UNIT-II ANGLE MODULATION

Syllabus: Angle Modulation: Basic concepts of Phase Modulation,

Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation, Spectrum
Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessel functions, Narrow band FM,
Wide band FM, Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM
Wave - Generation of FM Signal- Armstrong Method, Detection of FM Signal:
Balanced slope detector, Phase locked loop, Comparison of FM and AM.,
Concept of Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

Angle Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the
carrier signal varies according to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
Where,
𝑨𝒄 is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the
amplitude of the carrier signal
𝜽𝒊 (𝑡) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase
modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier
signal linearly with the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.
Phase Modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in
Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier
signal remains constant. This can be better understood by observing the
following figures.

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EX(2):

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 The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the
phase shift in a wave can take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier signal. When the
amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the
amplitude is negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.
Hence in PM the instantaneous angular frequency varies linearly with
the derivative of the modulating signal.
Mathematical Representation of PM
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕ𝑖 in phase modulation is
ϕ𝑖 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)
Where,
 𝑘𝑝 is the phase sensitivity
 m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ϕ𝑖 )
Substitute, ϕ𝑖 value in the above equation.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡))
This is the equation of PM wave.

If the modulating signal, (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) , then the equation of PM wave

will be
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))

Where,
 β = modulation index = ∆ϕ = 𝑘𝑝 𝐴𝑚
 Δϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while
frequency modulation is used mainly for FM broadcasting.

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Frequency Modulation:
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies.
Whereas, in Frequency Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal
varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
signal remains constant. This can be better understood by observing the
following figures.

The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude

of the modulating or message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of
the modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of the modulating signal
decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant
and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of
the modulating signal is zero.

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EX(2):

FM and PM signals: The carrier is drawn as a triangular wave for simplicity,

but in practice it is a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) FM
signal. (d) PM signal.
EX(3):

A frequency shift occurs in PM only when the modulating signal amplitude

varies. (a) Modulating signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM signal.

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 Mathematical Representation of FM
The equation for instantaneous frequency 𝑓𝑖 in FM modulation is
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
Where,
𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency
𝑘𝑓 is the frequency sensitivity
m(t) is the message signal
We know the relationship between angular frequency 𝜔𝑖 and angle 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)as
𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
𝜔𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
2𝜋𝑓𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋∫ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Substitute, 𝑓𝑖 value in the above equation.
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋∫ (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡))𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Substitute, 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡)
This is the equation of FM wave.
If the modulating signal is 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) , then the equation of FM
wave will be
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
Where,
∆𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚
β = modulation index = =
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚

The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency)

and normal carrier frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is
denoted by Δf , which is equal to the product of 𝑘𝑓 and 𝐴𝑚 .
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the
values of modulation index β.
Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.
 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to
wideband FM.

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 The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower
sideband.
 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless,
ambulances, taxicabs, etc.
Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.
 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
 The modulation index β is large, i.e., higher than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which
are located around it.
 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM
radio, TV, etc.
Relationship between PM and FM:
Equations SPM (t) and SFM (t) show that in both PM and FM, the angle of a
carrier is varied in proportion to some measure of m(t).
SPM (t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡))
𝑡
SFM (t) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝛼 )𝑑𝛼)
−∞

In PM : Directly proportional to m(t)

In FM : Directly proportional to integral of m(t)

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Single Tone Angle Modulation (PM):
Let a message signal m(t )  Am cos 2 f mt

Single Tone Angle Modulation (FM):

sFM (t )  Ac cos ct  2 k f  m( ) d 

t
  
For a single tone FM Modulation is given by

s FM (t )  Ac cos ct  2 k f dt 
t
   A cos 2 f mt
 m 
 2 k f Am 
 Ac cos ct  sin 2 f mt 
 2 f m 
 Ac cos ct   f sin 2 f mt 

OR

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Summary:

β is Modulation Index
 When it is Small or less than 1 Radian then it is called as Narrow
Band FM
 When it is Greater or More than 1 Radian then it is called as Wide
Band FM
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave using Bessal functions:

sPM (t )  Ac cos ct  k p m(t )

sFM (t )  Ac cos ct  2 k f  m( ) d 
 t
  

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Narrowband FM:  f   / 2 (  f  1)
Narrow-Band FM means that the FM modulated wave has narrow
bandwidth. Narrowband FM mainly used in two-way wireless
communications.
• Consider the single-tone wave as a message signal:

t t

t t

Compared to AM:  Ac A
s AM (t )  Ac cos ct  cos(c  m )t  c cos(c  m )t
2 2
Frequency spectrum of Narrow Band Frequency Modulation:
The time domain expression for NBFM is

t t

The frequency spectrum of Narrow Band Frequency Modulation is

represented by

A Ac  f
S FM ( f )  c  ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )   ( f  f c  f m )   ( f  f c  f m )
2 4
Ac  f
  ( f  fc  f m )   ( f  fc  f m )
4

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Spectrum of AM and NBFM:

Phasor Diagrams:

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Bandwidth of NBFM:
The time domain expression for NBFM is

t t

It resembles the AM signal and hence bandwidth is twice of the message

signal frequency.
BW= 2fm
Power of NBFM:
Consider the single-tone wave as a message signal:

t t

t t

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Comparison:
Similarities:
• Both have the same modulated bandwidth 2W, where W is the highest
modulating signal frequency.
• The sideband spectrum for FM has a phase shift of 900 with respect to
the carrier, whereas that of AM is in-phase with the carrier.
Differences:
• In an AM signal, the oscillation frequency is constant and the
amplitude varies with time, whereas in an FM signal, the amplitude
stays constant and frequency varies with time.
Wideband FM:  f 1
Single-tone Wideband FM:
Consider the single-tone wave as a message signal:

sFM (t )  Ac cos ct   f sin 2 f mt 

sFM (t )  Ac cos ct  cos(  f sin 2 f mt )  sin ct  sin(  f sin 2 f mt ) 

an even, periodic function an odd periodic function

cos(  f sin 2 f mt )  J 0 (  f )  2[ J 2 (  f ) cos 2mt

 J 4 (  f ) cos 4mt  ....  J 2n (  f ) cos 2nmt  ....]
sin(  f sin 2 f mt )  2[ J1 (  f ) sin 2mt  J 3 (  f ) sin 4mt  ....
 2 J 2n1 (  f ) sin(2n  1)mt  ....]
Where
Jn(βf) is a Bessel function of the first kind of n th order with argument βf.

s FM (t )  Ac [ J 0 (  f ) cos ct
 J1 (  f ) cos(c  m )  cos(c  m )
 J 2 (  f ) cos(c  2m )  cos(c  2m )
 J 3 (  f ) cos(c  3m )  cos(c  3m )
 . . . . . . . .]

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Properties of Bessel Functions:

1)

2)

3)
As per property 1

 J  n (  f ) for n  even

J n ( f )  
  J  n (  f ), for n  odd


s FM (t )  Ac 
n
J n (  f ) cos(c  nf m )t

Spectrum of WBFM :

A 
S FM ( f )  c  J n (  f )  ( f  f ct  nf m )   ( f  f ct  nf m ) 
2 n

The carrier with amplitude Ac

J ( )
2 0 f
A set of side frequencies specified simultaneously on the either side of the
carrier at a frequency separation of
f m , 2 f m ,... , nf m

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Spectrum of FM:

General characteristics as shown below.

15
Table of Bessel functions of the first kind:

Bessel functions:

16
Spectrum Analysis:
1) Spectrum consists of Carrier and Infinite No. of Side bands.
2) Theoretical BW of FM is Infinite.
3) The Spacing between the spectral components is equal to ‘fm’ message
frequency.
4) In the Spectrum (fc+fm) and (fc-fm) are called as 1st order side bands
(fc+2fm) and (fc-2fm) are called as 2nd order side bands and so on….
Hence Spectrum contains infinite order of side bands.
5) The Magnitude of spectrum components depends on the Bessel
function values. But these values gradually decreases as ‘n’ increases.
So, the magnitude of higher order frequencies are negligible.

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Band Width:
The actual bandwidth required to pass all the significant sidebands

B.W  2(nf m )

Carson’s Rule:
The Carson rule state that the approximate bandwidth necessary to
transmit an angle modulated wave as twice the sum of the frequency
deviation and the highest modulating signal frequency.

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Approximates the 98% of total power. Carson’s BW is less than actual Tx
BW.

Example:
For an FM modulator with peak frequency deviation 10 KHz, a modulating
signal frequency 10 KHz, peak modulating signal amplitude 10 V, and a 500
KHz carrier, determine
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel table.
b) Plot the output frequency spectrum for the Bessel approximation.
c) Approximation minimum bandwidth using Carson’s rule.
d) Comment the results.
Sol: From the Bessel table for

 f  1, J 0  0.77, J1  0.44, J 2  0.11, and J3  0.02

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(d) Comments:
The bandwidth from Carson’s rule is less than the actual minimum
bandwidth required to pass all the significant sideband sets as defined by
the Bessel table.
Therefore a system that was design using Carson’s rule would have a
narrower bandwidth and their poor performance than a system designed
using the Bessel table.
For modulation indices above 5, Carson’s rule is a close approximation to
the actual bandwidth required.
Average Power of an Angle Modulated Wave:

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Explanation:

21
FM Generation:

Generation of NBFM:

The block diagram of NBFM modulator is shown in the following figure.

Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m(t).

The carrier signal Accos(2πfct) is the phase shifted by −90 0 to get
Acsin(2πfct) with the help of −90 0 phase shifter. The product modulator has
two inputs ∫m(t)dt and Acsin(2πfct). It produces an output, which is the
product of these two inputs.
This is further multiplied with 2πkf by placing a block 2πkf in the forward
path. The summer block has two inputs, which are nothing but the two
terms of NBFM equation. Positive and negative signs are assigned for the
carrier signal and the other term at the input of the summer block. Finally,
the summer block produces NBFM wave.

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Generation of Wide Band FM:
• Direct Method {Not there in Syllabus}
• Indirect Method (or) Armstrong Method
Indirect Method or Armstrong Method :

This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a

wide band FM wave indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM
wave and then with the help of frequency multipliers we will get WBFM
wave. The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown in the
following figure.

OR

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 This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first stage, the
NBFM wave will be generated using NBFM modulator. We know that the
modulation index of NBFM wave is less than one. Hence, in order to get the
required modulation index (greater than one) of FM wave, choose the
frequency multiplier value properly.

Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an output

signal whose frequency is ‘n’ times the input signal frequency. Where, ‘n’ is
the multiplication factor.

If NBFM wave whose modulation index β is less than 1 is applied as the

input of frequency multiplier, then the frequency multiplier produces an
output signal, whose modulation index is ‘n’ times β and the frequency also
‘n’ times the frequency of WBFM wave.

Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency multiplier and

mixers in order to increase the frequency deviation and modulation index of
FM wave.

FM Demodulators:

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Slope Detector FM Demodulation:
Consider a frequency-modulated signal fed to a tuned circuit whose
resonant frequency is to one side of the center frequency of the FM signal.
The output of this tuned circuit will have an amplitude that depends on the
frequency deviation of the input signal; Slope Detector FM Demodulation
that is illustrated in below Figure. As shown, the circuit is detuned by an
amount δf, to bring the carrier center frequency to point A on the selectivity
curve (note that A’ would have done just as well). Frequency variation
produces an output voltage proportional to the frequency deviation of the
carrier.

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 This output voltage is applied to a diode detector with an RC load of
suitable time constant. The circuit is, in fact, identical to that of an AM
detector, except that the secondary winding of the IF transformer is off-
tuned. (In a desperate emergency, possible, after a fashion, to receive FM
with an AM receiver, with the simple expedient of giving the slug of the coil
to which the detector is connected two turns clockwise. Remember to
reverse the procedure after the emergency is over!)

The Slope Detector FM Demodulation does not really satisfy any of the
conditions laid down in the introduction. It is inefficient, and it is linear only
along a very limited frequency range. It quite obviously reacts to all
amplitude changes. Moreover, it is relatively difficult to adjust, since the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer must be tuned to
slightly differing frequencies. Its only virtue is that it simplifies the
explanation of the operation of the balanced Slope Detector FM
Demodulation.

Advantages: The only advantage of the basic slope detector circuit is its
simplicity.
Limitations:
(i) The range of linear slope of tuned circuit is quite small.
(ii) The detector also responds to spurious amplitude variations of the input
FM.
These drawbacks are overcome by using balanced slope detector.

Balanced slope detector:

The balanced slope detector is also known as the amplitude
discriminator as shown in below Figure, the circuit uses two slope
detectors. They are connected back to back, to the opposite ends of a center-
tapped transformer, and hence fed 180° out of phase. The top secondary
circuit is tuned above the IF by an amount which, in FM receivers with a
deviation of 75 kHz, is 100 kHz. The bottom circuit is similarly tuned below
the IF by the same amount. Each tuned circuit is connected to a diode

26
detector with an RC load. The output is taken from across the series
combination of the two loads, so that it is the sum of the individual outputs.

Let fc be the IF to which the primary circuit is tuned, and let f c + δf

and fc – δf be the resonant frequencies of the upper secondary and lower
secondary circuits T’ and T”, respectively. When the input frequency is
instantaneously equal to fc, the voltage across T’, that is, the input to diode
D1, will have a value somewhat less than the maximum available, since fc is
somewhat below the resonant frequency of T’. A similar condition exists
across T”. In fact, since fc is just as far from fc + δf as it is from fc – δf, the
voltages applied to the two diodes will be identical. The dc output voltages
will also be identical, and thus the detector output will be zero, since the
output of D1 is positive and that of D2 is negative.

Now consider the instantaneous frequency to be equal to fc + δf. Since

T’ is tuned to this frequency, the output of D1 will be quite large. On the
other hand, the output of D2 will be very small, since the frequency fc + δf is
quite a long way from fc – δf. Similarly, when the input frequency is
instantaneously equal to fc – δf, the output of D2 will be a large negative
voltage, and that of D1 a small positive voltage. Thus in the first case the
overall output will be positive and maximum, and in the second it will be

27
negative and maximum. When the instantaneous frequency is between these
two extremes, the output will have some intermediate value. It will then be
positive or negative, depending on which side of fc the input frequency
happens to lie. Finally, if the input frequency goes outside the range
described, the output will fall because of the behaviour of the tuned circuit
response. The required S-shaped frequency-modulation characteristic (as
shown in below Figure is obtained.

Although this detector is considerably more efficient than the previous

one, it is even trickier to align, because there are now three different
frequencies to which the various tuned circuits of the transformer must be
adjusted. Amplitude limiting is still not provided, and the linearity, although
better than that of the single Slope Detector FM Demodulation, is still not
good enough.

Advantages:
(i) This circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.

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(ii) It has better linearity than the simple slope detector.
Limitations:
(i) Even though linearity is good, it is not good enough.
(ii) This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned circuits are to be
tuned at different frequencies, and
(iii) Amplitude limiting is not provided
Limitations of direct methods of FM generation:
 Difficult to obtain a high order of stability in carrier frequency because
tank circuit consists of L and C.
 The crystal oscillator can be used for carrier frequency stability, but
frequency deviation is limited.
 The non linearity produces a frequency variation due to harmonics of
the modulating signal hence there are distortions in the output FM
signal.

Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) as FM Demodulator

A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is basically a negative feedback system. It
consists of three major components such as re multiplier, a loop filter and a
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) connected together in the form of a
feedback loop.
A VCO is a sine wave generator whose frequency is determined by the
voltage applied to it from an external source. It means that any frequency
modulator can work as a VCO.
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is primarily used in tracking the phase and
frequency of the carrier component of an incoming FM signal. PLL is also
useful for synchronous demodulation of AM-SC (i.e., Amplitude Modulation
with Suppressed carrier) signals or signals with few cycles of pilot carrier.
Further, PLL is also useful for demodulating FM signals in presence of large
noise and low signal power.
This means that, PLL is most suitable for use in space vehicle-to-earth data
links or where the loss along the transmission line or path is quite large.

Recently, it has found application in commercial FM receivers.

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The block diagram of a PLL is shown in fig.1 below.

Fig.1: The block diagram of a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)

Working Operation

The operation of a PLL is similar to any other feedback system where

the feedback signal tends to follow the input signal. If the signal fed back is
not equal to the input signal, the error signal will change the value of the fed
back signal until it is equal to the input signal.
The difference signal between s(t) and b(t) is called an error signal.
A PLL operates on a similar principle except for the fact that the quantity
feedback is not the amplitude, but a generalized phase Φ(t).
The error signal or difference signal e(t) is utilized to adjust the VCO
frequency in such a way that the instantaneous phase angle comes close to
the angle of the incoming signal s(t). At this point, the two signals s(t) and
b(t) are synchronized and the PLL is locked to the incoming signal s(t).
Mathematical Explanation:

30
We Assume,
1) The Frequency of the VCO Output is Precisely set at Unmodulated
Carrier Frequency fc
2) VCO Output has 90֩ Phase shift w.r.t the Unmodulated Carrier
Frequency

31
32
PROBLEMS:
1) A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2
KHz is applied to FM generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40
Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index, and
bandwidth.
Given, Am=5V , fm=2KHz , kf=40Hz/volt
Δf=kf *Am Δf=40×5=200Hz
β=Δf / fm ; β=200/2000= 0.1
Here, the value of modulation index, β is 0.1, which is less than one. Hence,
it is Narrow Band FM.
BW=2fm= 2×2K=4KHz
Therefore, the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4KHz.
2) An FM wave is given by s(t)=20cos(8π×106t+9sin(2π×103t)). Calculate the
frequency deviation, bandwidth, and power of FM wave.
Sol: Given, the equation of an FM wave as
s(t)=20cos(8π×106t+9sin(2π×103t)).
We know the standard equation of an FM wave as
• s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+βsin(2πfmt)) comparing the above two equations.
Ac=20V ,fc=4×106Hz=4MHz ,fm=1×103Hz=1KHz , β=9
Here, the value of modulation index is greater than one. Hence, it is Wide
Band FM.
We know the formula for modulation index as β=Δf/fm
Δf =βfm= Δf =9×1KHz =9KHz
The formula for Bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is BW=2(β+1)fm
BW=2(9+1)1K=20KHz
Formula for power of FM wave is Pc=Ac2/2R
Assume, R=1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above equation.
P=(20)2/2(1)=200W
Therefore, the power of FM wave is 200 watts.
3) An FM Wave is described by s(t)=20cos(3π×108t+10cos(2000πt)). Find the
Approximate Bandwidth of an FM Wave.
Solution: β= 10 fm=1KHz;
BW= 2(1+β)fm = 2(1+10)1KHz = 22KHz

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4) Find the number of Channels that can be accommodated in the FM Band
with frequency deviation of 75KHz and message signal frequency equal to
15KHz.
Solution: fm=15KHz; Δf= 75KHz; (FM Range: 88MHz- 108MHz)
Total BW= (108MHz-88MHz)=20MHz
Number of Signals = Total BW/Signal BW = 20MHz/180KHz = 110
Signal BW= 2(Δf +fm) = 2(75KHz+15KHz) =180KHz

Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis:

Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter or differentiator which
allows high frequencies to pass, whereas de-emphasis circuit is a low
pass filter or integrator which allows only low frequencies to pass.
De-emphasis means attenuating those frequencies by the amount
by which they are boosted. However pre-emphasis is done at the
transmitter and the de-emphasis is done in the receiver. The purpose is
to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception.

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Pre-emphasis:
In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf or
β) for higher modulating frequencies (fm).
This can be done by increasing the deviation Δf and Δf can be increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher modulating
frequencies.

Thus, if we boost the amplitude of higher frequency modulating signals

artificially then it will be possible to improve the noise immunity at higher
modulating frequencies.

The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies is called as pre-

emphasis.
Boosting of higher frequency modulating signal is achieved by using the pre-
emphasis circuit as shown in fig.1(a).

Fig.1
As shown in the fig.1, the modulating AF signal is passed through a
high pass RC filter, before applying it to the FM modulator. As fm increases,
reactance of C decreases and modulating voltage applied to FM modulator
goes on increasing. The frequency response characteristics of the RC high
pass network is shown in fig.1(b).The boosting is done according to this pre
arranged curve.
The amount of pre-emphasis in US FM transmission and sound
transmission in TV has been standardized at 75 μsec.

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 The pre-emphasis circuit is basically a high pass filter. The pre-
emphasis is carried out at the transmitter. The frequency for the RC high
pass network is 2122 Hz as shown in fig.1 (b). Hence, the pre-emphasis
circuit is used at the transmitter as shown in fig.2.

Fig.2: FM transmitter including the pre-emphasis

Advantages of Pre-emphasis:

1. It helps to amplify high frequency signal components so that they have a

higher magnitude than the noise components. It improves the Signal to
Noise Ratio or SNR.
2. It has a upper cutoff frequency from where the signal enhancement is
flattened.
3. It is a simple High Pass Filter with amplification.
Disadvantage:
If it is done beyond a limit there can be over modulation.
De-emphasis

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 The process that is used at the receiver end to nullify or compensate
the artificial boosting given to the higher modulating frequencies in the
process of pre-emphasis is called De-emphasis. That means, the artificially
boosted high frequency signals are brought to their original amplitude using
the de-emphasis circuit. The 75 μsec de-emphasis circuit is standard and it
is as shown in fig. 3.

Fig.3: De-emphasis circuit and its characteristics

It shows that it is a low pass filter. 75 μsec de-emphasis corresponds to a
frequency response curve that is 3 dB down at a frequency whose RC time
constant is 75 μsec.i.e.,

The demodulated FM is applied to the De-emphasis circuit. With increase in

fm the reactance of C goes on decreasing and the output of de-emphasis
circuit will also reduce as shown in fig.3.

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Advantages of De-emphasis:

1. It helps to bring the pre-amplified signal back to the normal amplitude

level.
2. It has a cutoff frequency of about 2123 Hz.
3. It is a simple Low Pass Filter with time constant of around 75 µs.
Disadvantage
Risk of over modulation.
Comparison of AM and FM:
S.No AM FM

1 Pt = Pc(1+μ2/2) Pt= Pc
2 AM Requires More Power Less Power
3 Power Varies with Modulation Index Independent of Modulation Index

33.33% (Max. Efficiency) when

4 33.33% (Max. Efficiency)
β= 2.4,5.5,8.6,11.2..

5 BW = 2fm BW = 2(1+β)fm

6 BW is Low Very High

7 BW is Independent of Mod. Index BW Varies with Modulation Index

8 AM Receiver is Less Complex More Complex
9 Effect of Noise is More in AM Effect of Noise is Less in FM

10 550KHz to 1650KHz 88MHz to 108MHz

11 Intermediate Frequency =455KHz Intermediate Frequency =10.7MHz

12 Practical BW = 10KHz Practical BW = 200KHz

13 fm = 5KHz fm = 15KHz

Ionospheric Propagation
14 Line of Sight Propagation(LOS)
(NON-LOS)

15 Area of Coverage is More Limited Because of LOS

16 Frequency Reuse is Not Possible Frequency Reuse is Possible

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