Why Use a Carrier Signal?

Carrier signals are used for two reasons:

(1) To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and

reception (the optimum antenna size is ¼ of a wavelength). A
typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz has a wavelength of 100 km and
would need an effec ve antenna length of 25 km! By comparison, a
typical FM carrier is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 meters, and
would have an 80 cm long antenna (that is 31.5 inches long).

(2) To allow simultaneous use of the same channel, called

mul plexing. Each unique message signal has a different assigned
carrier frequency (e.g., radio sta ons) and share the same channel.
The telephone company invented modula on to allow phone
conversa ons to be transmi ed over common phone lines.
Mandated by the FCC.

3
 Illustra ng AM, PM and FM Signals

Carrier signal
Carrier Wave

m(t)

Modula ng Signal m(t)

AM [Chapter 4]

Lathi & Ding; AM Modulated Signal

Page 252-292
PM

PM Modulated Signal [Chapter 5]

FM

FM Modulated Signal me
4
Phase-Frequency Rela onship When Frequency is Constant

(t) is generalized angle

5
 Concept of Instantaneous Frequency

Angle
Modula on (t) is generalized angle

Figure 5.1 from

Lathi & Ding;
Page 253

ti

6
 Angle Modula on Gives PM and FM

Angle
Modula on

Phase Frequency
Modula on Modula on

Frequency modula on and phase modula on are closely related!

7
 Comparing Frequency Modula on to Phase Modula on

# Frequency Modula on (FM) Phase Modula on (PM)

1 Frequency devia on is propor onal to Phase devia on is propor onal

modula ng signal m(t)
2 Noise immunity is superior to PM (and of
course AM)
3 Signal-to-noise ra o (SNR) is be er than
in PM
4 FM is widely used for commercial
broadcast radio (88 MHz to 108 MHz)
5 Modula on index is propor onal to
modula ng signal m(t) as well as
modula ng frequency fm
to modula ng signal m(t)
Noise immunity be er than AM
but not FM
Signal-to-noise ra o (SNR) is
not as good as in FM
PM is primarily for some
mobile radio services
Modula on index is
propor onal to modula ng
signal m(t)

8
 Phase Modula on (PM)

Equa on (5.3b)
Lathi & Ding;
Page 254

The instantaneous angular frequency (in radians/second) is

.

In phase modula on (PM) the instantaneous angular frequency

i varies linearly with the deriva ve of the message signal m(t)
.
(denoted here by m(t)).

kp is phase-devia on (sensi vity) constant. Units: radians/volt

[Actually in radians/unit of the parameter m(t).]

9
 Frequency Modula on (FM)
But in frequency modula on the instantaneous angular frequency
i varies linearly with the modula ng signal m(t),

kf is frequency-devia on (sensi vity) constant. Units: radians/volt-sec.

Then
Equa on (5.5)
Lathi & Ding;
Page 254

FM and PM are very much related to each other.

In PM the angle is directly propor onal to m(t).
In FM the angle is directly propor onal to the integral of m(t), i.e.,

10
 Summary

Defini on: Instantaneous frequency is i

Phase Modula on Frequency Modula on

Angle

Frequency

In phase modula on m(t) drives the varia on of phase .

In frequency modula on m(t) drives the varia on of frequency f.

11
A Pictorial Way to View the Genera on of FM and PM

t
H(j ) = 1/j
Phase
Modulator

Frequency Modulator

H(j ) = j .m(t )
.

Frequency
Modulator

Phase Modulator

We require that H(j ) be a reversible (or inver ble) opera on

so that m(t) is recoverable.

12
Equa ons for FM Wave with Single Tone Modula on
Carrier signal AC cos( C t )
Carrier frequency C 2 fC
Modulating wave m(t ) Am cos( m t ) A single tone frequency
Modulating frequency m 2 f m (radians/sec)
Deviation sensitivity kf
mmax mmin
Frequency deviation f k f Am kf
2 2
f
Modulation Index
fm
Instantaneous frequency fi fC k f Am cos( m t) fC f cos( m t)
t
Remember FM (t ) AC cos C t kf m( )d , generally

k f Am
Modulated wave FM (t ) AC cos Ct sin( m t)
fm
or FM (t ) AC cos C t sin( m t)

Handout 13
 Generalized Angle Modula on
The first block can be any linear me-invariant (LTI) operator it need only
be inver ble so that we can recover m(t). In general, we have

Note: h(t) is the unit impulse response

GAM (t ) A cos C t m( )h t d

Phase Modulation: h(t ) k p (t ),

Frequency Modulation: h(t ) k f u(t )

We shall focus more on Frequency Modula on in this course

and less on Phase Modula on.

14
 Average Power of a FM or PM Wave
The amplitude A is constant in a phase modulated or a frequency
modulated signal. RF power does not depend upon the frequency
or the phase of the waveform.

This is a result of FM and PM signals being constant amplitude.

15
 Comparison of FM (or PM) to AM
# Frequency Modula on (FM)
1 FM receivers have be er noise
immunity
2 Noise immunity can be improved
by increasing the frequency
devia on
3 Bandwidth requirement is greater
and depends upon modula on
index
4 FM (or PM) transmi ers and
receivers are more complex than
for AM
5 All transmi ed power is useful so
FM is very efficient
Amplitude Modula on (AM)
AM receivers are very suscep ble to
noise
No such op on exists in AM
Bandwidth is less than FM or PM and
index
AM transmi ers and receivers are less
complex than for FM (or PM)
Power is wasted in transmi ng the
carrier and double sidebands in DSB
(but DSB-SC addresses this)
16
 Phasor Interpreta on of AM DSB with Carrier

C rotates faster than m

cos( Ct)
us

cos( mt)
ls

m= | us| =| ls|

Spectrum: DSB AM

C- m C C+ m
lower upper
sideband sideband
17
Phasor Interpreta on of AM DSB with Carrier (con nued)

18
 Example 5.1 in Lathi and Ding (pp. 256-257)
Sketch FM and PM waveforms for the modula ng signal m(t). The constants
kf and kp are 2 105 and 10 , respec vely. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.
.
m(t)

FM PM

kf kp .
fi fC m(t ) 1 10 8 1 10 5 m(t ); fi fC m(t ) 1 10 8 5 m(t );
2 2
. .
mmin 1 and mmax 1 m min 20, 000 and mmax 20, 000
fi min
108 10 5 ( 1) 99.9 MHz, fi min
108 5( 20, 000) 99.9 MHz,
fi max
108 10 5 ( 1) 100.1 MHz fi max
108 5( 20, 000) 100.1 MHz

19
 Example 5.2 in Lathi and Ding (pp. 257-259)
Sketch FM and PM waveforms for the modula ng signal m(t). The constants
kf and kp are 2 105 and /2, respec vely. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.

FM

Since m(t) switches from +1 to -1 and vice versa, the FM wave

Frequency switches between 99.9 MHz and 100.1 MHz. This is called
Frequency Shi Keying (FSK) and is a digital format.
20
Example 5.2 in Lathi and Ding (pp. 257-259) con nued
Sketch FM and PM waveforms for the modula ng signal m(t). The constants
kf and kp are 2 105 and /2, respec vely. Carrier frequency fc = 100 MHz.

. .

PM
This is carrier PM by a digital signal
it is Phase Shi Keying (PSK)
because digital data is represented
by phase of the carrier wave.

PM C p C Lathi & Ding;

Page 258
PM C

PM C

21
 Case I Narrowband FM (NBFM)
There are two approximations for FM:

Narrowband approximation (NBFM) Lathi & Ding;

Wideband approximation (WBFM) Page 260

NBFM: FM (t ) A cos C t kf m( ) d
m
t
If k f m( ) d 1, we have NBFM.

t 1
Let k f m( ) d k f sin( m t ),
= 0.2
Then bandwidth BFM 2 fm

NBPM requires << 1 radian (fC - fm) (fC + fm) f

fC
(typically less than 0.2 radian)

22
 Narrowband FM (NBFM) Equa on
Start with design equa on for tone frequency fm :
NB m
FM (t ) AC cos 2 C sin(2 m )
NB
FM (t ) AC cos 2 C cos sin(2 m ) AC sin 2 C sin sin(2 m )
Note: cos sin(2 m ) 1, and sin sin(2 m ) sin(2 m )
NB
FM (t ) AC cos 2 C sin 2 C sin(2 m )
NB 1
FM (t ) AC cos 2C AC cos 2 ( ffC m ) cos 2 ( C m ) NBFM
2
Result from AM modula on with tone frequency:
1
AM (t ) AC cos 2 fC t AC cos 2 ( fC fm ) cos 2 ( C m ) AM
2
The difference is the sign (i.e., phase) of the difference frequency term.
Conclusion: The NBFM bandwidth is comparable to that of AM.
Bandwidth: BT 2 fm

23
 Case II Wideband FM (WBFM)
WBPM requires >> 1 radian
For wideband FM we have a nonlinear process, with single tone
modulation:
WB
FM (t ) Re AC exp j 2 fC t j sin(2 f mt )
We need to expand the exponential into a Fourier series so that
WB
we can analyze FM (t ).
WB
FM (t ) AC J n ( ) cos 2 ( fC nf m )t
n m

where the coefficients J n ( ) are Bessel functions.

Spectral analysis from tone modula on of WBFM: Lathi & Ding; pp. 264-270
We will not cover this sec on in ES 442 but rather focus upon a physical
Interpreta on of the spectrum spread.

24
FM (or PM) Requires Much More bandwidth Than AM
A A
t f

fC
A Carrier Signal (frequency fc ) A
t f

fm
A Message Signal (frequency fm) A
AM f
t

A WBFM
A Amplitude Modulated Signal
t f

Frequency Modulated (FM) Signal

25
FM Spectra as Func on of Modula on Index
Number of Bandwidth
Sidebands¶
NBFM 0.1 2 2 fm
= 0.2
0.3 4 4 fm
0.5 4 4 fm
1.0 6 6 fm

= 1.0 2.0 8 8 fm
5.0 16 16 fm
10.0 28 28 fm

=5
Single tone modula on

= 10

26
 Spectra of an FM Signal

Single-tone
A = 0.2 A
modula on

= 1.0

=5

= 10

From A. Bruce Carlson, Communica on Systems, An Introduc on to Signals and Noise in

Electrical Communica on, 2nd edi on, 1975; Chapter 6, Figure 6.5, Page 229.

27
Measured Spectra of an FM Radio Signal

Voice modula on

200 kHz

noise

28
 Selec ng an FM Sta on
Broadcast FM Radio covers from 88 MHz to 108 MHz
100 sta ons 200 kHz spacing between FM sta ons

29
 Specifica ons for Commercial FM Transmissions

Service Type Frequency Channel Maximum Highest

Band Bandwidth Devia on Audio
Commercial FM Radio 88.0 to 108.0 200 kHz 75 kHz 15 kHz
Broadcast MHz
Television Sound 4.5 MHz 100 kHz 25 kHz 15 kHz
(analog) above the monaural &
picture carrier 50 kHz
frequency stereo
Public safety Police, 50 MHz and 20 kHz 5 kHz 3 kHz
Fire, Ambulance, Taxi, 122 MHz to
Forestry, U li es, & 174 MHz
Transporta on
Amateur, CE class A & 216 MHz to 15 kHz 3 kHz 3 kHz
Business band Radio 470 MHz

Ques on: For FM broadcast what is the modula on index ?

30
 FM Bandwidth and the Modula on Index
Lathi & Ding Chapter 5 see pages 261 to 263

Narrowband FM (NBFM) << 1 radian

Wideband FM (WBFM) >> 1 radian

Peak frequency devia on is = kf Am

31
 Phasor Construc on of an FM Signal

We are constrained by
constant amplitude for
C both FM and PM signals.

This is NBFM. The next

slide shows an anima on
of this in opera on.

32
 Sidebands Constructed From Phasors in FM Modula on
Anima on showing how phase modula on works in the phasor picture -- phase

radians. The blue line segments represent the phasors at the carrier and the
harmonics of the modula on frequency.

33
 Direct Genera on of FM Signal Using a VCO

VDD

m(t)
LC Tank Circuit

Voltage
Control
m(t)

Varactor
diodes

34
Indirect Genera on of an FM Signal Using Mul plica on

In this method, a narrowband frequency-modulated

signal is first generated and then a frequency
mul plier is used to increase the modula on index.
The concept is shown below:

Frequency
NBFM Mul plier

A frequency mul plier is used to increase both the

carrier frequency and the modula on index by integer N.

35
 Armstrong Indirect FM Transmi er Example
Lathi & Ding;
pp. 275-277
C2

2
NBFM X64
genera on Mul plier
C1

C3

X48
PA Mul plier BPF
The mixer
C4
does not
4 change f

Crystal Oscillator
Note: These numbers are related
to an FM broadcast radio sta on.

36
Genera on of Narrowband Frequency Modula on (NBFM)

NBFM requires << 1 radian

DSB-SC
modulator
m (t) NBFM
kf

A sin( ct)
- /2 Carrier

Lathi & Ding; A cos( ct)

Figure 5.10
Page 276

37
Genera on of Narrowband Phase Modula on (NBPM)

m (t) NBPM
kp

A sin( ct)
- /2
A cos( ct)

38
 Advantages of FM
Advantages of frequency modula on
1. Resilient to noise: The main advantage of frequency modula on is a reduc on in
noise. As most noise is amplitude based, this can be removed by running the
received signal through a limiter so that only frequency varia ons remain.

2. Resilient to signal strength varia ons: In the same way that amplitude noise can
be removed, so too can signal varia ons due to channel degrada on because it does
not suffer from amplitude varia ons as the signal level varies. This makes FM ideal
for use in mobile applica ons where signal levels constantly vary.

3. Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmi er: As only frequency changes
contain the informa on carried, amplifiers in the transmi er need not be linear.

4. Enables greater efficiency : The use of non-linear amplifiers (e.g., class C and class
D/E amplifiers) means that transmi er efficiency levels can be higher. This results
from linear amplifiers being inherently inefficient.

39
 Disadvantages of FM
Disadvantages of frequency modula on
1. Requires more complicated demodulator: One of the disadvantages is that
the demodulator is a more complicated, and hence more expensive than the very
simple diode detectors used in AM.

2. Sidebands extend to infinity either side: The sidebands for an FM

transmission theore cally extend out to infinity. To limit the bandwidth of the
transmission, filters are used, and these introduce some distor on of the signal.

40
 Prac cal Frequency Demodulators
Frequency discriminators can be built using various ways:

FM slope detector

Balanced discriminator

Quadrature demodulators

Phase locked loops (superior technique)

Zero crossing detector

41