FT m(t ) cos(2 f ct ) 
2 (1.6)

Duality property:

If FT m(t )  M ( f ) then FT M (t )  m( f )
Example: FT  (t )  1 then FT dc signal   ( f )

m( t )   ( t ) M( f )
FT
1  1

t f

m( t )  1 ( f )
FT
1
 1

t f
dc signal

Figure 1.7: Impulse and dc functions with their spectral components

Here the B of impulse signal is infinite.

Example: Determine FT of cos (2πfct).

Solution: FT 1   ( f ) then

FT 1.e j 2 f ct    ( f  f c )

FT 1.e  j 2 f ct    ( f  f c )

 ( f  fc )   ( f  fc )
FT cos(2 f ct )  (1.7)
2

FT cos(2 f c t )

1/ 2 1/ 2

f
 fc fc
Figure 1.8: Spectrum of cos (2πfct)

When signal contains only one frequency, then the B is not defined but not zero.

Example: If m(t) is a rectangular signal, then determine FT of m(t) cos (2πfct).

 Figure 1.9: Spectrum of m(t)cos (2πfct)

Here the B of m(t) cos (2πfct) is 2/T. If T is 1ms, then B is 2 KHz.

1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum (EM Spectrum):

The electromagnetic spectrum is a band of all electromagnetic waves arranged according to
frequency and wavelength. Light, X-rays, heat radiation, microwaves, radio waves, and
gamma radiations are some examples of EM waves. They all travel through space and have
similar electrical and magnetic effects on matter. This effect is called electromagnetic
radiation, because it travels (radiates) and has electrical and magnetic effects.
The sun, earth, and other bodies radiate electromagnetic energy of varying wavelengths.
Electromagnetic energy passes through space at the speed of light in the form of sinusoidal
waves. Among various EM waves, light allows us to see, radio waves give us TV and radio,
microwaves are used in radar communications, X-rays allow glimpses of our internal organs,
and gamma rays let us eavesdrop on exploding stars thousands of light-years away.
Electromagnetic radiation is the messenger, or the signal from sender to receiver. The
sender could be a TV station, a star, or the burner on a stove. The receiver could be a TV set,
an eye, or an X-ray film. In each case, the sender gives off or reflects some kind of
electromagnetic radiation. All these different kinds of electromagnetic radiation actually
differ only in a single property–their wavelength. The wavelength is the distance from
wavecrest to wavecrest as shown in Figure 1.12.
 Figure 1.10: EM wave

When electromagnetic radiation is spread out according to its wavelength, the result is
a spectrum, as seen in Figure 1.13. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into five major
types of radiation. As shown in this figure, these include radio waves (including
microwaves), light (including ultraviolet, visible, and infrared), heat radiation, X-rays,
gamma rays, and cosmic rays. Your eye can detect only part of the light spectrum. Humans
cannot sense any other part of the electromagnetic spectrum without the aid of special
equipment. Other animals (such as bees) can see the ultraviolet while some (snakes) can see
the infrared. In each case, the eye (or other sense organ) translates radiation (light) into
information that we (or the bee looking for pollen or the snake looking for prey) can use. The
visible spectrum, as seen in a rainbow, is only a small part of the whole electromagnetic
spectrum. Human eye response shown in this figure is a magnified portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum and represents the sensitivity of the average human eye to
electromagnetic radiation.

Figure 1.11: Electromagnetic spectrum

 Light is a particular type of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen and sensed by
the human eye, but this energy exists at a wide range of wavelengths. The micron is the basic
unit for measuring the wavelength of electromagnetic waves. The spectrum of waves is
divided into sections based on wavelength. The shortest waves are gamma rays, which have
wavelengths of 10e-6 microns or less. The longest waves are radio waves, which have
wavelengths of many kilo meters. The range of visible consists of the narrow portion of the
spectrum, from 0.4 microns (blue) to 0.7 microns (red).
The electromagnetic waves your eyes detect – visible light – oscillates between 400
and 790 terahertz (THz). That’s several hundred trillion times a second. The wavelengths are
roughly the size of a large virus: 390 – 750 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1 billionth of a
meter). Our brain interprets the various wavelengths of light as different colors. Red has the
longest wavelength, and violet the shortest. When we pass sunlight through a prism, we see
that it’s actually composed of many wavelengths of light. The prism creates a rainbow by
redirecting each wavelength out a slightly different angle. Radio waves have allowed people
to communicate over great distances through both voice and pictures. Radio wave used for
different applications are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. List of radio signals used for various applications

ITU Frequency and

Band name Example uses
BAND wavelength in air
Tremendously low < 3 Hz
0 Natural and artificial electromagnetic noise
frequency (TLF) > 100,000 km
Extremely low 3–30 Hz
1 Communication with submarines
frequency (ELF) 100,000 km – 10,000 km
Super low 30–300 Hz
2 Communication with submarines
frequency (SLF) 10,000 km – 1000 km
Ultra low 300–3000 Hz Submarine communication, communication within
3
frequency (ULF) 1000 km – 100 km mines
Very low frequency 3–30 kHz Navigation, time signals, submarine communica-
4
(VLF) 100 km – 10 km tion, wireless heart rate monitors, geophysics
Low frequency 30–300 kHz Navigation, time signals, AM long wave
5
(LF) 10 km – 1 km broadcasting (Europe and parts of Asia), RFID
Medium frequency 300–3000 kHz AM (medium-wave) broadcasts, amateur radio,
6
(MF) 1 km – 100 m avalanche beacons
Shortwave broadcasts, citizens' band radio, amateur
radio and over-the-horizon aviation
High frequency 3–30 MHz communications, RFID, over-the-horizon radar,
7
(HF) 100 m – 10 m automatic link establishment (ALE) / near-vertical
incidence sky wave (NVIS) radio comm-
unications, marine and mobile radio telephony
FM, television broadcasts and line-of-sight ground-
Very high 30–300 MHz to-aircraft and aircraft-to-aircraft comm-unications,
8
frequency (VHF) 10 m – 1 m land mobile and maritime mobile communications,
amateur radio, weather radio
TV broadcasts, microwave oven, micro-wave
devices/communications, radio astronomy, mobile
Ultra high 300–3000 MHz
9 phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, Zig-Bee, GPS
frequency (UHF) 1 m – 100 mm
and two-way radios such as land mobile, FRS and
GMRS radios, amateur radio
 Radio astronomy, microwave devices
Super high 3–30 GHz /communications, wireless LAN, most
10
frequency (SHF) 100 mm – 10 mm modern radars, communications satellites, satellite
television broadcasting, DBS, amateur radio

Radio astronomy, high-frequency microwave radio

Extremely high 30–300 GHz
11 relay, microwave remote sensing, amateur radio,
frequency (EHF) 10 mm – 1 mm
directed-energy weapon, milli-meter wave scanner

Terahertz imaging – a potential replacement for X-

Terahertz or rays in some medical applications, ultrafast
Tremendously high 300–3,000 GHz molecular dynamics, condensed-matter
12
frequency (THz or 1 mm – 100 μm physics, terahertz time-domain spectroscopy,
THF) terahertz computing/communications, sub-mm
remote sensing, amateur radio

In this table, we can see that, the lower frequency signals can travel long distance. This is
because of the path loss increases with frequency of the signals.

1.4 Free-space path loss

The free space path loss (FSPL) is used in many areas for predicting radio signal strengths
that may be expected in a radio system. Although the free space path loss does not hold for
most terrestrial situations because of other effects from the ground, objects in the path and the
like, there are still very many situations in which it can be used. It is also useful as the basis
for understanding many real life radio propagation situations. Accordingly, the FSPL is an
essential basic parameter for many RF calculations. It can often be used as a first
approximation for many short range calculations. Alternatively it can be used as a first
approximation for a number of areas where there are few obstructions. As such it is a
valuable tool for many people dealing with radio communications systems.

Figure 1.12: Free space path loss

The free space path loss formula or free space path loss equation is quite simple to use. Not
only is the path loss proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and
receiver, but the signal level is also proportional to the square of the frequency in use for
other reasons explained in a section below. The equation for FSPL is

2
 4 d  c
FSPL    , where   , (1.8)
   f
2
 4 df 
So, FSPL    (1.9)
 c 
where: λ is the signal wavelength (in metres),
f is the signal frequency (in hertz),
d is the distance from the transmitter (in metres),
c is the speed of light in a vacuum, 2.99792458 × 108 metres per second.
This equation is only accurate in the far field where spherical spreading can be assumed; it
does not hold close to the transmitter. The reason for the frequency dependence is that the
equation contains two effects:
1. The first results from the spreading out of the energy as the sphere over which the
energy is spread increases in area. This is described by the inverse square law.
2. The second effect results from the antenna aperture change. This affects the way in
which any antenna can pick up signals and this term is frequency dependent.
As one constituent of the path loss equation is frequency dependent, this means that there is a
frequency dependency within the complete equation.

1.5 Basic communications system

Communications systems are designed to transmit and receive information

Figure 1.13: Basic communication model

Analog and Digital communication: Analog communication processes analog signals which
are continuous in amplitude and over time. Examples of analog communication are:
• AM, FM for voice sound
• Traditional TV for analog video
• First generation cellular phone (analog mode)
• Record player
Digital communication processes digital signals which consist 0 or 1, or discrete value.
Examples of analog communication are:
• VCD, DVD
• 2G/3G cellular phone
• Data on your disk
• Your grade

Advantages of analog communications are:

• Best suited for audio and video

• Consume less bandwidth
• Available world wide
• Less susceptible to noise
Advantages of digital communications are:
• Best for computer data
• Can be easily compressed
• Can be encrypted
• Equipment is more common and less expensive and also provide better clarity. Source

Block Diagram of communication system:

Modulator
Information m( t ) s (t )
Transmitter RF amplifier
Source
Base Band
Band Pass
c(t )
Signal Signal Noise
Channel

Demodulator
Information mˆ (t ) RF r (t )
Receiver
User De - amplifier

c(t )

Figure 1.14: Communication system model

Information source: Examples of information sources are voice (300–3.5 KHz), audio (20–20
KHz), video (0–4.5 MHz) and data signals.

Modulation: Modulation is defined as the process in which some characteristic parameters of

a high frequency sinusoidal signal (RF signal) is varied linearly with the amplitude of the
message signal (modulating signal). The reasons of doing modulation are:
1. Ease of radiation
2. Frequency translation to different frequency band
3. To avoid bands with noise and interference

Modulation is basically used to reduce antenna size. For example, to transmit f = 30 KHz
c 3  108
signal, we need     10 KM length of transmitting antenna. So, after
f 30  103
modulating with a high frequency carrier (Let fc = 900 MHz), the resulting signal will have
c 3  108
the same frequency. Hence, the antenna size reduced to     0.33 mts .
f 900  106

Simply, modulation can be obtained by multiplying message signal m(t) with a high
frequency carrier cos (2πfct). So, the resultant modulated signal will be s(t) = m(t) cos (2πfct).
On the other hand, at the receiver end, demodulation can be done by multiplying modulated
signal s(t) with the same carrier and passing through Low Pass Filter and an amplifier. After
multiplying with carrier the resultant signal will be m2(t) = m(t) cos2 (2πfct). So,
  1  cos 4 f c t 
m2 (t )  m(t )  
 2 

Here, the high frequency component can be eliminated by LPF, and the resultant signal be
m(t)/2. Finally, the message signal can be restored by amplifying the LPF output.

Channel: Channel is a propagation medium that creates certain attenuation to allow a

transmitting signal. Channel can be either guided or unguided. Twisted pairs, co-axial cables
and fibre optic cables are some examples of guided medium. Free space is an example of un-
guided medium.
Communication channels may be classified as simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In
a simplex transmission, one device acts as the transmitter and a second device acts as the
receiver. Data flows in one direction only, whereas in a duplex channel, the communication is
bi-directional. Full-duplex transmission uses two separate communication channels so that
two communicating devices can transmit and receive data at the same time. Data can flow in
both directions simultaneously. Half-duplex transmission is a compromise between simplex
and full-duplex transmission. A single channel is shared between the devices wishing to
communicate, and the devices must take turns to transmit data. Data can flow in both
directions, but not simultaneously.

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is defined as the process of changing amplitude of a high
frequency sinusoidal carrier linearly with the amplitude of the message signal. A frequency-
translated signal from which the message signal is easily recoverable is generated by adding,
to the product of message and carrier, the carrier itself. Such signal is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1(a) shows the carrier signal with amplitude Ac, in Figure 2.1(b) we see message
signal. The translated signal (modulated signal) shown in Figure 2.1(c) is given by:

s(t )  Ac 1  ka m(t )  cos(2 f c t ) (2.1)

Where, m(t) is message or modulating signal, ka is amplitude sensitivity constant, s(t) is

modulated signal and c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) is the carrier signal. Typically the carrier amplitude
Ac and the message signal m(t) are measured in volts and ka is measured in volt–1. We
observe, from eq. (2.1) as well as from Figure 2.1(c), that the resultant waveform is one in
which the carrier is modulated in amplitude. The process of generating such a waveform is
called amplitude modulation, and a communication system which employs such a method of
frequency translation is called amplitude modulation system, or AM for short. The
designation “carrier” for the auxiliary signal Ac cos(2πfct) seems especially appropriate in the
present connection since this signal “carries” the message signal as its envelop. The term
“carrier” probably originated, however, in the early of radio when this relatively high
frequency signal was viewed as the messenger which actually carried the baseband signal
from on antenna to another.
 c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )

Ac
t
(a )

m( t )

( b)
s(t )  Ac 1  K a m(t ) cos(2 f ct )

Ac
t

(c)

Figure 2.1: (a) A sinusoidal carrier (b) A modulating waveform (c) A modulated signal

The envelope of s(t) has essentially the same shape as the baseband signal m(t) provided that
two requirements are satisfied:
1. The amplitude of kam(t) is always less than unity, that is, |kam(t)| < 1 for all t. It ensures
that the function 1 + kam(t) is always positive. Since an envelope is a positive function,
the envelope of the AM wave s(t) of eq. (2.1) is Ac[1+ kam(t)], and the carrier wave is
under-modulated as depicted in Figure 22.2 (b). When |kam(t)| > 1 for any t, the carrier
wave becomes over-modulated, resulting in carrier phase reversals whenever the factor
1+ kam(t) crosses zero (envelope distortion) as shown in Figure 2.2 (c). The absolute
maximum value of kam(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage modulation.

m( t )

(a )

s(t ) s(t )

t t

( b) (c)

Figure 2.2: (a) Message Signal (b) Under modulated signal (c) Over modulated signal
2. The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest frequency component W of the
message signal m(t), that is fc>>W, where W is the message bandwidth. If this condition is
not satisfied, an envelope cannot be visualized satisfactorily.
M( f ) S( f )
Vc 1 Vc
M (0)  ( f  fc ) ka Ac M (0)  ( f  fc )
2 2
2
Upper Lower Lower Upper
Sideband Sideband Sideband Sideband

f f
W 0 W  fc  W  fc  fc  W 0 fc  W fc fc  W
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3: (a) Spectrum of Message signal (b) Spectrum of modulated signal

AM for Sinusoidal Message signal:

If m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt) is a sinusoidal message signal with peak voltage, then the AM signal is
expressed as:

s(t )  Ac 1  ka Am cos(2 f mt )  cos(2 f c t ) (2.2)

s(t )  Ac 1  m cos(2 f mt ) cos(2 f ct ) (2.3)

Here, m = kaAm be the modulation index, or depth of modulation or percentage of modulation,

and it should be between 0 and 1. Based on this Modulation index, modulation can be
classified as under modulation (m < 1), critical modulation (m = 1) and over modulation (m >
1). The corresponding modulations are shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Three types of modulations: under, critical and over modulations
The amplitude or envelop of AM wave varies from Vmin to Vmax as shown in Figure 2.5. The
maximum envelop, is given by Vmax = Ac (1 + m) and the minimum envelop, is given by Vmin
= Ac (1 – m). The ratio of Vmax/ Vmin is given by:

Vmax 1  m V  Vmin
  m  max
Vmin 1  m Vmax  Vmin

Figure 2.5: Amplitude modulated wave

Representation of AM:

From AM equation (2.3):

s(t )  Ac 1  m cos(2 f mt )  cos(2 f ct )

 Ac cos(2 f ct )  mAc cos(2 f mt ) cos(2 f ct ) (2.4)

mAc mA
s(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )  cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   c cos  2 ( f c  f m )t  (2.5)
2 2

The frequency domain representation of AM signal is:

Ac mA
S( f )   ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )  c   f  ( f c  f m )     f  ( f c  f m )  
2 4 (2.6)
mAc
   f  ( f c  f m )     f  ( f c  f m )  
4 
S( f )
Ac Ac
2 2
mAc mAc mAc mAc
4 4 4 4

LSB Carrier USB

f
 fc  fm  fc  fc  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm

B  2 fm
Figure 2.6: Spectrum of a single tone AM signal
Power calculation of AM:

Power of any signal is defined as:

2
Vrms
P
R
VPeak
Vrms 
2

The peak carrier voltage of AM signal given in eq. (2.3) is Ac and peak voltage of both side
mAc
band is .
2

A 
2
c 2 Ac2
Power of carrier = P 
c  (2.7)
R 2R

 mA 
2
c 2 2 m 2 Ac2
Power of upper side band = PUSB   (2.8)
R 8R

 mA 
2
c 2 2 m 2 Ac2
Power of lower side band = PLSB   (2.9)
R 8R

Ac2 m 2 Ac2 m 2 Ac2 Ac2  m 2   m2 

Total Power of AM signal = Pt     1   Pc 1  (2.10)
2R 8R 8R 2 R  2   2 

Pc m 2
Pt  Pc   Pc  PSB
2

Modulation efficiency of AM signal is given by:

PSB m2
  (2.11)
Pt 2  m2

When m = 1, then η = 33.3 %

When m = 0.707, then η = 20 %

When m = 0.5, then η = 11 %

The power calculation in terms of current equations is:

Pt  m2  I t2 R  m2  It  m2 
 1      1     1   (2.12)
Pc  2  I c2 R  2  Ic  2 
AM generation (Square law Modulator):
m( t ) vi vo AM Signal s(t )
Non  linear
 Device
BPF

vo  avi  bvi2 H( f )

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )
f
fc  W fc fc  W

Figure 2.8: Square law modulator

vo vo

vo  kvi vo  avi  bvi2

vi vi
Figure 2.9: response of linear and nonlinear devises

Let m(t) is a message signal band limited from –W to +W and vi is the input to the non-linear
devise given as:

vi  m(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )

vo  a  m (t )  Ac cos(2 f c t )   b  m (t )  Ac cos(2 f c t ) 
2

 am(t )  aAc cos(2 f ct )  bm 2 (t )  bAc2 cos2 (2 f ct )  2bAc m(t ) cos(2 f ct )

bAc2 bAc2
 am(t )  aAc cos(2 f ct )  bm 2 (t )   cos2 (4 f ct )  2bAc m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
2 2

After passing through BPF, the Low and high frequency components can be eliminated. Thus
the resultant signal is:

bAc2 bAc2 cos(4 f ct )

s(t )  am(t )  aAc cos(2 f ct )  bm 2 (t )    2bAc m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
2 2

bAc2
s (t )   aAc cos(2 f ct )  2bAc m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
2

 2b 
s (t )  DC component  aAc 1  m (t )  cos(2 f c t )
 a 

Remove DC component and chose constants a = 1 and 2b = ka.

s (t )  Ac 1  ka m(t )  cos(2 f ct )
2.1 AM demodulation
The very great merit of the amplitude modulated carrier signal is the ease with which the
baseband signal can be recovered. The recovery of the baseband signal, a process which
referred to as demodulation or detection can be done by three methods, which are square law
demodulator, envelop detector and synchronous detector

2.1.1 Square Law Demodulator

vi Non  linear vo v
LPF
AM Signal Device
vo  avi  bvi2 H( f )

f
W

Figure 2.12: Square law demodulator

The input to nonlinear devise is:

vi  Ac 1  ka m(t )  cos(2 f ct )

The output of nonlinear devise is:

vo  a  Ac 1  ka m(t )  cos(2 f c t )   b  Ac 1  ka m(t )  cos(2 f ct ) 

2

vo  aAc cos(2 f ct )  aka Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  bAc2 cos2 (2 f c t )  bka2 Ac2 m 2 (t ) cos2 (2 f ct )
 2bka Ac2m(t ) cos2 (2 f c t )
bAc2 bAc2 cos(4 f ct )
vo  aAc cos(2 f ct )  aka Ac m(t ) cos  2 f ct   
2 2
bka2 Ac2m 2 (t ) bka2 Ac2 m 2 (t ) cos(4 f ct )
   bka Ac2m(t )  bka Ac2m(t ) cos(4 f ct )
2 2

After passing through LPF, all high frequency components can be eliminated. Thus the
resultant signal is:

bAc2 bAc2 cos(4 f ct )

v  aAc cos(2 f ct )  aka Ac m(t ) cos  2 f ct   
2 2
bka2 Ac2m 2 (t ) bka2 Ac2 m 2 (t ) cos(4 f ct )
   bka Ac2 m(t )  bka Ac2m(t ) cos(4 f ct )
2 2

bAc2
v  bka Ac2m(t )
2 Signal Component
DC Component

DC component can be eliminated by a DC blocker (Capacitor).

2.1.2 Envelop detector:
Envelop detection is accomplished with a simple circuit of Figure 2.13a, which consist of
diode D and resister capacitor RC combination. For simplicity, we assume that amplitude
modulated carrier which is applied at the input terminals is supplied by a voltage source of
zero internal impedance. We assume further that the diode is ideal, i.e., of zero or infinite.
resistance, depending on whether the diode current is positive or the diode voltage negative.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.13: (a) A demodulator for an AM (b) Input waveform and output voltage vc across capacitor

Let us initially assume that the input is of fixed amplitude and that the resistor R is not
present. In this case, the capacitor charges to the peak positive voltage of the carrier. The
capacitor holds this peak voltage, and the diode would not again conduct. Suppose now that
the input carrier amplitude is increased. The diode again conducts, and the capacitor charges
to the new higher carrier peak. In order to allow the capacitor voltage to follow the carrier
peaks when the carrier amplitude is decreasing, it is necessary to include the resistor R, so
that the capacitor may discharge. In this case the capacitor voltage vc has the form shown in
Figure 2.13(b). The capacitor charges to the peak of each carrier cycle and decays slightly
between cycles. The time constant RC is selected so that the change in vc between cycles is at
least equal to the decrease in carrier amplitude between cycles.
It is seen that the voltage vc follows the carrier envelop except that vc also has
superimposed on it a saw tooth waveform of the carrier frequency. In Figure 2.13(b) the
discrepancy between vc and envelop is greatly exaggerated. In practice, the normal situation
is one in which the time interval between carrier cycles is extremely small in comparison
with the time required for the envelop to make a sizeable change. Hence vc follows the
envelop much more closely than is suggested in the figure. Further, again because the carrier
frequency is ordinarily much higher than the highest frequency of the modulating signal, the
saw tooth distortion of the envelop waveform is very easily removed by a filter. However, the
envelop detector fail in over modulation due to carrier phase inversion and results distorted
recovered signal. So, in over modulation coherent detection is preferred over envelop
detector.
2.1.3 Synchronous/Coherent detector

AM Signal Product vo mˆ (t )
LPF
s(t ) Modulator
H( f )

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct ) f
fm

Figure 2.14: Synchronous Detector

The output of product modulator is:

vo   Ac cos(2 f c t )  ka Ac m(t ) cos(2 f c t ) Ac cos(2 f c t )

 Ac2 cos2 (2 f ct )  ka Ac2m(t ) cos2 (2 f ct )

Ac2 Ac2 k A2m(t ) ka Ac2m(t )

  cos(4 f ct )  a c  cos(4 f ct )
2 2 2 2

After applying LPF

Ac2 Ac2 k A2m(t ) ka Ac2m(t )

mˆ (t )   cos(4 f ct )  a c  cos(4 f c t )
2 2 2 2

Ac2 ka Ac2 m(t ) ka Ac2

   DC  m(t )
2 2 2

In general the amplitude modulation is used for point to multipoint communications.

2.2 Problems
1. A carrier c(t) = 5cos(2π106t) is modulated by a message signal m(t) = cos(8π103t) to
generate an AM signal with modulation index ½.
(a) Sketch the spectrum and calculate bandwidth (B), total power (Pt), and
modulation efficiency (η).
(b) Calculate the ratio (PSB/Pc).

Sol: (a)

Ac2  m 2   m2 
Total Power of AM signal Pt  1   Pc 1 
2  2   2 

25  1 
Pt   1    14.0625
2  8
Modulation efficiency of AM signal is given by:
 PSB m2 (1 / 4)2
    0.111
Pt 2  m 2 2  (1 / 4) 2
S( f )

2.5 2.5

0.625 0.625 0.625 0.625

LSB Carrier USB

f
1004 kHz 1000 kHz 996 kHz 0 996 kHz 1000kHz 1004 kHz
B  8 kHz

(b)

PSB Pc (m2 / 2) m2 1
    0.125
Pc Pc 2 8

2. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the carrier is sent, but it is
increased to 8.93 A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find
percentage of modulation. Determine the antenna current when the percentage of
modulation is changed to 0.8.
2
  2
Sol:  I t   1  m
I
 c  2

 I 2 
m  2  t   1
 I c  

Here

  8.93 2 
m  2    1  0.701
  8c  

For the second part we have

 m2   0.82 
It  Ic  1    8  1    9.19 A
 2   2 

3. An AM signal is represented in time domain as s(t) = 4cos(1800πt) + 10cos(2000πt) +

4cos(2200πt). Sketch the spectrum and determine bandwidth (B), total power (Pt), and
modulation efficiency (η).
Sol: Given that s(t) = 4cos(1800πt) + 10cos(2000πt) + 4cos(2200πt)

mAc mA
Comparing with s(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )  cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   c cos  2 ( f c  f m )t 
2 2

Ac = 10; fc = 1 kHz; fm = 100 Hz; m = 0.8;

Band width (B) = 2fm = 200 Hz;

Ac2  m 2   0.82 
Total power Pt  1   50  1  2   66 watts
2  2   

m2 0.82
Modulation efficiency     0.2424
2  m 2 2  0.82

4. An AM transmitter radiates 50 watts, when the carrier is modulated by a single

sinusoidal signal with m = 0.707.
(a) Calculate η, PSB and Pc.
(b) Calculate peak amplitude of carrier before and after modulation.

Sol: (a)

m2 0.707 2
Modulation efficiency     0.2
2  m 2 2  0.7072

Ac2  m 2 
Given total power Pt  1  50 watts
2  2 

 0.7072 
Pc  1   50  Pc  40 watts
 2 

Total sideband power PSB = Pt – Pc = 50 – 40 = 10 watts

(b)

Peak amplitude of carrier before modulation is Ac, So

Ac2
Pc   40  Ac  8.94 v
2

Peak amplitude of carrier before modulation is Ac[1 + m], So

Ac[1 + m] = 8.94[1 + 0.707] = 15.27 v.

5. The peak amplitude of an AM signal varies from 2 V to 10 V. Calculate m, η, PSB, Pc

and Pt.

Sol:
Vmax = 10 V, Vmin = 2V

6. A carrier signal c(t) = 10cos (2π106t) is modulated by a message signal having three
spectral components 5 KHz, 10 KHz and 20 KHz respectively. The corresponding
modulation indexes are 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 respectively. Sketch the spectrum and
calculate B, η, and Pt.
7. A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier un-modulated and 10.125 kW
when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index,
percentage of modulation. If another sine wave corresponding to 40 percentage
modulation is transmitted simultaneously, determine the total radiated power.
8. A non-linear device with a transfer characteristic given by i = (10+2vi+2vi2) mA, is
supplied with a carrier of 1 V amplitude and a modulating signal of 0.5 V amplitude
in series. If at the output the frequency component of AM signal is considered, find
the depth of modulation.
9. An AM modulator has output x(t) = A cos(400πt) + B cos(380πt) + B cos(420πt).The
carrier power is 100 w and the efficiency is 40%. The values of A and B are:
10. The signal v(t) = [1+0.2cos(ωm/3)t]cosωct is demodulated using a square law
demodulator having the characteristic vo = (v+2)2. The output vo(t) is filtered by an
ideal low pass filter having cut-off frequency at fM Hz. Sketch the amplitude
characteristics of the output waveform in the frequency range 0  f  f M .
11. Consider a system shown Figure 1. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote the Fourier transform of
x(t) and y(t) respectively. The ideal High Pass Filter has the cut-off frequency 10 kHz.
The what is the positive frequency where Y(f) has spectral peaks for the given
spectrum of x(t) shown in Figure 2.
x (t ) Balanced Balanced y (t ) X( f )
HPF
Modulator Modulator
10 kHz

3 1 0 1 3
10 kHz 13kHz f (kHz )

Figure 1 Figure 2

3.1 Double Side Band Supressed Carrier (DSB–SC)

m( t ) Product DSB  SC
Modulator

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct )

Figure 3.1: Product modulator

The DSB-SC is the simplest among all linear modulation schemes (simplest in terms of the
mathematical description of modulation and demodulation operations). Consider the scheme
shown in Figure 3.1.
 Let, m(t) is a baseband message signal with the spectral component M(f) = 0 for f > w,
and c(t) is a high frequency carrier, usually with fc >> w. The DSB-SC signal can be
represented as:

s(t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f c t ) (3.1)

Frequency domain representation is:

Ac
S( f )   M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) (3.2)
2

The corresponding spectrum is shown in Figure 3.2.

M( f )

f
w 0 w

S( f )
Ac Ac
2 2

LSB USB

USB LSB
f
 fc  w  fc  w 0 fc  w fc  w

B  2w

Figure 3.2: Spectrum of DSB- SC signal

DSB–SC for Sinusoidal Message Signal

If message signal is a single tone sinusoidal signal like m(t) = Amcos(2πfmt), then modulated
signal is:

s (t )  Am Ac cos(2 f m t ) cos(2 f c t ) (3.3)

Am Ac A A
s (t )  cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   m c cos  2 ( f c  f m )t  (3.4)
2
 2
  
USB LSB

2 2 2 2 2 2
Total Power: Pt  PUSB  PLSB  Am Ac  Am Ac  Am Ac (3.5)
8 8 4
Modulation efficiency:   PSB  100% (3.6)
Pt

S( f )

Am Ac Am Ac Am Ac Am Ac
4 4 4 4

LSB USB

f
 fc  fm  fc  fc  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm

B  2 fm

Figure 3.3: Spectrum of single tone DSB- SC signal

3.2 Generation of DSB-SC signals:

3.2.1 Balanced modulator:
m( t ) AM v1
Modulator

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f c t ) +
DSB  SC

180o
v1  v2
Local Oscillator 
AM
m(t ) Modulator v2
Figure 3.4: Balanced Modulator

Consider the scheme shown in Figure 3.4. This configuration is usually called a balanced
modulator. Show that the output s(t) is a DSB-SC signal, thereby establishing that BM is
essentially a multiplier.

v1  Ac 1  ka m(t ) cos(2 f c t )

v2  Ac 1  ka m(t ) cos(2 f c t )

v1  v2  2ka m(t )c(t )

Which is a DSB-SC signal

3.2.2 Ring Modulator:

 D1
a'

s(t )
m( t ) v (t ) BPF DSB  SC
D2 D3
b T1 T2

D4 b'

1 2
c( t )

Figure 3.5: Ring modulator

Consider the scheme shown in Figure 3.5. We assume that the carrier signal c(t) is much
larger than m(t). Thus c(t) controls the behaviour of diodes which would be acting as ON-
OFF devices. Consider the carrier cycle where the terminal 1 is positive and terminal 2 is
negative. T1 is an audio frequency transformer which is essentially an open circuit at the
frequencies near about the carrier. With the polarities assumed for c(t), D1, D4 are forward
biased, whereas D2, D3 are reverse biased. As a consequence, the voltage at point ‘a’ gets
switched to a' and voltage at point ‘b’ to b'. During the other half cycle of c (t), D2 and D3 are
forward biased where as D1 and D4 are reverse biased. As a result, the voltage at ‘a’ gets
transferred to b' and that at point ‘b’ to a'. This implies, during, say the positive half cycle of
c(t), m(t) is switched to the output whereas, during the negative half cycle, −m(t ) is switched.
In other words, v(t) can be taken as:

v (t )  m (t )c (t )

where c(t) is square wave as shown in Figure 3.6.

1
1 T0 
fc

 t


T0 T0 2T0

1

Figure 3.6: carrier c(t)

(a) (b)
Figure 3.7: (a) A message waveform m(t) (b) v(t ) of the ring modulator
Figure 3.7 (b) illustrates the product quantity m(t) c(t), for the m(t) shown in Figure 3.7 (a).
The Fourier series expansion of c(t) can be written as

n 1
4 ( 1) 2
c(t )  
 n 1,3,5,... n
cos(nct ) (3.7)

When v(t) is passed through a BPF tuned to fc, the output is the desired DSBSC signal,
namely,

4
s(t )  m(t ) cos(ct )


DSB Demodulation (Synchronous/Coherent detector):

DSB - SC Signal Product vo mˆ (t )

LPF
s (t ) Modulator
H( f )

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct ) f
fm

Figure 3.8: Synchronous Detector

The output of product modulator is:

vo   Ac m (t ) cos(2 f c t )  Ac cos(2 f c t )

 Ac2m(t ) cos2 (2 f ct )

Ac2 A2
 m(t )  c m(t ) cos(4 f ct )
2 2

After applying LPF

Ac2 A2 A2
mˆ ( t )  m ( t )  c m (t ) cos(4 f c t )  c m ( t )
2 2 2

Disadvantage of synchronous detector is that the carrier generated at the detector should be
synchronised with the carrier generated at the modulator. For example if the carrier generated
at the demodulator is:

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f c t   )

Then, the output of product modulator is:

Ac2 A2
vo   Ac m (t ) cos(2 f c t )  Ac cos(2 f c t   )  m(t ) cos(4 f ct   )  c m(t ) cos( )
2 2
If ϕ = 0o then the output of LFP will be:

Ac2
mˆ (t )  m(t )
2

But, if ϕ = 90o then the signal from LFP is totally attenuated. This effect is called as
Quadrature Null Effect.

mˆ ( t )  0

There is no application of DSB-SC in audio, video and voice communication. But it is used in
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation.

Single Side Band (SSB) Modulation

Single sideband (SSB) is a common analog modulation scheme for voice communications.
With SSB only one sideband, either the upper or the lower, is present in the modulated
carrier. That is acceptable because the two sidebands contain the same information, so the
elimination of one sideband does not cause a loss of information. SSB is used for amateur
(ham) radio, citizens’ band (CB) radio, and short-wave broadcasting. DSB make an
advantage over AM in terms of power conception, but the band width required is same as
AM, whereas SSB uses radio spectrum efficiently. For a given message signal, SSB require
only half of the bandwidth while with DSB or AM signals. We know the DSB signal as:

Am Ac A A
s(t )  cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   m c cos  2 ( f c  f m )t  (3.8)
2 2

In the above signal, supressing any one of the side band results SSB signal. So, the time
domain equation of single tone SSB signal is:

Am Ac
s (t )  cos  2 ( f c  f m )t  (3.9)
2
Am Ac A A
 cos(2 f ct ) cos(2 f mt )  m c sin(2 f c t )sin(2 f mt )
2 2
Ac A
s (t )  m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  c m (t )sin(2 f c t ) (3.10)
2 2

This equation is known as multi tone SSB signal. By using SSB, we can save much more
power than DSB. The percentage of power saving is defined as:

Power Saved
 100
Total Power

Pc 2
Power saving in DSB over AM =  100   100
Pc 1  m / 2 
2
2  m2
 Pc 1  m 2 / 4  4  m2
Power saving in SSB over AM =  100   100
Pc 1  m 2 / 2  2(2  m 2 )

Am2 Ac2 / 8
Power saving in SSB over DSB =  100  50%
Am2 Ac2 / 4

If m = 0.707 then

Power saving in DSB over AM = 80%

Power saving in SSB over AM = 90%
Power saving in SSB over DSB = 50%

3.3 Generation of SSB:

3.3.1 Frequency discrimination method:
There is more than one way to generate SSB carriers. One method is to use a DSB modulator
and then eliminate one sideband (either the lower or the upper) with a filter as shown in
Figure 3.9. That method is conceptually simple but has a significant drawback. The filter can
be challenging to design: it must have a quite sharp roll-off that will pass the one sideband
but reject the other sideband that is just the other side of the carrier frequency as illustrated in
Figure 3.10.

m( t ) Product SSB
BPF
Modulator
f c to f c  w
or
c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct ) f c  w to f c

Figure 3.9: Product modulator for SSB

 M( f )

f
w 0 w

H BPF ( f )

f
 fc 0 fc

S DSB ( f )

f
 fc  w  fc  fc  w 0 fc  w fc fc  w

S SSB ( f )

f
 fc  w  fc 0 fc fc  w

Figure 3.10: Spectrum of SSB

3.3.2 Phase discrimination method:

In this method, to generate the SSB signal, consider the scheme shown in Figure 3.11. This
scheme requires two product modulators, two π/2 phase shifters and an adder. One of the
phase shifter is actually a Hilbert transformer (HT); it should provide a π/2 phase shift for all
the components in M(f). This is not such an easy circuit to realize. Assuming it is possible to
build the HT, the SSB can be generated for any fc, provided the product modulators
(multipliers) can work at these frequencies.

m( t ) Product v1
Modulator
c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct ) +
SSB

HT  / 2 Local Oscillator v1  v2

Ac sin(2 f ct )
Product
mˆ (t ) Modulator v2
Figure 3.11: Generation of SSB

Major problem is design of wide band 90o phase shifter is very difficult.
Demodulation of SSB (Synchronous demodulator):
SSB Signal Product vo mˆ (t )
LPF
s(t ) Modulator
H( f )

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct ) f
fm

Figure 3.12: Synchronous detector of SSB

The output of product modulator is:

A A 
vo   c m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  c m (t )sin(2 f c t )  Ac cos(2 f c t )
 2 2 

Ac2 A2
 m(t ) cos2 (2 f ct )  c m (t )sin(2 f ct ) cos(2 f ct )
2 2

Ac2 A2 A2
 m(t )  c m(t ) cos(4 f ct )  c m (t )sin(4 f ct )
4 4 4

After applying LPF

Ac2 A2 A2 A2
mˆ ( t )  m ( t )  c m ( t ) cos(4 f c t )  c m (t ) sin(4 f c t )  c m (t )
4 4 4 4

Now let us consider some phase shift in the carrier generated at the demodulator,

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f c t   )

then, the output of product modulator is:

A A 
vo   c m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  c m (t )sin(2 f ct )  Ac cos(2 f c t   )
2 2 

 A2 A2   A2 A2 
  c m(t ) cos(4 f ct   )  c m(t ) cos( )    c m (t )sin(4 f c t   )  c m (t )sin( ) 
4 4  4 4 

After applying LPF

 A2 A2   A2 A2 
mˆ (t )   c m(t ) cos(4 f c t   )  c m(t ) cos( )    c m (t )sin(4 f c t   )  c m (t )sin( ) 
 4 4   4 4 

Ac2
  m(t ) cos( )  m (t ) sin( )
4

If ϕ = 0o then the output of LFP will be:

 Ac2
mˆ (t )  m(t )
4

If ϕ = 90o then the output of LFP will be:

Ac2
mˆ (t )  m (t )
4

So, there is no Quadrature Null Effect in SSB.

Voice

(a )

f
3.5kHz300 0 300 3.5kHz

Audio

(b)

f
20 kHz 20 0 20 20 kHz

Band  pass Voice Spectrum

(c) BPF

f
0 f c  300 f c  300
f c  3.5 kHz f c  3.5 kHz

Band  pass Audio Spectrum

BPF

(d )

f
0 f c  20 kHz f c  20 f c  20 f c  20 kHz

Figure 3.13: Recovery of SSB. (a) Baseband voice spectrum (b) Baseband audio spectrum (c) Band pass
voice spectrum d) Band pass audio spectrum

For voice signals, it is possible to design a filter with 600 Hz transition band without any
effect to another side band. But in audio signals, the transition band is just 40 Hz. So, it is not
possible to design with this frequency band as shown in Figure 3.13. So, the main
disadvantage of SSB is that, it is very difficult to generate SSB signal, because of not having
sharp cut-off filters. So, some bands of LSB are also present at output. SSB modulation is
extensively utilized for transmission of voice signal, example Telephoning.
3.4 Vestigial Side band (VSB) Modulation:
One of the widespread applications of VSB has been in the transmission of picture signals
(video signals) in TV broadcast. The video signal has the characteristic that it has a fairly
wide bandwidth (about 5 MHz) with almost no spectral hole around DC. DSB modulation,
though somewhat easy to generate, requires too much bandwidth (about 10 MHz) where
SSB, though bandwidth efficient, is extremely difficult to generate, as explained below.
With analog circuitry it is very difficult to build the π/2 phase shifter over a 5 MHz
bandwidth; as such phase shift discrimination method is not feasible. To make use of the
frequency discrimination method, we require very sharp cutoff filters. Such filters have a
highly non-linear phase characteristic at the band edges and spectral components around the
cut-off frequencies suffer from phase distortion (also called group delay distortion). The
human eye (unlike the ear) being fairly sensitive to phase distortion, the quality of the picture
would not be acceptable.
VSB refers to a modulation scheme where in the wanted sideband (either USB or
LSB) is retained almost completely; in addition, a vestige (or a trace) of the unwanted
sideband is added to the wanted sideband. This composite signal is used for transmitting the
information. This vestige of the wanted sideband makes it possible to come up with a
sideband filter that can be implemented in practice. On the other hand, the SSB has some
drawbacks like: 1. Generation of an SSB signal is difficult, 2. Selective filtering is to be done
to get the original signal back, 3. Phase shifter should be exactly tuned to 90o. To overcome
these drawbacks, VSB modulation is used. It can view as a compromise between SSB and
DSB-SC as shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14: Spectrum of VSB signal

In VSB
1. One sideband is not rejected fully.
2. One sideband is transmitted fully and a small part (vestige) of the other sideband is
transmitted.
3. The transmission BW of VSB is slightly more than SSB, but very low compared to
DSB. So, B = B(SSB) + fv, where fv is the vestigial frequency band.

3.5 Generation of VSB:

Figure 3.15 depicts the scheme of VSB generation. In this figure, v(t) is a DSC-SC signal,
which is applied as input to a Sideband Filter (SBF), Hv (f ), that shapes V (f ) so that s (t ) is a
VSB signal.
 m( t ) Product v (t ) SBF
s(t )
Modulator Hv ( f )
VSB Signal
Impulse response hv (t )

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f c t )

Figure 3.15: Product modulator for VSB

Let hv(t) denote the impulse response of the sideband filter, Hv (f ), then the VSB signal can
be:

s (t )  v (t )  hv (t ) (3.11)

In frequency domain:

S ( f )  V ( f )Hv ( f ) (3.12)

Where,

Ac
V( f )   M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) and
2
Ac
S( f )   M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) H v ( f ) (3.13)
2

3.6 Demodulation of VSB:

3.6.1 Synchronous or coherent demodulator:
VSB Signal Product vo mˆ (t )
LPF
s(t ) Modulator
H( f )

c(t )  Ac cos(2 f ct ) f
fm
Figure 3.16: Synchronous detector of SSB

In the process of demodulation, we shift the modulated carrier spectrum (bandpass spectrum)
up and down by fc and then extract the relevant baseband. Because of the vestige of the
unwanted sideband, we expect some overlap (in the baseband) of the shifted spectra. In such
a situation, overlap should be such that, M(f) is undistorted for f ≤ W . In other words, Hv (f −
fc) + Hv (f + fc) should result in a filter with a rectangular passband within the frequency range
(−W to W). With a little intuition, it is not too difficult to think of one such Hv(f ).

The output of product modulator is:

vo  s(t ) Ac cos(2 f c t )
 Ac A
Vo ( f )   S ( f  f c )  S ( f  f c ) and S ( f )  c  M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) H v ( f )
2 2

Ac2 Ac2
So, Vo ( f )   M ( f )  M ( f  2 f c 
) H v ( f  f c )   M ( f )  M ( f  2 f c ) H v ( f  f c )
4 4

After passing through a LPF:

A2 A2
Mˆ ( f )  c  M ( f )  M ( f  2 f c )  H v ( f  f c )  c  M ( f )  M ( f  2 f c )  H v ( f  f c )
4 4

A2 A2
Mˆ ( f )  c M ( f )  H v ( f  f c )  H v ( f  f c )  c M ( f )k
4 4

Where, k is the filter gain and condition for filter design is: [Hv(f – fc) + Hv(f + fc)] = k. Apply
IFT to the above equation to get the message signal. That is:

Ac2k
mˆ (t )  m(t ) (3.14)
4

In VSB demod, VSB filter design is very crucial and such a filter is shown in Figure 3.17.

Hv ( f )

f
 fc  w  fc  fv  fc  fv 0 fc  fv fc  fv fc  w

H v ( f  fc )

f
w  fv 0 fv

H v ( f  fc )
k

f
 fv 0 fv w

H v ( f  fc )  H v ( f  fc )
k

f
w  fv 0 fv w

Figure 3.17: Filter of VSB

The VSB signal generation (Figure 3.15) and detection (Figure 3.16) is illustrated in Figure
3.18.
M( f )

f
W W fc

V( f )

f
 fc fc

Hv ( f )

f
 fc fc

S( f )

f
 fc fc

Vo ( f )

f
2 f c  fc fc 2 fc

H LPF ( f )

f
 fc fc

Mˆ ( f )

f
 fc fc

Figure 3.18: Signal generation and recovery in VSB

Problems
12. A carrier signal c(t) = 20 cos(2π106t) is modulated by a message signal m(t) = 5
cos(8π103t) to generate a DSB signal. Sketch the spectrum and calculate B and Pt.
13. A carrier signal c(t) = 20 cos(2π106t) is modulated by a message signal m(t) = 5
cos(8π103t) + 2 cos(2π104t) to generate a DSB signal. Sketch the spectrum and
calculate B, η, and Pt.