UNIT- V Digital Modulation Techniques (Part -1)

Syllabus: Digital Modulation Techniques: ASK- Modulator, Coherent ASK

Detector, FSK- Modulator, Non- Coherent FSK Detector, BPSK- Modulator,
Coherent BPSK Detection. Principles of QPSK, Differential PSK and QAM.
Baseband Transmission and Optimal Reception of Digital Signal: A
Baseband Signal Receiver, Probability of Error, Optimum Receiver, Coherent
Reception, ISI, Eye Diagrams.

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Difference between baseband transmission and bandpass transmission

Baseband transmission Bandpass transmission

The baseband transmission does not It is used modulator and
use modulator and demodulator. demodulator.
Baseband transmission is Passband transmission is the
transmission of the encoded signal transmission after shifting the
using its own baseband frequencies baseband frequencies to some
i.e. without any shift to higher higher frequency range using
frequency ranges. modulation.
If the baseband signal is transmitted If modulated signal is transmission
directly then it is known as baseband over the channel, it is known as
transmission. bandpass transmission.
It is prefer at low frequencies. It has fixed band of frequencies
around carrier frequency.
It is used for short distances. It is used for long distances.
More noise as signal is original. Less noise as signals is modulated.

E.g. general telephony. E.g. AM & FM-analog

PCM,DPCM,ADPCM,DM,ADM ASK,FSK,psk,QPSK,-Digital.

Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data

security, quicker system availability with great quality communication.
Hence, digital modulation techniques have a greater demand, for their
capacity to convey larger amounts of data than analog modulation
techniques.
There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their
combinations, depending upon the need.
ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying:
The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data
whether it should be a zero level or a variation of positive and negative,
depending upon the carrier frequency.

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FSK – Frequency Shift Keying:
The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low,
depending upon the input data applied.
PSK – Phase Shift Keying:
The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input.
These are mainly of two types, namely Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) and
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), according to the number of phase
shifts. The other one is Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) which
changes the phase according to the previous value.
M-ary Encoding:
M-ary Encoding techniques are the methods where more than two bits
are made to transmit simultaneously on a single signal. This helps in the
reduction of bandwidth.
The types of M-ary techniques are −
 M-ary ASK
 M-ary FSK
 M-ary PSK

There are two types of demodulation techniques. They are

a) Coherent detection
b) Non coherent detection
Coherent detection:
In coherent detection we use the signal of same frequency as that of
the signal used in the transmitter. At coherent mostly uses a LPF or BPF
to obtain the original signal so the same frequency used for both
modulation and demodulation
Non Coherent detection:
Non coherent or incoherent we use signals of two different frequencies
in transmitter and receiver side. at the receiver we use an Envelope
Detector for detecting the information signal.
Line coding: A line code is the code used for the transmission of data from a
digital signal on a transmission line. This encoding process is chosen so as to avoid
signal overlap and distortion such as interference between symbols.

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(1) Amplitude Shift Keying – ASK:
This type of modulation comes under Digital Modulation schemes.
Here, the word keying has some importance, i.e. Keying is indicating the
transmission of digital signal over the channel. By the amplitude shift
keying theory, we can understand the process of ASK technique.

Figure: analog-and-digital-signals
In ASK, it requires two input signals, First input is binary sequence
signal and the second input is carrier signal. Here the most important point
we need to always consider the second input which is the carrier signal has
the more amplitude/voltage range than the input binary sequence signal.
Definition of ASK:
A digital modulation technique in which the amplitude of the carrier
wave is changed according to the modulating signal (bitstream) is known as
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK). It is the easiest and straightforward digital
modulation scheme.
ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except there are only
two output amplitudes possible. Amplitude- shift keying is sometimes called
Digital amplitude modulation (DAM).
Theory of Amplitude Shift Keying:
In ASK, frequency and phase of the carrier wave is kept constant
and only the amplitude is varied according to the digitized modulating
signal. It is also referred as Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) as its
usual operation is associated with only two levels. However, one can have
multiple levels of signal elements also.

Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying is

𝐴𝑐
𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑘) (𝑡) = [1 + 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)] [ cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡)] (1)
2
Where 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)= digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
𝐴𝑐
= unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
2

𝑤𝑐 = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2πfct)

In Equation (1), the modulating signal 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡) is a normalized binary
waveform, where + 1 V = logic 1 and -1 V = logic 0.
Therefore, for a logic 1 input, 𝒗𝒎 (𝒕) = + 1 V, Equation (1) reduces to
𝐴
𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑘) (𝑡) = [1 + 1] [ 2𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡)]

𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑘) (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡)

and for a logic 0 input, 𝒗𝒎 (𝒕) = -1 V, Equation(1) reduces to
𝐴
𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑘) (𝑡) = [1 − 1] [ 2𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡)]

𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑘) (𝑡) = 0

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 Thus, the modulated wave 𝑣(𝑎𝑠𝑘) (𝑡), is either 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡) or 0. Hence,

the carrier is either "on" or "off", which is why amplitude-shift keying is

sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK).
Below Figure shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK
modulator.
Waveforms of Amplitude Shift Keying:

Here, (i) figure represents a message signal represented in the forms of the
bitstream, (ii) shows the carrier wave; whose amplitude is to be varied
according to the digital message signal. The last figure (iii) shows the
resultant ASK waveform which is amplitude modulated.
It is clear from the figure that the signal is present only in case of
the high-level digital stream. No signal waveform is achieved when the
bit shows a low level, showing on and off behaviour. Thus, termed as
ON-OFF keying.
From the figure, it can be seen that for every change in the input
binary data stream, there is one change in the ASK waveform, and the time
of one bit (tb) equals the time of one analog signaling element (t,).
B = fb /1 = fb baud = fb /1 = fb
Bit rate: It is defined as number of bits per second.
Baud rate: It is defined as number of signal units or symbols per second.
A Signal unit consists of one or more bits,
Therefore Baud rate ≤ Bit rate

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Bandwidth of ASK:

Bandwidth = Upper cut off frequency – Lower cut off frequency

B.W = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑏 )
B.W = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏
𝟏
B.W = 𝟐𝒇𝒃 = 𝟐 × 𝑻 = 𝟐 × 𝑩𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒃

Generation of ASK signal:

The figure below shows the block diagram representing the process of
generation of an amplitude shift keying waveform.

BM

BPF

It consists of a signal generator (Balanced Modulator) that produces a

high-frequency sinusoidal waveform, a message signal in digitized form and
a band pass filter.

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 The switch provided here gets open and closed according to the bits of
the message signal.
When the digital bit is of level high i.e., 1 then the switch gets
closed. Thus, allows the carrier wave to get transmitted. As against, in case
of low-level bit i.e., 0 the switch gets open and restrict the carrier wave.
Detection of ASK signal:
Detection or demodulation is the process of recovering original message
signal from the modulated waveform.
Coherent detection:
In coherent detection is that the carrier at the receiver must be in
synchronization with the carrier at the transmitter for accurate detection.
The figure below shows the process of coherent detection.

LPF

The demodulation circuitry consists of a product modulator along with an

integrator (LPF) and a decision-making device.
Here, the input to the product modulator is modulated waveform
along with the sinusoidal carrier. The combination of the two is then fed to
the integrator that operates successively according to the bit interval. After
which it also executes low pass filtration of the signal. Then the output of
the integrator acts as input to the decision device. Also, a preset threshold is
provided to the decision-making device.
The decision device compares the signal at its input with the
threshold value. When the signal exceeds the threshold value then bit 1 is
provided by the decision device as its output. However, when the signal
deceeds (be less than) the threshold value then bit 0 is achieved.

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If Binary ‘1’ is applied then = 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡) × 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑐 𝑡)
2
= 𝐴𝑐 cos2 (𝑤𝑐 𝑡) ( ω=2Πf )
2
𝐴
= 2𝑐 [ 1 + cos4𝛱𝑓𝑐 𝑡]

High frequency signal is neglected.

𝐴𝑐 2
O/P of LPF = 2
(It is a DC voltage & compared with the

threshold voltage (˃= 1, ˂=0)

If Binary ‘0’ is applied then = 𝟎
Non coherent detection:
A coherent detection technique somewhat leads to a complex design
as it needs synchronization. However, the design can be simplified by non-
coherent detection that makes use of envelope detector.
The figure below shows the block diagram of a non-coherent ASK
detection technique composed of a bandpass filter and envelope detector
along with a decision device.

In non-coherent detection ASK signal is given to BPF with cutoff

frequency fo. The BPF allows certain band of frequency and attenuates other
frequency.
The BPF output is given to the Envelope detector which generates
high voltage signals if carrier signal is present. If carrier signal is absent the
envelope detector generates low voltage signals.
The output of envelope detector is given to a decision device along
with the threshold. The decision making device compares the two voltages
(i,e if it is favour to ‘1’ bit then threshold will be exceeded to output of
envelope detector otherwise if it is favour to ‘0’ bit.

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Advantage of Amplitude shift keying:
 Its generation and detection are easy thus facilitate simple transmitter
and receiver sections.
Disadvantages of Amplitude shift keying:
 ASK technique is not suitable for high bit rate data transmission.
 Poor bandwidth efficiency.
 Highly susceptible to noise and other external factors.
Applications of Amplitude shift keying:
1) Digital data through an optical fiber is transmitted using ASK
technique.
2) The technique was widely used in traditional telephone modems.
3) Thus we can conclude that by using ASK technique, digital data can
be transmitted and by varying only the amplitude factor the carrier
wave.
(2) Frequency Shift Keying – FSK:
Definition:
A digital modulation technique that allows data transmission by changing
the frequency of the carrier wave according to the digital modulating signal
is known as frequency shift keying (FSK).
Theory of Frequency Shift Keying:
The simplest form of FSK is Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK).
Here, the frequency of the carrier wave changed between discrete binary
values of the modulating signal. Thus, the frequency of the carrier shows
variation according to the binary message signal.
In frequency shift keying, the carrier is modulated in such a way that
high-frequency signal is achieved for high level i.e., 1 of binary data
input. Similarly, the low-frequency signal is obtained in case of low
level i.e., 0 of the message signal.
The figure (1) below shows the binary frequency shift keying technique:

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 fm fs fm fm fs fm fs fm fm fm

Here as we can see, that in the figure (i) the modulating signal in the
form of the bit stream is present. Figure (ii) shows the carrier frequency
waveform. The (iii) figure shows the FSK modulated waveform, whose
frequency shows variation according to the digital signal.
Theory of Frequency Shift Keying:
The general expression for FSK is
𝑣𝑓𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 cos{2𝜋[𝑓𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)∆𝑓 ]𝑡} (2)
Where
𝑣𝑓𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = binary FSK waveform
𝑉𝑐 = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
𝑓𝑐 = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
∆𝑓 = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (hertz)
𝑣𝑚 (𝑡) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)
From Equation (2), it can be seen that the peak shift in the carrier
frequency (∆f) is proportional to the amplitude of the binary input signal
(vm[t]), and the direction of the shift is determined by the polarity. The
modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform.

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Where a logic 1 = + 1 V and a logic 0 = -1 V. Thus, for a
Logic l input, vm(t) = + 1, Equation (2) can be rewritten as
𝑣𝑓𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓)𝑡]
For a Logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1, Equation (2) becomes
𝑣𝑓𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 cos[2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 − ∆𝑓)𝑡]
With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (fc) is shifted
(deviated) up and down in the frequency domain by the binary input signal
as shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 2 FSK in the frequency domain

As the binary input signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa,
the output frequency shifts between two frequencies: a mark, or logic 1
frequency (fm), and a space, or logic 0 frequency (fs). The mark and space
frequencies are separated from the carrier frequency by the peak frequency
deviation (∆f) and from each other by 2 ∆f as shown in figure 2.
Frequency deviation: is defined as the difference between either the mark
(or) space frequency and centre frequency. (OR)
Half of the difference between the mark and space frequency.

𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 = (𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 ) − (𝑓𝑐 − ∆𝑓 )
𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓
𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 = 2∆𝑓
𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑠 𝑓 −𝑓𝑠
∆𝑓 = (𝑜𝑟) |𝑚 |
2 2
Where ∆f = frequency deviation (hertz)
|fm – fs| = absolute difference between the mark andspace frequencies (Hz)

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 Figure 1 shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK
modulator and the corresponding FSK output. When the binary input (f b)
changes from a logic 1 to a logic 0 and vice versa, the FSK output frequency
shifts from a mark ( fm)to a space (fs) frequency and vice versa.
In Figure 1, the mark frequency is the higher frequency (fc + ∆f) and
the space frequency is the lower frequency (fc -∆f), although this relationship
could be just the opposite.
Figure 3 shows the truth table for a binary FSK modulator. The truth table
shows the input and output possibilities for a given digital modulation
scheme.
Binary input Frequency output
1 Mark (fm)
0 Space (fs)
FIGURE 3: FSK truth table
Bandwidth of FSK:
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B.W = (fm + fb) – (fs – fb)
= fm + fb – fs + fb
B.W = fm – fs +2fb ( Since fm – fs = 2∆f )
= 2∆f +2fb
B.W = 2 (∆f +fb )
Where: B.W = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
∆f= frequency deviation |(fm– fs)| (hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)
Generation of FSK:
The figure below shows the generation of FSK modulated wave.
FSK Transmitter

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 It consists of 2 oscillators that generate high and low-frequency signal
separately. A binary message signal is provided to the transmitter circuitry.
The carrier wave from the two oscillators and binary modulating signal
operates the switch.
In the case when the modulating signal bit is high i.e., 1, the switch
gets closed forming a path for a high-frequency wave to get transmitted that
is generated by oscillator 1. Thus a high-frequency signal is achieved in case
of bit 1 of the message signal.
As against when the input bit is level low i.e., 0, the switch now gets
opened in a manner to form the path for the low-frequency carrier to get
transmitted. This low-frequency carrier is generated by the oscillator 2.
Hence, it is clear that a low-frequency signal is achieved in case of a low
data bit of the modulating signal.
However, in order to eliminate phase discontinuities of the signal at
the output, an internal clock is provided to the oscillator. Thus, the high or
low-frequency signal is selected according to the digital modulating signal.
Thus, an FSK modulated wave is transmitted and achieved at the output.
Detection of FSK:
Detection technique of FSK signal is mainly categorized as coherent
and non-coherent detection.
Coherent detection of FSK:
The figure below shows the block diagram for the coherent detection of
BFSK signal.

S1
S1 ˃ S2=1
LPF

S1 ˂ S2=0
S2
LPF

It consists of 2 separate mixers followed by the integrators that form

the two correlators in the circuit. The output of this correlator is then fed to

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the decision device. This decision device generates the binary signal which is
the original modulating signal.
Here, a BFSK waveform is fed to the mixer along with the two separate
carriers that are accurately synchronized with the carrier waves at the
transmitting end. The output generated by the mixer is then fed to the
integrator (LPF).
The output of the two separate integrators is then compared by the
decision-making device. When the output of integrator 1 is more than that of
the integrator 2 then the frequency of the carrier associated with correlator
1 generates the bit symbol. Assume, it to be a high-frequency carrier then
a logic high is generated at the output.
Similarly, when the output of the integrator 2 exceeds integrator 1
then the carrier frequency associated with correlator 2 generates symbol in
favour of that frequency. Let us assume conversely that it is a low-
frequency wave then symbol 0 is achieved at the output.
Mathematical Expression for Product modulator 1 is:
𝑆1 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 cos 2π 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 cos 2π 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
= Vc 2 cos 2 2π 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
Vc 2
= [1 + cos 4π 𝑓𝑚 𝑡]
2
Vc 2
𝑆1 (𝑡) =
2
The above equation is passed through LPF then
Vc 2 1
𝑆1 (𝑡) = = = Logic 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐 = 1𝑉
2 2
Mathematical Expression for Product modulator 2 is:
𝑆2 (𝑡) = −𝑉𝑐 cos 2π 𝑓𝑠 𝑡 × 𝑉𝑐 cos 2π 𝑓𝑠 𝑡
= −Vc 2 cos 2 2π 𝑓𝑠 𝑡
Vc 2
=− [1 + cos 4π 𝑓𝑠 𝑡]
2
Vc 2
𝑆1 (𝑡) = − 2

The above equation is passed through LPF then

Vc 2 1
𝑆1 (𝑡) = − = − = Logic 0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑐 = 1𝑉
2 2

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Non-coherent detection of FSK:
The figure below shows the block diagram for non-coherent detection.

S1

S2

It consists of two separate Band pass filter that is tuned to two

different frequencies (i,e mark and space). The output of this BPF is then fed
to an envelope detector which generates two separate output according to
the signal achieved from the BPF.
A decision-making device then compares the output of the two
envelope detector. When the output of detector 1 exceeds detector 2
then logic 1 is obtained and when the output of detector 1 is deceeded
(decreases) by detector 2 then logic 0 is obtained as the output.
Thus the original bitstream is generated by the detector.
Advantages of Frequency Shift Keying:
 FSK provides better noise immunity.
 The signal transmission through FSK is quite simple.
 It is suitable for long-distance data transmission.
 Bit error rate performance is better than ASK.
Disadvantages of Frequency Shift Keying:
1) It utilizes more bandwidth as compared to ASK and PSK thus is not
bandwidth efficient.
2) Detection of the signal at the receiver is somewhat complex.
Applications of Frequency Shift Keying:
1) The technique is used in the high-frequency data transmission
system.
2) Extensively used in low-speed modems.

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(3) Phase Shift Keying – PSK:
Definition: A digital modulation technique that transmits data by varying
the phase of the carrier wave in accordance with the digital modulating
signal, is called Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
The easiest form of PSK is BPSK i.e., binary phase shift keying.
However, PSK can be extended to 4 level and 8 level PSK that totally
depends on the need of the system.
Principle of BPSK:
BPSK technique is the simplest among all the PSK techniques. In this,
each signalling element is represented by a single data bit. Here, the carrier
undergoes two phase reversal such as 0° and 180°.
In phase shift keying the digital bit sequence is first converted to NRZ
bipolar signal which directly modulates the carrier wave.
Expression for BPSK:
Let us consider the carrier wave is given as 𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝒄 𝒕)
The peak of the carrier wave is represented as A when the load
resistance is assumed to be 1 ohm as standard, the power dissipated is
𝟏
given as, 𝑷= 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟐𝑷
𝟐

𝑨 = √𝟐𝑷
A change in phase by 180° is noticed with the corresponding change in the
bit sequence. Hence, BPSK signal can be written as,

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝒃(𝒕)√𝟐𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝒄 𝒕)

b(t) will be +1 in case of transmission of binary 1 and
b(t) will be -1 in case of transmission of binary 0.
Assume the carrier for symbol 1 is given as

𝒔𝟏 (𝒕) = √𝟐𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝒄 𝒕)

Similarly, in the case of symbol 0, we have,

𝒔𝟐 (𝒕) = −√𝟐𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝒄 𝒕)

π represents the phase shift of 180°
As we know cos (ɸ + π) = – cos ɸ

𝒔𝟐 (𝒕) = √𝟐𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝛑)

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Bandwidth of PSK:
Bandwidth = Upper cut off frequency – Lower cut off frequency
B.W = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑏 )
B.W = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑏
𝟏
B.W = 𝟐𝒇𝒃 = 𝟐 × 𝑻 = 𝟐 × 𝑩𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒃

Bandwidth of PSK = Bandwidth of ASK but the performance of the

PSK signal is much superior than ASK signal.
Generation of BPSK:
The figure below shows the block diagram for the generation of a BPSK
signal.

It consists of NRZ encoder along with product modulator and carrier

generator.
The binary message signal is fed to the bipolar NRZ level encoder that
converts the Binary data input into equivalent bipolar NRZ sequence m(t).
This bipolar NRZ signal is fed to the balanced modulator along with the
carrier wave. Thus, the binary signal modulates the carrier wave that
generates a phase shifted modulated signal termed as BPSK signal.

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 The below figure shows that BPSK generated waveform with the
binary bit sequence and carrier wave.

00 1800 00 1800 00 1800 1800

00

From above figure, (i) represents the binary bit sequence, the next
represents the bipolar NRZ sequence m(t) that is used to modulate the
carrier wave represented in (iii). The resultant BPSK signal is then achieved
in (iv)
From figure it shows that phase reversal when the bit sequence
gets changed either from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. When the bit sequence
changes from 0 to 1 then it is noticed a positive phase change whereas,
when the bit sequence changes from 1 to 0 then a negative change of
phase is noticed.

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BPSK Demodulation
The block diagram for the coherent detection of BPSK signal is shown
below:

Let us consider, the signal at the input of the receiver is

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝒃(𝒕)√𝟐𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + ɸ)
The phase shift ɸ is based on the time delay in between transmitter
and receiver.
The signal is then fed to a square law device that provides cos2(2πfct + ɸ) as
its output. Here, only the carrier of the signal is taken into consideration
thus the amplitude is neglected.
𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉
As we know, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉 = 𝟐

Expanding the carrier as the above mathematical identity,

𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐(𝟐𝛑𝒇𝒄 𝒕+ɸ)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 (𝟐𝛑𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + ɸ) = Or we can write,
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 (𝟐𝛑𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + ɸ) = 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐(𝟐𝛑𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + ɸ)
𝟏
DC level is showed by 𝟐

This signal is then fed to the BPF. This BPF has a centre frequency of
2fc, eliminates the dc level hence, generates output as 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐(𝟐𝛑𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + ɸ)
This signal is then further fed to a frequency divider unit. As it is
frequency divider by 2 thus generates a carrier with frequency fc.
i,e 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝛑𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + ɸ).
The Synchronous (i,e coherent) demodulator multiplies the input
signal and the recovered carrier. This carrier is then multiplied with the
input signal,

20
thereby generating the output as,

This signal is then given to the integrator and bit synchronizer unit.
The signal is integrated over the 1-bit period by the integrator by making
use of bit synchronizer. It manages the bit duration. After a completed bit
duration, synchronizer closes S2 and the output of the integrator acts as
input to the decision device.
Further, processing continues when S2 gets open and S1 gets closed
for some time, resetting the voltage of the integrator to 0. Then the next
bit is integrated by the integrator and the cycle repeats.
The decision device then generates the equivalent binary data, the
actual message signal.
Advantages of Phase Shift Keying:
1. It allows more efficient transmission of radio frequency signal.
2. Better noise immunity is noticed in the case of BPSK technique.
3. Less bandwidth is utilized by the BPSK signal in comparison to BFSK.
Disadvantages of Phase Shift Keying:
1. Detection of a BPSK signal is quite complex.(needs synchronization)
2. Phase discontinuity sometimes leads to variation in amplitude of the
signal.
3. The BPSK signal cannot be detected by using non coherent detection
because it has same voltage for symbol 1 and 0.
4. It is not possible to determine whether the received signal is equal to
b(t) or –b(t). This results in ambiguity in the output signal.
Applications of Phase Shift Keying:
PSK modulation technique finds its applications in biometric operations,
Bluetooth connectivity, wireless local area networks and in telemetry
operations.

21
(4) Differential Phase Shift Keying – DPSK:
The phase shift keying needs synchronization in the coherent
detector. This can be avoided by modifying the generation scheme of PSK
and the modified scheme is called Differential PSK.
DPSK is a non coherent form of PSK. It avoids the need for
complicated circuitry used to generate a local carrier at the receiver for the
transmission of a symbol 0, the phase is unchanged where for transmission
of symbol 1, the phase of the signal is changed by 1800.
The DPSK eliminates reference carrier signal in receiving end by
performing two basic operations in the transmitting end. They are
i) Differential encoding of input binary data
ii) Phase shift keying
Binary data
Differential PSK
encoder modulator DPSK Signal

In DPSK, the phase shift is with reference to the previous bit

transmitted rather than to some constant reference signal.
The following figure shows the waveform of DPSK.

Fig.: DPSK Waveform

From the above figure, when the data bit is Low i.e., ‘0’, the phase of
the signal is not reversed, and continued as it was. When the data is a High
i.e., ‘1’, the phase of the signal is reversed.
If we observe the above waveform, we can say that the High state
represents an M in the modulating signal and the Low state represents a W
in the modulating signal.

22
Block diagram of DPSK Transmitter:

Figure 1: Block diagram of DPSK

Truth Table of DPSK:
d(t) b(t-Tb) b(t)
Logic level Voltage Logic level Voltage Logic level Voltage
0 -1 0 -1 0 -1
0 -1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 -1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 -1

Operation of DPSK:
DPSK transmitter contains a differential encoder followed by a PSK
modulator In differential encoding, encode the digital information content of
binary data in terms ofsignal transitions.
 Symbol 1 is used to represent transition in given binary
sequence(With respect to previous encoded bit)
 Symbol 0 is used to represent no transition
The data stream to be transmitted d(t) is applied to the input of
an EX-OR logic gate. The output of an EX-OR logic gate b(t) delayed by
thetime Tb is applied as another input to the EX-OR gate. This second input
is b(t- Tb).
The Upper level of the wave form corresponds to logic 1 which is
indicted by +1v. The Lower level of the wave form corresponds to logic 0
which is indicted by -1v.

23
Example:

Output waveforms of DPSK:

From the figure(1) and from the waveforms it is evident that

𝑏(𝑡) = 𝑏(𝑡 − 𝑇𝑏 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑(𝑡) = 0
𝑏(𝑡) = 𝑏̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑡 − 𝑇𝑏 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑(𝑡) = 1

24
From waveforms,
 b(0) must be either b(0)=0 or b(0)=1, there being no other possibilities
and the result is valid quite generally.
 If however, we can start with b(0)=1, then the levels b(1) and b(0)
would been inverted.

DPSK Demodulator:

𝑨 = √𝟐𝑷

25
Bandwidth requirement of DPSK:
Here always one previous bit used to define the next bit, so
each ymbol duration cosists of two bits.
2
𝐵. 𝑊 = 𝑇𝑏

T – Symbol duration consists of 2-bits then

𝑇 = 2 𝑇𝑏
𝟐 𝟏
𝑩. 𝑾 = = = 𝒇𝒃
𝟐𝑻𝒃 𝑻𝒃

The bandwidth is low compared to PSK.

1
𝑖, 𝑒, 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 𝑓𝑏
𝑇𝑏

DPSK Advantages
 This modulation doesn’t need the carrier signals at the end of the
receiver circuit. Therefore compound circuits are not required.
 The BW of DPSK requirement is low evaluated to BPSK modulation.
 Non-consistent receivers are simple and inexpensive to construct,
therefore extensively used in wireless communication.
Disadvantages:
1. Noise in one bit interval may cause errors to two bit determinations
hence errors occur in pairs.
2. Single errors are still possible
3. The error rate in DPSK is greater than in PSK
Differential Phase Shift Keying Applications:
The applications of DPSK mainly include
 Wireless communications like RFID, WLANs, and Bluetooth.
 The famous application among them is Bluetooth wherever an
alternative of DPSK has been used like 8-DPSK, and π/4 – DQPSK
modulation.
 Thus, DPSK is a general type of phase modulation and it is used to
transmit data through the carrier wave by changing its phase. This
type of PSK removes the need for a consistent reference signal at the
end of the receiver by adding two fundamental operations at the end
of the transmitter.

26
M-ary Signalling:
In the case of binary signalling, two symbols are transmitted, whereas in M-
ary signalling, M-different symbols are transmitted.
M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a
digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or
combinations possible for a givennumber of binary variables.
For example:
A digital signal with four possible conditions (voltage levels,
frequencies, phases, and so on) is an M-ary system where M = 4. If there
are eight possible conditions, M= 8 and so forth.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions
is expressed mathematically as
n =log2 M (1)
Where n = number of bits or integers necessary
M = number of conditions, levels, symbols or combinations possible with N
bits
The above equation (1) can be simplified and rearranged to express
thenumber of conditions possible with N bits as
M=2 n (2)
For example:
If n=1 (one bit), only M=21 = 2 symbols are possible (i,e 0 or 1).
n=2 (two bits), M=22= 4 symbols are possible (00, 01, 10, 11).
n=3(three bits), M= 23= 8 symbols are possible (000, 001, 010, 011, 100,
101, 110,111).
n=4(four bits), M= 24= 16 symbols are possible (0000, 0001, 0010,
………,1111), so on.
For binary FSK, PSK the number of possible conditions are 2 one
represent logic 0, the other represents logic 1, thus these are M ary systems
with M=2
PSK system with 4 output phases is an M ary system with M=4, which
is referred to as QPSK
PSK system with 8 output phases is an M ary system with M=8, which
is referred to as 8-PSK and so on.

27
(5) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK):
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) can be interpreted as two
independent BPSK systems (one on the I-channel and one on Q-channel)
and thus the same performance but twice the bandwidth efficiency since 2
bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol.
QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M= 4 (hence, the
name "quaternary" meaning "4"). A QPSK modulator is a binary (base 2)
signal, to produce four different input combinations,: 00, 01, 10, and 11.
With QPSK 4 output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency
because these four output phases have 4 different input conditions.
Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups
of two bits, called dibits. In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of
the four possible output phases (+45°,+135°, -45°, and -135°).
QPSK transmitter:

Block diagram of a QPSK modulator

In QPSK Binary input and clock inputs are divided serially to the bit
splitter. The bit splitter receives serial input and converts it to parallel
output, which is given to balanced modulators I and Q through the channel.
The balanced modulator I ("I" for "in phase" channel) receives two
signals one is binary input and other one is carrier signal.

28
 The balanced modulator Q ("Q" for "quadrature" channel) receives two
signals one is binary input and other one is carrier signal with 90 0 phase
shift.
For a logic 1 = + 1 V and a logic 0= - 1 V, two phases are possible at
the output of the I balanced modulator (+sin ωct and - sin ωct), and two
phases are possible at the output of the Q balanced modulator (+cos ωct),
and (-cos ωct).
The two balanced modulator outputs are passed through band pass
filter. The output of BPF is added with the help of linear summer or adder.
Then, finally receives the original QPSK signal which consists of
+ sin ωct + cos ωct,
+ sin ωct - cos ωct,
- sin ωct + cos ωct, and
- sin ωct - cos ωct.
Example: For a binary data input of Q = O and I= 0, the two inputs to the I
balanced modulator are -1 and sin ωct, and the two inputs to the Q
balanced modulator are -1 and cos ωct. Consequently, the outputs are
I balanced modulator =(-1)(sin ωct) = -1 sin ωct
Q balanced modulator =(-1)(cos ωct) = -1 cos ωct and
The output of the linear summer is
-1 cos ωct - 1 sin ωct = 1.414 sin(ωct - 135°)
For the remaining dibit codes (01, 10, and 11), the procedure is the same.

29
 o

1 0
1 1

1
1

0 0 0 1

1 1

Figure(2): QPSK modulator: (a) truth table; (b) phasor diagram; (c)
constellation diagram

30
 In Figures (2) b and c, it can be seen that with QPSK each of the four
possible output phasors has exactly the same amplitude. Therefore, the
binary information must be encoded entirely in the phase of the output
signal.
Figure 2b, it can be seen that the angular separation between any
two adjacent phasors in QPSK is 90°.
Therefore, a QPSK signal can undergo almost a+45° or -45° shift in
phase during transmission and still retain the correct encoded information
when demodulated at the receiver.
Below figure 3 shows the output phase-versus-time relationship for
a QPSK modulator.

31
Bandwidth considerations of QPSK:
Symbol duration T = nTb
In case of PSK T = Tb
In case of QPSK T = 2Tb
With QPSK, because the input data are divided into two channels, the
bit rate in either the I or the Q channel is equal to one half of the input data
rate.
Bandwidth of QPSK = 2/T = 2/2Tb ( Since in QPSK, T = 2Tb)
Bandwidth of QPSK = 1/Tb or Bandwidth of QPSK = fb
QPSK Demodulator:

The QPSK signal is given to the band pass filter which allows certain
band of frequencies and attenuates other frequencies.
The power splitter directs the input QPSK signal to the I and Q
product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit.
The carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original transmit carrier
oscillator signal. The recovered carrier must be frequency and phase
coherent with the transmit reference carrier.
The QPSK signal is demodulated in the I and Q product detectors,
which generate the original I and Q data bits.

32
 The outputs of the product detectors are fed to the bit combining
circuit, where they are converted from parallel I and Q data channels to a
single binary output data stream.
The incoming QPSK signal may be any one of the four possible output
phases.To illustrate the demodulation process, let the incoming QPSK signal
be -sincωct + cos ωct.
Mathematically, the demodulation process is as follows.
The receive QPSK signal (-sin ωct + cos ωct) is one of the inputs to the
I product detector. The other input is the recovered carrier (sin ωct). The
output of the I product detector is

Again, the receive QPSK signal (-sin ωct + cos ωct) is one of the inputs
to the Q product detector. The other input is the recovered carrier shifted
90° in phase (cos ωct). The output of the Q product detector is

The demodulated I and Q bits (0 and 1, respectively) correspond to the

constellation diagram and truth table for the QPSK modulator.

33
Advantages of QPSK:
1. QPSK provide very good noise immunity

2. It provides low error probability

3. Bandwidth is twice efficient is compared to BPSK modulation

4. For the same BER, the bandwidth required by QPSK is reduced to half

as compared to BPSK
5. It is more efficient utilization of the available bandwidth of the

transmission channel
6. Carrier power almost remains constant because of OQPSK amplitude

is not much
Disadvantages of QPSK:
a. QPSK is not more power efficient modulation technique compare to

other modulation types as more power is required to transmit two bits

b. QPSK is more complex compared to BPSK receiver due to four states

needed to recover binary data information.

Applications of QPSK:
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) scheme is used in various
applications in modern digital communication system; it provides high
performance on bandwidth efficiency and bit error rate. The areas include
wireless communication, mobile communication and Satellite
Communication.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:
In the amplitude modulation scheme, we can modulate one message
signal (input signal) which is in analog form. It means we can give only one
input signal and we can modulate it and transmit to the destination level.
And the effective utilization of channel bandwidth is not up to the level. So,
these can be overcome by QAM technique.
Description of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is modulation techniques
that we can utilize in analog modulation concept and digital modulation
concept.
Depending upon the input signal form we can use it in either analog
or digital modulation schemes. In QAM, we can modulate two individual

34
signals and transmitted to the receiver level. And by using the two input
signals, the channel bandwidth also increases. QAM can able to transmit
two message signals over the same channel. This QAM technique also is
known as “quadrature carrier multiplexing”.
Definition of QAM: QAM can be defined as it is s a modulation technique
that is used to combine two amplitude modulated waves into a single
channel to increase the channel bandwidth.
QAM Modulator:

Block diagram of QAM modulator (Transmitter)

“In the QAM transmitter, the above section i.e., product modulator1
and local oscillator are called the I-in-phase channel (i,e sinwct) and
product modulator2 and local oscillator are called a Q-quadrature channel
(i,e coswct). Both output signals of the in-phase channel and quadrature
channel are summed so the resultant output will be QAM.”
QAM Demodulator

Block diagram of QAM demodulator (Receiver)

35
 At the receiver level, the QAM signal is forwarded from the upper
channel of receiver and lower channel, and the resultant signals of product
modulators are forwarded from LPF1 and LPF2. These LPF’s are fixed to the
cut off frequencies of input 1 and input 2 signals. Then the filtered outputs
are the recovered original signals.
The below waveforms are indicating the two different carrier signals of
the QAM technique.

Input-carriers-of-QAM
The output waveforms of QAM are shown below.

Digital QAM:
Digital QAMs are usually described as a “Quantized QAM” and they
are commonly used in radio communications systems ranging from cellular
technology to Wi-Fi. Digital QAM can carry higher data rates compared to
both amplitude and phase-modulated scheme.
In digital QAM schemes, to define the values of phase and amplitude
different points can be used. This is known as a constellation diagram. Thus
a constellation diagram is the set of possible message points.

36
 QAM can be realized by using a constellation diagram. In the
constellation diagram, the constellation points are arranged in a square grid
with equal horizontal and vertical distance. The minimum distance between
the constellation points is known as a Euclidean distance.
In the digital communications, data is usually in a binary form and it
has two states 0 or 1, so the number of constellation points in the grid is
usually a power of 2 i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32…………etc.
The most common formats of QAM are16-QAM (24), 32-QAM (25), 64-
QAM (26), 128-QAM (27) and 256-QAM (28).
The bit sequence mapping for a 16-QAM is shown below in the
constellation diagram. A diagram shows that binary values associated with
different positions for a 16-QAM signal. It can be seen that a continuous bit
stream may be represented as a sequence and divided into four groups in
each of the four quadrants.

Constellation Diagram for 16-QAM

Normally a 16-QAM is considered as the lowest order QAM because 2-
QAM is considered the same as for BPSK (i.e. Binary Phase Shift Keying)
and 4-QAM is the same as QPSK (i.e. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying). In
addition to the error-rate performance of 8-QAM is almost the same as that
of 16-QAM hence it is not widely used.
The number of QAM symbols or states is determined by the number of
binary bits per second. Here, the term “symbol” means a combination of
amplitude and phase.

37
Depending on the number of bits per message or symbol the QAM signals
are classified as follows:
Name Bits per symbol Number of symbols
16 QAM 4 24 = 16
32 QAM 5 25 = 32
64 QAM 6 26 = 64
128 QAM 7 27 = 128
256 QAM 8 28 = 256
Example:
16 QAM: 16 QAM is one of the different formats of QAM in which the carrier
signal is modulated into any of 16 different phase and amplitude states.
How many bits per symbol can be transmitted using 16-QAM?
By using 16-QAM 4 bits per symbol can be transmitted.
Bandwidth of QAM System:
The plot of power spectral density for the QAM system is shown in the below
figure.

Frequency Spectrum of QAM Technique

38
Comparison of QAM, QPSK, BPSK and BASK:

Euclidean distance is a distance between two points in the

constellation diagram.
QAM can transmit the data at four times the bit rate over the same
bandwidth as BPSK. Therefore, QAM is considered to be a bandwidth-
efficient modulation technique.
Advantages of QAM:
1) Noise immunity of QAM’s is very high hence noise interference is very
less.
2) QAM has a low probability of error value.
3) QAM supports a high data rate. So that the number of bits can be
carried by the carrier signal. Hence, it is mostly used in wireless
communication systems.
4) QAM has a doubling the effective bandwidth.
5) By using both sine wave and cosine wave into single-channel the
communication channel capacity is doubled compared to the use of
only one sine wave or one cosine wave.

39
Disadvantages of QAM:
1) In QAM, amplitude changes are susceptible to noise.

2) It is not necessary to use of linear amplifier in a radio transmitter

when a phase or frequency modulated signal is amplified, but due to

the presence of amplitude component in QAM, it is necessary to use
the linear amplifier in order to maintain linearity. These linear
amplifiers are less efficient and consume more power.
3) It is possible to transmit more bits per symbol but in higher-order

QAM formats the constellation points are closely spaced which is more
susceptible to noise and produces errors in the data.
4) Also in higher-order QAM formats, there is a difficulty for the receiver

to decode the signal appropriately. In other words, there is reduced

noise immunity. So the higher-order QAM formats are only used when
there is a high signal to noise ratio.
Applications of QAM:
 QAM technique is widely used in the radio communications field because
of the increase of the bit data rate.
 QAM is used in applications ranging from short-range wireless
communications to long-distance telephone systems.
 QAM is used in microwave and telecommunication systems to transmit
the information.
 The 64 QAM and 256 QAM are used in digital cable television and cable
modem.
 QAM is used in optical fiber systems to increase bit rates.
 It is used in many communication systems like Wi-Fi, Digital Video
Broadcast (DVB), and WiMAX.

40
 UNIT V PART -2

Baseband Transmission and Optimal Reception of Digital Signal

Syllabus: A Baseband Signal Receiver, Probability of Error, Optimum

Receiver, Coherent Reception, ISI, Eye Diagrams.

A Baseband Signal Receiver:

Baseband signal transmission is simply digital data transmission that
does not use any modulation techniques.
If raw data is directly transmitted to the channel intended for the
receiver, the communication is referred to as baseband communication.
Because there is no modulation, there must be no such thing as Baseband
modulation (as no carrier is present).

Figure 1: Block diagram of baseband communication system

High noise immunity of the digital Baseband telecommunications
system as shown in above Fig.(1) can be achieved in two ways:

 Improving the structure of the signal being transmitted (as NRZ, RZ,
Manchester, etc.)
 Creating receivers capable of detecting signals in noise (as different
types of filters like Matched filter)
Figure 2 is showing the entire Baseband receiver or Baseband decoder
block.

41
 Figure 2: Block diagram of Baseband receiver
The following are the four configuring blocks:
1. Receiving filter: It recovers the Baseband pulses with best possible signal
to noise ratio (SNR). Ex: Optimum filter is either Matched filter or Correlator.
2. Equalizing filter: In the Baseband decoder block, this filter is optional.
Because of the dispersive nature of the transmission channel, an effect
known as Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) may occur in the received symbols.
Equalizer is an inverse filter that cancels out the effect of ISI.
3. Sampler: This block contains detailed timing information for the
transmitter, i.e. it is required for bit and frame synchronization. At the end
of each symbol period Ts, the output of sampler yields a sample Z(Ts), which
is a voltage value directly related to transmitted symbol and noise power.
4. Detector: The main function of the detector in the detection stages is to
extract the digital logic meaning of the sampled values. The detector is
based on several detection theorems and algorithms.
Requirements of Detection Technique:

a) A detection technique must have minimum probability of error.

b) It should sample (check) the received signal in every bit interval at the
instant when the signal has maximum possible amplitude.
c) The detection method must maximize the signal to noise ratio, by
amplifying the signal and attenuating the noise.
d) One of the detection techniques used is integrate and dump circuit.
Detection Techniques:

1) Integrate and dump receiver (filter)

2) Optimum filter
3) Matched filter
4) Correlator or coherent receiver

42
(2) The Optimum Filter (i.e., Optimum Receiver):
The probability of error is the filter's defining parameter. If a filter or
integrator provides the lowest possible probability of error, it is
referred to as an optimum filter.
Therefore, let us consider the generalized Gaussian noise which is
having zero mean. Let the received signal be a binary waveform. Let us again
assume that the polar NRZ signal is used to represent binary 1’s and 0’s.
i.e., for binary ‘1’, x1(t) = + A for one bit period T and
for binary ‘0’, x2(t) = – A for one bit period T
Hence, the input signal x(t) will be either x1(t) or x2(t) depending upon
the polarity of the NRZ signal.

Above Figure shows the block diagram of a receiver for such a binary
coded signal.
As shown in this figure, the noise n(t) is added to the signal x(t) in the
channel during the transmission.
Thus, input to the optimum filter is [x(t) + n(t)] i.e.,
Input to the receiver = x(t) + n(t)
and output from the receiver = x01(T) + n0(T) or x02(T) + n0(T)
Also, in the absence of the noise n(t), the output of the receiver will be,
y(T) = x01(T) if x(t) = x1(t)
and y(T) = x02(T) if x(t) = x2 (t)
Hence, in the absence of noise, decisions are taken clearly. However, if
noise is present then, we select x1(t) if y(T) is closer to x01(T) than x02(T)
and we select x2(t) if y(T) is closer to x02(T) than x01(T).
Therefore, the decision boundary will be in the middle of x01(T) and x02(T).

It is expressed as, (7.32)

43
Calculation of Probability of Error (Pe) for Optimum Filter:
For calculation of probability of error (Pe), we shall consider the
generalized Gaussian noise.
Let us consider that x2(t) was transmitted, but x01(T) is greater than
x02(T). If noise n0(T) is positive and larger in magnitude compared to the
voltage difference ½ [x01(T) + x02(T)] − x02(T)
then, in this case, the incorrect decision will be taken. This means that the
error will be generated if,

(7.33)
The probability density function (PDF) for n0(t) is given as

(7.34)

44
45
Evaluation of Transfer Function for the Optimum Filter:

46
(3) Matched filter:
Basically, a matched filter is a linear filter designed to provide the
maximum signal-to-noise power ratio at its output for a given transmitted
symbol waveform.
The mathematical operation of a matched filter (MF) is convolution; a
signal is convolved with the impulse response of a filter.
In the optimum filter considered as generalized Gaussian noise. When
the noise is white Gaussian noise, then the optimum filter is known as
matched filter.
The white Gaussian noise's power spectral density is given by
𝑁𝑂
𝑆𝑛𝑖 (𝑓) = (7.49)
2

X0(f) be Fourier transform of x0(t), input noise to the optimum filter is

n(t).and its power spectral density (psd) be Sni(f) , H(f) is the transfer
function of optimum filter.

47
EXAMPLE (1). A polar NRZ waveform has to be received with the help of
a matched filter. Here, binary 1 is represented by a rectangular positive
pulse. Also, binary zero is represented by a rectangular negative pulse.
Determine the impulse response of the matched filter. Also, sketch it.
Solution:
Let x1(t) represent the positive rectangular pulse with duration T as shown
in figure 7.16(a).
Let x2(t) represent a negative rectangular pulse with duration T as shown in
figure 7.16(b)

48
49
Figure 7.17 shows the sketch of this impulse response.

2𝑘
When = 1 , The figure will be same as figure 7.16(e) and figure 7.16(c).
𝑁0
This proves that the shape of the impulse response of the matched filter
is similar (or matched) to the shape of the input signal x(t). Hence, it is
known as matched filter.

Calculation of Probability of Error (Pe) for the Matched Filter:

To evaluate the probability of error for matched filter, let us consider
optimum filter and the special case of white Gaussian noise.
The error probability of optimum filter is expressed as,

50
51
Few Points about Error Probability of Error, Pe of Matched Filter:
From the above equation (7.64), we can find the following important
conclusions:
(i) The error probability depends only upon the signal energy E. It does not
depend on the shape of the signal.
(ii) If x1(t) = – x2(t). and the error probability for integrate and dump filter
where we have taken x1(t) = + A and x2(t) = – A.
In other words, x1(t) = – x2(t) = A and we obtained error probability of
integrator as,

This result is same as error probability of matched filter given by

equation (7.65).
Hence, Integrator is equivalent to matched filter when x1(t) = – x2(t) = A or in
other words, for a rectangular bipolar pulse input, the integrate and dump
filter is same as a matched filter.
(4) The Correlator: Coherent Reception:
The correlator is a coherent baseband receiver system. The term
‘correlation’ means similarity.
The present system takes the noise accumulated signal from the
communication channel and generates a known difference waveform with
respect to raw signal component, locally.
The similarity of all the components on the received signal is then
measured with the local signal. Obviously the similarity with the signal
component is much higher than the similarity (correlation) with the noise
component. The system is referred to as a correlator because it maximizes
correlation.
A correlator's mathematical operation is correlation; a signal is
correlated with a copy of itself. In fact, the terms ‘matched filter' and
‘correlator' are frequently used interchangeably.

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Key Point: It is important to note that the correlator output and the
matched filter output are the same only at time t = T.
Figure 7.27 shows the block diagram of this correlator.

In figure 7.27, f(t) represents input noisy signal, i.e., f(t) = x(t) + n(t).
The signal f(t) is multiplied to the locally generated replica of input signal
x(t). Then, result of multiplication f(t) × x(t) is integrated.
The output of the integrator is sampled at t = T (i.e., end of one symbol
period). Then based on this sampled value, decision is made. This is how the
correlator works. It is known as correlator because it correlates the received
signal f(t) with a stored replica of the known signal x(t).
In the block diagram of figure 7.27, the product f(t)×x(t) is integrated
over one symbol period, i.e., T. Thus, output y(t) will be,

At t = T, this equation will become output of correlator,

Now consider the matched filter as shown in figure 7.28. In this block
diagram, it may be observed that the matched filter does not need locally

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generated replica of input signal x(t). The output of the matched filter is
obtained by convolution of input f(t) and its impulse response h(t).
This means that

Therefore, The matched filter and correlator are two distinct,

independent techniques that produce same result. In fact, these two
techniques are used to develop the optimum filter.

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Inter Symbol Interference (ISI):
Generally, digital data is represented by electrical pulse,
communication channel is always band limited. Such a channel disperses or
spreads a pulse carrying digitized samples passing through it.
When the channel bandwidth is greater than bandwidth of pulse,
spreading of pulse is very less. But when channel bandwidth is close to
signal bandwidth, i.e. if we transmit digital data which demands more
bandwidth which exceeds channel bandwidth, spreading will occur and
cause signal pulses to overlap. This overlapping is called Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI).
Similar to interference caused by other sources, ISI causes
degradations of signal if left uncontrolled. This problem of ISI exists
strongly in Telephone channels like coaxial cables and optical fibers.
The main objective is to study the effect of ISI, when digital data is
transmitted through band limited channel and solution to overcome the
degradation of waveform by properly shaping pulse.
Ex (1):

Ex (2):

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 The above figure show the effect of a pulse sequence transmitted
through a channel. The Spreading of pulse is greater than symbol duration,
as a result adjacent pulses interfere. i.e. pulses get completely smeared, tail
of smeared pulse enter into adjacent symbol intervals making it difficult to
decide actual transmitted pulse.
Effect of Inter Symbol Interference (ISI):
Following are the effects of ISI:
(i) In the absence of ISI and noise, the transmitted bit can be decoded
correctly at the receiver.
(ii) The presence of ISI will introduce errors in the decision at the receiver
output.
(iii) Hence, the receiver can make an error in deciding whether it has
received a logic 1 or a logic 0.
Remedy to Reduce ISI:
(i) It has been proved that the function which produces a zero inter symbol
interference is a sinc function. Hence, instead of a rectangular pulse if we
transmit a sinc pulse then the ISI can be reduced to zero.

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(ii) This is known as Nyquist Pulse Shaping. The sinc pulse transmitted to
have a zero ISI has been shown in figure 5.34 (a).
(iii) Further, we know that Fourier transform of a sin c pulse is a rectangular
function. Hence, to preserve all the frequency components, the frequency
response of the filter must be exactly flat in the pass band and zero in the
attenuation band as shown in figure 5.34 (b).
However, type of filter is practically not present or not possible. Hence,
in practice, the frequency response of the filter is modified as shown in
figure 5.35 with different roll off factors a to obtain the achievable filter
response curves.

Eye Diagram (or) Eye Pattern:

In a band limited channel, the pulse appearing at the output of the
system will be dispersed over an interval which is longer than that of the
transmitted pulse.

Eye diagram is a very effective tool for digital signal analysis during real
time experiments.

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 An eye pattern is a practical technique for determining the severity of the
degradations introduced by ISI and channel noise into the line coded digital
pulses in baseband transmission.
Eye diagram is a simple and convenient engineering tool applied on
received signals for studying the effects of
a) ISI
b) Accuracy of timing extraction
c) Noise immunity
d) Determining the bit error rate (BER)
Eye diagram provides information about the state of the channel and the
quality of the received pulse. This information is useful for faithful detection
of received signal and determination of overall performance of digital
communication system.
How to generate eye pattern/diagram:
Eye pattern is a pattern displayed on the screen of a cathode ray
oscilloscope CRO. This pattern's shape is similar to the shape of a human
eye. Hence, it is known as eye pattern. Eye pattern is a practical way to
study the inter symbol interference (ISI) and its effects on a PCM or data
communication system.

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 The eye pattern is obtained on the CRO interference by applying the
received signal to vertical deflection plates (Y-plates) of the CRO and a
sawtooth wave at the transmission symbol rate i.e., (1/Tb) to the horizontal
deflection plates (X-plates) as shown in figure 5.74 (c). The received digital
signal and the corresponding oscilloscope display have been shown in
figures 5.74(a) and (c) respectively. The resulting oscilloscope display shown
in figure 5.74 (c) is called as the eye pattern. This is due to its resemblance
to the human eye.
The interior region of the eye pattern is known as the eye
opening. The eye pattern provides a great deal of information about the
performance of the system.
Interpretation of eye pattern:

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(i) The width of the eye opening defines the time-interval over which the
received wave can be sampled, without an error due to ISI. The best time for
sampling is when the eye is open widest.
(ii) The sensitivity of the system to the timing error is determined by the rate
of closure of the eye as the sampling rate is varied. The height of eye opening
at a specified sampling time defines the margin over noise.
(iii) When the effect of ISI is severe, the eye is completely closed and it is
impossible to avoid errors due to the combined presence of ISI and noise in
the system.

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