Adc Unit 1 Material PDF

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS VEC-ECE
ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
Course Objectives:
 To develop ability to analyze system requirements of analog and digital
communication systems.
 To understand the generation, detection of various analog and digital
modulation techniques.
 To acquire theoretical knowledge of each block in AM, FM transmitters
and receivers.
 To understand the concepts of baseband transmissions.
Course Outcomes: Upon completing this course, the student will be able to
 Analyze and design of various continuous wave and angle modulation
and demodulation techniques
 Understand the effect of noise present in continuous wave and angle
modulation techniques.
 Attain the knowledge about AM , FM Transmitters and Receivers
 Analyze and design the various Pulse Modulation Techniques.
 Understand the concepts of Digital Modulation Techniques and
Baseband transmission.
UNIT-1
Syllabus:
Amplitude Modulation: Need for modulation, Amplitude Modulation - Time

and frequency domain description, single tone modulation, power relations
in AM waves, Generation of AM waves - Switching modulator, Detection of
AM Waves - Envelope detector, DSBSC modulation - time and frequency
domain description, Generation of DSBSC Waves - Balanced Modulators,
Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves, COSTAS Loop, SSB
modulation - time and frequency domain description, frequency
discrimination and Phase discrimination methods for generating SSB,
Demodulation of SSB Waves, principle of Vestigial side band modulation.
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Communication means sharing or exchanging information between two or

more individuals (or) systems.
For example, a person communicates with the help of a language, with the
help of various facial expressions like smile, angry, nervousness. A traffic
police communicates with the help of hand symbols to direct traffic.
Communication Definition:
Communication is the process of conveying (sending, receiving and
processing) of information between two or more individuals (or) devices.
or
Communication is the process of exchange of information between two or
more people (or) devices.
Communication System Definition:
Communication system is a collection of elements which works together to
establish a communication bridge between the sender (transmitter) and
receiver.
Block Diagram of communication system:
1) Information source:
 Messages can be in the form of words, groups of words, code,
symbols, sound signal etc.
 Out of these messages, only the desired message is selected and
conveyed or communicated.
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 The function of information source is to produce the required

message, which has to be transmitted.
2) Transmitter:
 A transmitter comprises of electrical and electronic components that
convert the message signal into a suitable form for propagating over
the communication medium.
 This is often achieved by modulating the message signal with a carrier
signal (high frequency signal) to carry the modulating or message
signal.
3) The channel and the noise:
 Channel means the medium through which the message travels from
the transmitter to the receiver.
 The channel can be of many forms like coaxial cable, microwave links
radio wave links, or an optical fiber.
 During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets
distorted due to noise introduced in the system.
 Noise is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required
signal.
 Noise signal is always random in nature.
 Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication
system.
4) Receiver:
 The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal.
 This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process
known as the demodulation or detection.
 Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in
transmitter.
 The demodulated signal is in electrical form.
5) Destination:
 Destination is the final stage.
 The demodulated electrical signal is converted into the original
message.
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Types of Signals:
 Conveying information by some means such as gestures, sounds,
actions, etc., can be termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a
source of energy which transmits some information. This signal helps
to establish a communication between the sender and the receiver.
 An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a
distance to convey a message, can be termed as a signal in
communication systems.
 Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into
two types: Analog and Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further
classified, as shown in the following figure.
Analog and digital signals are further classified into Periodic and Aperiodic
signals, as shown in the below figure.
Analog signal:
Analog signal is a continuous signal whose characteristics (amplitude,
voltage or frequency) changes continuously over a period of time. For
example, in an analog audio signal, the voltage of the signal varies
continuously with the pressure of the sound waves. Some examples of
analog signals are light signals, electrical signals, human speech signals,
and mechanical signals. In an electrical signal, the current, voltage or
frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information.
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Analog signals are used to send information from one place to another
place. Analog signals use some medium to transfer the information from one
place to another place. For example, electrical signals use copper cables as
the medium to send information from one place to another place; similarly,
human speech signals uses air as the medium to send information from one
place to another place. Analog signals are generally denoted by sine waves.
In practice, the analog signal experiences noise and distortion in the process
of sending information from transmitter to receiver.
The communication based on analog signals and analog values is called
as Analog Communication.
Digital signal:
Digital signal is a non-continuous electrical signal, which is used to convey
(send, receive, and process) information between the sender and receiver. In
digital signal, the original information (analog information) is converted into
a string of bits (digital information) before being transmitted.
A collection of elements which works together to convey (send, receive, and

process) information between the sender and receiver in digital form is called
digital communication system.
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For example, computers are digital in nature. They send, receive, store and
process information in binary form, i.e. in the combination of 0s and 1s.
Periodic signal
An analog or digital signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of
time is called periodic signal. They are deterministic signals.
Eg: sine wave, square wave, sawtooth wave, etc.

Aperiodic signal
An analog or digital signal which does not repeats itself after a specific
interval of time is called aperiodic signal. They are random signals.
Eg: sound signals from radio, all types of noise signals.
The binary digits which have only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital
values. Hence, the signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called
as digital signals. The communication based on digital signals and digital
values is called as Digital Communication.
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Frequency range of signals:

 Voice : Human Voice (Ex: Telephony)
Frequency range: 300- 3.5 KHz
 Audio : Audible to human ear
Frequency range: 20- 20 KHz
 Video: Frequency range: 0- 4.5 MHz
 Data: Frequency range: Depends upon the data rate & Pulse width
Modulation – Definition – Need for Modulation – Types of
Modulation:
A message signal cannot travel a long distance because of its
low signal strength. In addition to this, physical surroundings, the
addition of external noise and travel distance will further reduce the signal
strength of a message signal. So in order to send the message signal to a
long distance, we need to increase the signal strength of a message signal.
This can be achieved by using a high frequency or high energy signal called
carrier signal. A high energy signal can travel to a larger distance without
getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of such high
energy signal to transmit the message signal. This high energy or high
frequency signal is known as carrier signal.
The low energy message signal is mixed with the high energy or high
frequency carrier signal to produce a new high energy signal which carries
information to a larger distance.
How the message signal should be added to the carrier signal?
The solution lies in changing some characteristics (amplitude,
frequency or phase) of a carrier signal in accordance with the amplitude of
the message signal. This process is called modulation. Modulation means to
“change”.
The Message signal contains information whereas the carrier signal contains
no information. Carrier signal is used just to transmit the information to a
long distance. At the destination, the message signal is consumed whereas
the carrier signal is wasted.
In modulation process, the characteristics of the carrier signal is changed
but the message signal characteristics will not be changed. The carrier
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signal does not contain any information so even if we change the

characteristics of the carrier signal, the information contained in it will not
be changed. However, the message signal contains information so if we
change the characteristics of the message signal, the information contained
in it will also changes. Therefore, we always changes the characteristics of
the carrier signal but not the message signal.
Modulation allows the transmission to occur at high frequency while it
simultaneously allows the carrying of the message signal.
Modulation Definition:
Modulation is the process of changing the some characteristics (amplitude,

frequency or phase) of the carrier signal, in accordance with the amplitude
of the message signal. In case of voice signal, the value of amplitude depends
on the LOUDENESS. The more loudly we speak, more the amplitude value.
Message signal = baseband signal (or) information bearing signal (or)
modulating signal (or) input signal (or) intelligence signal.
Ex: voice, audio, music, video, computer data
A device that performs modulation is called modulator.
Example: The modulation process can be understood with a simple
example. The below figure shows the amplitude modulation.
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The first figure shows the modulating signal or message signal which
contains information, the second figure shows the high frequency carrier
signal which contains no information and the last figure shows the resultant
amplitude modulated signal.
From the above three figures, it can be observed that the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instant amplitude of the
message signal.
Types of Signals in Modulation:

In modulation process, three types of signals are used to transmit
information from source to destination. They are:
1) Message signal
2) Carrier signal
3) Modulated signal
1) Message signal
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted to the destination is
called a message signal. The message signal is also known as a modulating
signal or baseband signal.
The original frequency range of a transmission signal is called baseband
signal. The message signal or baseband signal undergoes a process called
modulation before it gets transmitted over the communication channel.
Hence, the message signal is also known as the modulating signal.
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2) Carrier signal
The high energy or high frequency signal which has characteristics like
amplitude, frequency, and phase but contains no information is called a
carrier signal. It is also simply referred to as a carrier. Carrier signal is used
to carry the message signal from transmitter to receiver. The carrier signal is
also sometimes referred to as an empty signal.
3) Modulated signal
When the message signal is mixed with the carrier signal, a new signal is
produced. This new signal is known as a modulated signal. The modulated
signal is the combination of the carrier signal and modulating signal.
Need for Modulation:

Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system because of the
following reasons:
1) Avoids mixing of signals
2) Increase the range of communication
3) Wireless communication
4) Reduces the effect of noise
5) Reduces height of antenna
1) Avoids mixing of signals
One of the basic challenges facing by the communication engineering
is transmitting individual messages simultaneously over a single
communication channel. A method by which many signals or multiple
signals can be combined into one signal and transmitted over a single
communication channel is called multiplexing.
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We know that the sound frequency range is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. If the multiple

baseband sound signals of same frequency range (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 KHz) are
combined into one signal and transmitted over a single communication
channel without doing modulation, then all the signals get mixed together
and the receiver cannot separate them from each other. We can easily
overcome this problem by using the modulation technique.
By using modulation, the baseband sound signals of same frequency
range (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 KHz) are shifted to different frequency ranges.
Therefore, now each signal has its own frequency range within the total
bandwidth.
After modulation, the multiple signals having different frequency
ranges can be easily transmitted over a single communication channel
without any mixing and at the receiver side, they can be easily separated.
2) Increase the range of communication
The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the
frequency of the wave, the greater the energy possessed by it. The baseband
audio signals frequency is very low so they cannot be transmitted over large
distances. On the other hand, the carrier signal has a high frequency or
high energy. Therefore, the carrier signal can travel large distances if
radiated directly into space.
The only practical solution to transmit the baseband signal to a large
distance is by mixing the low energy baseband signal with the high energy
carrier signal. When the low frequency or low energy baseband signal is
mixed with the high frequency or high energy carrier signal, the resultant
signal frequency will be shifted from low frequency to high frequency. Hence,
it becomes possible to transmit information over large distances. Therefore,
the range of communication is increased.
3) Wireless communication
In radio communication, the signal is radiated directly into space. The
baseband signals have very low frequency range (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 KHz). So it
is not possible to radiate baseband signals directly into space because of its
poor signal strength. However, by using the modulation technique, the
frequency of the baseband signal is shifted from low frequency to high
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frequency. Therefore, after modulation, the signal can be directly radiated

into space.
4) Reduces the effect of noise
Noise is an unwanted signal that enters the communication system
via the communication channel and interferes with the transmitted signal.
A message signal cannot travel for a long distance because of its low signal
strength. Addition of external noise will further reduce the signal strength of
a message signal. So in order to send the message signal to a long distance,
we need to increase the signal strength of the message signal. This can be
achieved by using a technique called modulation.
In modulation technique, a low energy or low frequency message signal is
mixed with the high energy or high frequency carrier signal to produce a
new high energy signal which carries information to a long distance without
getting affected by the external noise.
5) Reduces height of antenna
When the transmission of a signal occurs over free space, the
transmitting antenna radiates the signal out and receiving antenna receives
it. In order to effectively transmit and receive the signal, the antenna height
should be approximately equal to the wavelength of the signal to be
transmitted.
Now,
The audio signal has a very low frequency (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz) and longer
wavelength, so if the signal is transmitted directly into space, the length of
the transmitting antenna required would be extremely large.
For instance, to radiate an audio signal frequency of 20 kHz directly into

space, we would need an antenna height of 15,000 meters.
The antenna of this height is practically impossible to construct.
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On the other hand, if the audio signal (20 Hz) has been modulated by a
carrier wave of 200 MHz. Then, we would need an antenna height of 1.5
meters. The antenna of this height is easy to construct.
Types of Modulation:
There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation
techniques used, they are classified as shown in the following figure.
 The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave

modulation and pulse modulation.
 Continuous-wave Modulation: In continuous-wave modulation, a
high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This is further
divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is further divided into
frequency modulation and phase modulation.
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase
modulation.
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 If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the

instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.
 If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Phase Modulation.
Pulse Modulation:
 In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a
carrier wave. This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.
 In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude or duration or position
of a pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the
baseband modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation
(PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
 In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of
1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM.
This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM).
S.NO Modulation What Constant Constant

Changed
1 AM Amplitude Frequency Phase
2 FM Frequency Amplitude Phase
3 PM Phase Amplitude Frequency
*****w. r. t Amplitude of Message Signal
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Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.”
OR
Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude (signal
strength) of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the amplitude
(signal strength) of the message signal.
Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no
information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing
information at each instant.
In amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed
while the frequency and phase of the carrier wave remain constant.
The above figures show the amplitude modulation.
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The first figure shows the modulating signal or message signal which
contains information, the second figure shows the high frequency carrier
signal which contains no information and the last figure shows the resultant
amplitude modulated signal.
The third figure shows that the amplitude of both the positive and
negative half cycles of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instant amplitude of the message signal. It can be observed that the positive
and negative peaks of the amplitude modulated (AM) wave are
interconnected with an imaginary line. This imaginary line on the AM wave is
called envelope. The shape of the envelope of AM wave looks same as the
message signal. Therefore, this envelope helps in recreating the exact shape
of the message signal.
The carrier signal does not contain any information so even if we

change the amplitude of the carrier signal, no information loss will occur.
However, if we change the characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of
the message signal, information loss will occur because the message signal
contains the information. So the characteristics of the message signal
should not be changed.
Amplitude modulation was the earliest modulation technique used to

transmit voice signals by radio signals. Amplitude modulation is still used in
many forms of communication; for example, it is used in portable two-way
radios, citizens band radio, VHF aircraft radio, and in computer modems in
the form of QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).
In amplitude modulation, the message signal is an audio signal which

represents sound, (or) a video signal which represents the image. The
carrier wave which has a much higher frequency than the message signal
carries the information. At the receiving station, the message signal is
extracted from the amplitude modulated wave by demodulation technique.
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Mathematical Expression of AM:

Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.
Time-domain Representation of the Waves:
Let the modulating signal be,
and the carrier signal be,

is the modulating signal or message signal
is the carrier signal
is the maximum amplitude of the message signal
is the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal
is the frequency of the message signal
is the frequency of the carrier signal
According to the Definition of AM, Change the amplitude of the carrier signal
(I,e The carrier frequency remains constant, but its amplitude varies in
accordance with the modulating signal).
is the Amplitude modulated signal.
Where is Constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator
The term is called Envelope of the AM wave.
Note: In A.M. Carrier is also Transmitting along with the Modulated

signal which is used at the Receiver for Demodulation
when m(t) = Zero
then s(t)= c(t) which is called as Unmodulated Carrier
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Before Modulation, Magnitude is : Ac

After Modulation, Magnitude is : Ac [1+ Ka m(t)]
Spectrum of AM signal:
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Representation:
• F.T. of
x(t) = X(f) General Notation
m(t) = M(f) Used for Message Signal(KHz)
c(t) = C(f) Used for Carrier Signal(MHz)
s(t) = S(f) Used for Modulated Signal(MHz)
I.F.T. of
X(f) = x(t)
G(f) = g(t)
M(f) = m(t)
Types of Modulation:
Single tone modulation:

If the message signal contains only single frequency component then
corresponding modulation is called as Single tone modulation.
Multi tone modulation:

If the message signal contains more than one frequency components then
corresponding modulation is called as Multi tone modulation.
Single tone
Multi tone
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Examples:
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Case 1: Single tone modulation

Let message signal be
Let the modulating signal be,
and the carrier signal be,
Time-domain Representation of AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
Where = Modulation index
2 cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
Frequency Spectrum of Amplitude Modulation:

The carrier is an un-modulated sine wave which has a single value of
frequency (eg: 3 MHz) and carries no useful information. When such a
carrier is modulated with a message signal, other frequencies can be
detected in it. These new frequencies that are caused by modulation are
called sidebands. These sidebands are created above and below the carrier
frequency.
The sidebands that are created above the carrier frequency are
called upper sidebands and the sidebands that are created below the
carrier frequency are called lower sidebands.
I.e. = and =
Where, is the carrier frequency
is the message signal frequency
is lower sideband frequency
is upper sideband frequency
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Example: A carrier of 800 kHz frequency which is modulated by a message

signal (audio signal) of 10 kHz frequency. The process of modulating a
carrier signal with message signal is same as mixing two signals together. As
a result of modulation, two sideband frequencies are produced.
One sideband frequencies are created above the carrier frequency. These
sidebands are known as upper sidebands or sum frequencies. The upper
sidebands are created due to the addition of carrier signal frequency (800
kHz) with the message signal frequency (10 kHz) I.e. 800 kHz + 10 kHz =
810 kHz.
Another sideband frequencies are created below the carrier frequency.

These sidebands are known as lower sidebands or difference frequencies.
The lower sidebands are created due to the subtraction of message signal
frequency (10kHz) with the carrier signal frequency (800 kHz) I.e. 800 kHz –
10 kHz = 790 kHz.
I.e. 10 kHz frequency is produced above and below the carrier.
Consider the expression of AM (amplitude modulated) wave given by
equation.
In the above equation, the first term represents un modulated carrier, the
second term represents UPPER sideband and the last term represents
LOWER sideband as shown in the figure.
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This contains the full carrier and both the sidebands. Hence, it is also
called Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) system.
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Modulation index of amplitude modulation:

Modulation index or modulation depth describes how the amplitude,
frequency or phase of the carrier signal and message signal affects the
amplitude, frequency or phase of the modulated signal.
Amplitude modulation index describes how the amplitude of the
carrier signal and message signal affects the amplitude of the amplitude
modulated (AM) signal. or
Amplitude modulation index is defined as the ratio of the
maximum amplitude of message signal to the maximum amplitude of
carrier signal. I.e.,
(1)
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Where,
Am is the maximum amplitude of the message signal
Ac is the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal
μ is the Modulation index or modulation depth
The maximum amplitude of the message signal must be less than the
maximum amplitude of the carrier signal to avoid any distortion in the
modulated signal.
For example, if the carrier signal amplitude is 5 volts then the
message signal amplitude must be less than 5 volts. The maximum value of
the modulation index will be equal to one when Am = Ac. The minimum value
of the modulation index will be zero.
If modulation index is higher than 1, then it is called over modulation.
In over modulation, the data loss will occur. When modulation index is
expressed in percentage, it is also called percentage modulation.
Calculation of Modulation Index from Amplitude Modulated (AM)
waveform:
The below figure shows the amplitude modulated (AM) waveform through
which we can calculate the modulation index.
It is clear from the below figure that the modulating signal rides above the
carrier signal.
From the above figure, we can write,
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(2)
(3)
Put value from eq(2) into eq(3),then we get
(4)
(5)
Taking the ratio of equation (2) and (5),
(6)
The above equation (I.e. eq (6)) gives the technique of calculating modulation
index from amplitude modulated (AM) wave.
Modulation Index (μ) or Modulation Depth Examples:
The maximum amplitude of the message signal must be less than (or equal
to) the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal to avoid any distortion in
the modulated signal.
For example, if the carrier signal amplitude is 5 volts then the message
signal amplitude must be less than (or equal to) 5 volts. Hence, the
maximum value of the modulation index will be less than one or equal to
one (μ<=1) when Am<=Ac. The minimum value of the modulation index will
be zero.
Based on this, there are three types of modulation:
1. Perfect-Modulation
2. Under-Modulation
3. Over-Modulation
1. Perfect-Modulation:
Perfect-modulation occurs when the maximum amplitude of the message
signal or modulating signal is exactly equal to the maximum amplitude of
the carrier signal (Am = Ac).
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The modulation index is the ratio of the maximum amplitude of the message
signal to the maximum amplitude of carrier signal.
For example, if the message signal maximum amplitude is 4 volts and
carrier signal maximum amplitude is also 4 volts, then the ratio of
modulating signal amplitude (4 volts) to the carrier signal amplitude (4 volts)
is equal to 1. Therefore, the modulation index in perfect-modulation is equal
to one (μ=1).
μ=1
The modulation index is also known as the modulation depth. The perfect-
modulation has a modulation depth of 100%. In perfect-modulation, the
carrier level falls to zero. Perfect-modulation causes no distortion.
2. Under-Modulation:
Under-modulation occurs when the maximum amplitude of the
message signal or modulating signal is less than the maximum amplitude of
the carrier signal (Am<Ac).
carrier signal maximum amplitude is 4 volts, then the ratio of modulating
signal amplitude (2 volts) to the carrier signal amplitude (4 volts) is equal to
0.5. Therefore, the modulation index in under-modulation is less than one
(μ<1). The under-modulation has a modulation depth of less than 100%. In
under-modulation, the carrier level falls above zero. Under-modulation
causes no distortion.
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μ<1
3. Over-Modulation:
Over-modulation occurs when the maximum amplitude of the
message signal or modulating signal is greater than the maximum
amplitude of the carrier signal (Am> Ac).
carrier signal maximum amplitude is 4 volts, then the ratio of modulating
signal amplitude (6 volts) to the carrier signal amplitude (4 volts) is equal to
1.5. Therefore, the modulation index in over-modulation is greater than one
(μ>1).The over-modulation has a modulation depth of greater than 100%. In
over-modulation, the carrier wave experiences 180° phase reversals where
the carrier level falls below the zero point.
μ>1
Over-modulation causes severe distortion of the waveform of the message

signal which results in data loss. Over-modulation is one of the reasons why
amplitude modulation is no longer used to transmit high-quality sound
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signals. At the transmitter, limiters are included which prevent more than
100% modulation.
Bandwidth of AM Wave:
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest

frequencies of the signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
BW = -
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
Where = Modulation index
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Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are
carrier frequency , upper sideband frequency and lower
sideband frequency
Here, and
Substitute and values in bandwidth formula.

BW =
BW =
BW = 2
Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated
wave is twice the frequency of the modulating signal.
Power relations in AM waves:

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband,

and lower sideband frequency components.
We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is
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Where, is the rms value of cos signal.

is the peak value of cos signal.
First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one
by one.
Carrier power
Upper sideband power
Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper
side band power.
Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.
We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the
carrier power and the modulation index are known.
Re arrange equation,
If μ=1 i.e. for 100% modulation
If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times
the carrier power.
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So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the
carrier power for a perfect modulation.
If the total power is 100KW
Modulation index (μ) Carrier + Sidebands
μ=1 67KW + 33KW
μ=1/ 80KW + 20KW

μ=0.5 89KW + 11KW
Current calculations:
Let be un modulated current and be the total or modulated current of

an AM transmitter both being rms values. If R is the resistance,
Power Efficiency of AM wave:
 It can be defined as the ratio of power in sidebands to total power.

Because sidebands only contain the useful information ( modulating
or message signal).
= =
If μ=1 then
CASE 2 : Multi tone Modulation
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A multitone amplitude modulation is a type of modulation in which the

modulating signal consists of more than one frequency components.
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Advantages of Amplitude Modulation

1. Few components needed: At the receiver side, the original signal is
extracted (demodulated) using a circuit consisting of very few components.
2. Low cost: The component used in amplitude modulation is very cheap.
So the AM transmitter and AM receiver build at low cost.
3. It is simple to implement.
4. Long distance communication: Amplitude modulated waves can travel a
longer distance.
Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation
1. Amplitude modulation is inefficient in terms of its power usage: As
we know that the message signal contains information whereas the carrier
signal does not contain any information. In amplitude modulation, most of
the power is concentrated in the carrier signal which contains no
information. At the receiver side, the power consumed by the carrier wave is
wasted.
2. It requires high bandwidth: The amplitude modulation is not efficient in
terms of its use of bandwidth. It requires a bandwidth equal to twice that of
the highest audio signal frequency.
3. This type of transmission can be easily affected by the external radiation.
4. This type of transmission is also affected by the man-made noises or
radiations like waves from other antennas or channels.
34
5. Amplitude modulation (AM) cannot be used for transmitting music as

done by frequency modulation (FM).
6. Amplitude modulation cannot be used for transmission of sensitive
information like in the army, where interpretation or loss or disruption
during transmission is not an option.
Applications of Amplitude Modulation
1. Air band radio: The amplitude modulation is extensively used in
aerospace industry. The VHF (Very High Frequency) transmissions made by
the airborne equipment still use amplitude modulation. The radio contact
between ground to ground and also ground to air use amplitude modulated
(AM) signals.
2. Broadcast transmission: Amplitude modulation (AM) is still widely used
for broadcasting either short or medium or long wave bands.
3. Quadrature amplitude modulation: Amplitude modulation is used in
the transmission of data of almost everything, from short-range
transmission such as wifi to cellular communications. Quadrature
amplitude modulation is formed by mixing two carriers that are out of phase
by 90°.
4. Single sideband: The amplitude modulation (AM) in the form of single
sideband is still used for HF (High Frequency) radio links.
Problem 1:
A modulating signal is amplitude modulated with
a carrier signal Find the modulation index, the
carrier power, and the power required for transmitting AM wave.
Solution:
Given, the equation of modulating signal as
We know the standard equation of modulating signal as
By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of modulating signal as =10 volts
and Frequency of modulating signal as
35
Given, the equation of carrier signal is
The standard equation of carrier signal is
By comparing these two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as =10 volts
and Frequency of carrier signal as
We know the formula for modulation index as
Substitute, and values in the above formula.
Therefore, the value of modulation index ( is 0.2 and percentage of

modulation is 20%.
The formula for Carrier power,
Assume R=1Ω and substitute value in the above formula.
Therefore, the Carrier power is 1250 watts.

We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is
Substitute and values in the above formula.
Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.

Problem 2:
The equation of amplitude wave is given is given by
. Find the carrier power, the
total sideband power, and the band width of AM wave.
Solution:
Given, the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is
36
Re-write the above equation as
We know the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is
By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as = 20volts
Modulation index as μ = 0.8
Frequency of modulating signal as = =1 KHz
Frequency of carrier signal as = =200 KHz
The formula for Carrier power, is
Therefore, the Carrier power, is 200watts.

We know the formula for total side band power is
Substitute and μ values in the above formula.
Therefore, the total side band power is 64 watts.

We know the formula for Bandwidth of AM wave is
BW = 2
Substitute value in the above formula.

BW = 2 (1K) = 2 KHz
Therefore, the bandwidth of AM wave is 2 KHz.
Problem 3:
In an AM transmission the carrier signal is modulated with a
message signal .
37
(a) What is the modulation index? (b) What are the frequency components
are available in AM signal? (c) Determine the Carrier power, sideband power
and total power. (d) What is the efficiency of the AM system?
Solution:
(a)
(b) Carrier frequency = 100000 Hz

LSB= 100000 – 100 = 99900 Hz
USB= 100000 + 100 = 100100 Hz
(C) The formula for Carrier power, is
Total sideband power

Total power
(d)
Problem 4:
A 400W carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the total power in
the modulated wave. Also determine the total sideband power.
Solution:
The formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is
Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 512 watts

The side band power
38
Problem 5:
A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 KW, when the modulation
percentage is 60. Determine the carrier, lower sideband, upper sideband
and total sideband power.
Solution:
The carrier power
The side band power
The Lower side band power
The Upper side band power
Problem 6:
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A, when only the carrier is
sent, but increases to 8.93 A, when the carrier is modulated by a single sine
wave. Find the percentage of modulation. Determine the antenna current
when the modulation index is 0.8.
Solution:
(a) Given that the carrier current and total currents are
= 8A and = 8.93 A
The total current and carrier currents are related by
= μ = 70.1 % or 0.701
(b) For μ = 0.80
= 9.19 A
Problem 7:
A certain transmitter radiates 9 KW power with the carrier un-modulated
and 10.125 KW, when the carrier is simultaneously modulated. Calculate
the modulation index. If another sine wave corresponding to 40%
modulation is transmitted simultaneously, determine the resultant
modulation index and total radiated power.
39
Solution:
(a) Given that = 9 KW and = 10.125 KW
(b) The another modulating sine wave modulation index is given by

40% or 0.40.
Then the total modulation index is given by
(c) The total radiated power
Generation of AM Waves:
The following two modulators generate AM wave.
 Square law modulator
 Switching modulator
Square Law Modulator:
Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as and

respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder)
block. This summer block produces an output, which is the addition of the
modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
⁡
This signal is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The
characteristics of the diode are closely related to square law.
⁡ (1)
Where, and are constants.
40
Substitute in Equation (1)
The last term (i,e 4) of the above equation represents the desired AM
wave and the first three terms of the above equation are unwanted. So,
with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate
the first three terms.
Therefore, the output of square law modulator is
The standard equation of AM wave is
Where, is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the
standard equation of AM wave, we will get the scaling factor as and the
amplitude sensitivity as .
Switching Modulator
Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.
41
Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only

difference is that in the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a
non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the diode has to
operate as an ideal switch.
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as and
respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to
the summer (adder) block. Summer block produces an output, which is the
addition of modulating and carrier signals.
Mathematically, we can write it as
This signal is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the

magnitude of the modulating signal is very small when compared to the
amplitude of carrier signal . So, the diode’s ON and OFF action is
controlled by carrier signal This means, the diode will be forward biased
when and it will be reverse biased when .
Therefore, the output of the diode is
We can approximate this as

(2)
Where, is a periodic pulse train with time period
The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is
42
Substitute, and values in Equation (2).
The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the
remaining terms are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass
filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the remaining terms.
Therefore, the output of switching modulator is
We know the standard equation of AM wave is
Where, is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard
equation of AM wave, we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude
sensitivity as
Detection of AM Waves:
The process of recovering the message signal from the received modulated
signal is known as demodulation or detection. This process of detection is
exactly opposite to that of modulation.
43
Fig: Process of Demodulation or Detection

The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as the
demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating AM wave.
 Square Law Demodulator
 Envelope Detector
Square Law Demodulator:
Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following
is the block diagram of the square law demodulator.
This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM
wave is applied as an input to this demodulator.
The standard form of AM wave is
⁡
We know that the mathematical relationship between the input and the
output of square law device is
⁡ (1)
Where,
is the input of the square law device, which is nothing but the
AM wave
is the output of the square law device
and are constants
Substitute in Equation (1)
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In the above equation, the term is the scaled version of

the message signal. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through
a low pass filter and the DC component can be eliminated with the help
of a coupling capacitor.
Envelope Detector:
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave.
Following is the block diagram of the envelope detector.
This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode
is the main detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as
the diode detector. The low pass filter contains a parallel combination of
the resistor and the capacitor.
The AM wave is applied as an input to this detector.
We know the standard form of AM wave is
45
The modulated signal is passed through a diode, where the negative

portion of the carrier wave is removed. The diode is then followed by a low-
pass RC filter, which removes the high-frequency spikes, restoring the
original low-frequency signal (i.e. the information).While envelope detection
is a simple means of signal recovery, it is not particularly efficient because
half of the signal (the negative portion of the carrier) is rejected.
or
In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the
capacitor charges to the peak value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave
is less than this value, the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor
will discharge through resistor R till the next positive half cycle of AM wave.
When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode
conducts and the process will be repeated.
We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor
charges very quickly and discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the
capacitor voltage waveform same as that of the envelope of AM wave, which
is almost similar to the modulating signal.
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DSBSC MODULATION:
In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists

of the carrier wave and two sidebands. The modulated wave has the
information only in the sidebands. Sideband is nothing but a band of
frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher frequencies
of the carrier frequency.
The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two

sidebands can be termed as Double Sideband Full Carrier system or
simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.
However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two thirds of the

power is being wasted in the carrier, which carries no information.
If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two
sidebands, then such a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following
figure.
47
48
49
50
Mathematical Expressions:
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and

carrier signals.
i.e., Modulating signal
Carrier signal
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the
product of modulating and carrier signals.
Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave:
We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

BW = -
Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.
The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum
and minimum frequencies are and respectively.
i.e,, and
Substitute and values in bandwidth formula.

BW =
BW =
BW = 2
Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is

equal to twice the frequency of the modulating signal.
Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave:
Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.
51
Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and
lower sideband frequency components.

is the peak value of cos signal.
First, let us find the powers of upper and lower sideband one by one.
Upper sideband power
side band power.
Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of
DSBSC wave.
Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to

the power of both the sidebands.
Generation of DSBSC Waves:
The following two modulators generate DSBSC wave.
 Balanced modulator
 Ring modulator
52
Balanced Modulator:
Following is the block diagram of the Balanced modulator.
Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two

modulators are arranged in a balanced configuration in order to suppress
the carrier signal. Hence, it is called as Balanced modulator.
The same carrier signal is applied as one of the inputs

to these two AM modulators. The modulating signal m(t) is applied as
another input to the upper AM modulator. Whereas, the modulating signal
m(t) with opposite polarity, i.e., −m(t) is applied as another input to the
lower AM modulator.
Output of the upper AM modulator is
Output of the lower AM modulator is
We get the DSBSC wave s(t) by subtracting s2(t) from s1(t). The summer
block is used to perform this operation. s1(t) with positive sign and s2(t)
with negative sign are applied as inputs to summer block. Thus, the
53
summer block produces an output s(t) which is the difference of s1(t) and
s2(t).
We know the standard equation of DSBSC wave is
By comparing the output of summer block with the standard equation of

DSBSC wave, we will get the scaling factor as
Ring Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.
In this diagram, the four diodes are connected in the ring

structure. Hence, this modulator is called as the ring modulator. Two
center tapped transformers are used in this diagram. The message signal
m(t) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas, the carrier signals c(t) is
applied between the two center tapped transformers.
For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes are
switched ON and the other two diodes are switched OFF. In this
case, the message signal is multiplied by +1.
For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes are
switched ON and the other two diodes are switched OFF. In this
54
case, the message signal is multiplied by -1. This results in phase

shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.
From the above analysis, we can say that the four diodes
are controlled by the carrier signal. If the carrier is a
square wave, then the Fourier series representation of c(t) is represented as
We will get DSBSC wave s(t), which is just the product of the carrier
signal c(t) and the message signal m(t) i.e.,
The above equation represents DSBSC wave, which is obtained at the

output transformer of the ring modulator.
DSBSC modulators are also called as product modulators as they produce

the output, which is the product of two input signals.
Detection of DSB-SC Modulated Waves:

The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is
known as detection or demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators
(detectors) are used for demodulating DSBSC wave.
 Coherent Detector
 Costas Loop
Coherent Detector:
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC
signal) is used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection
is called as coherent or synchronous detection. Following is the block
diagram of the coherent detector.
55
In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC

wave by multiplying it with a carrier, having the same frequency and the
phase of the carrier used in DSBSC modulation. The resulting signal is then
passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the desired
message signal.
Let the DSBSC wave be
The output of the local oscillator is
Where, is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the
carrier signal, which is used for DSBSC modulation.
From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as
Substitute, and values in the above equation.
56
In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message
signal. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass
filter.
Therefore, the output of low pass filter is
The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when That’s

why the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be in phase, i.e.,
there should not be any phase difference between these two signals.
The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when as. This
effect is called as quadrature null effect.
Costas Loop
Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC
modulation) and the locally generated signal in phase. Following is the block
diagram of Costas loop.
Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common input s(t),
which is DSBSC wave. The other input for both product modulators is taken
from Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) with phase shift to one of
the product modulator as shown in figure.
We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is
57
Let the output of VCO be
This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product
modulator. Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is
After simplifying, we will get as
This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of
this low pass filter is
Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the
modulating signal.
The output of phase shifter is
This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator.
The output of the lower product modulator is
After simplifying, we will get as
This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter. The output of
this low pass filter is
The output of this Low pass filter has phase difference with the output
of the upper low pass filter.
58
The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase
discriminator. Based on the phase difference between these two signals, the
phase discriminator produces a DC control signal.
This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO
output. Therefore, the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the
locally generated signal (VCO output) are in phase.
SSB Modulation:
The DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands
carry the same information, there is no need to transmit both sidebands. We
can eliminate one sideband.
The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and
transmitting a single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following
figure.
In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed.
Hence, the upper sideband is used for transmission. Similarly, we can
suppress the carrier and the upper sideband while transmitting the lower
sideband.
This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband, has high power, as
the power allotted for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in
transmitting this Single Sideband.
59
Analysis of SSB:
As we know, the transmission bandwidth of standard AM as well as DSB-SC
modulated wave is 2W Hz i.e., twice the message bandwidth W. Therefore,
both these systems are bandwidth inefficient systems.
In both these systems, one half of the transmission bandwidth is occupied
by the upper sideband (USB) and the other half is occupied by the lower
sideband (LSB ) as shown in below figure .
Fig.1 Spectrum of SSB-SC

However, the information contained in the USB is exactly identical to that
carried by the LSB. So, by transmitting both the sidebands we are
transmitting the same information twice.
Hence, we can transmit only one sideband (USB or LSB) by using Hilbert
transform without any loss of information. So, it is possible to suppress the
carrier and one sideband completely.
When only one sideband is transmitted, the modulation is called as single
sideband modulation. It is also known as SSB or SSB-SC modulation.
60
Frequency Domain Description:

Fig.1 (a) represents the spectrum X(f) of the message signal x(t) .
This spectrum is limited to the band:
The spectrum of DSB-SC wave which is obtained by taking the product of

x(t) and c(t) is shown in fig.1 (b) . It contains the USB as well as LSB.
When only USB is transmitted by the SSB system, then the corresponding
spectrum is as shown in fig.1 (c). And when only LSB is transmitted, the
frequency spectrum is as shown in fig. 1 (d).
Thus, the essential function of SSB modulation is to translate the spectrum
of the message signal to a new location in the frequency domain.
Mathematical Expressions:
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and
the carrier signals as
i.e., modulating signal

Carrier signal
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as
for the upper sideband
OR
for the lower sideband
Hilbert transform (Phase Shifter):

Single-Sideband (SSB) modulation uses Hilbert transform to remove
the LSB or USB. Review of SS
61
Hilbert Transform
Hilbert transform is an ideal phase shifter that shifts the phase of every
positive spectral component by -π/2.
62
Frequency Response:
63
Let a message signal m(t) is band limited to ‘w’ Hz.
Frequency Domain Description of SSB (USB SPECTRUM):
USB ( f )  M + ( f  f c )  M  ( f  f c )
1 1
  M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c )    M h ( f  f c )  M h ( f  f c ) 
2 2j
64
Frequency Domain Description of SSB (LSB SPECTRUM):
 LSB ( f )  M + ( f  f c )  M  ( f  f c )
1 1
  M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c )    M h ( f  f c )  M h ( f  f c ) 
2 2j
Time Domain Description of SSB:
USB (t )  m(t ) cos ωct  mh (t )sin ωct

 LSB (t )  m(t ) cos ωct  mh (t )sin ωct
 SSB (t )  m(t ) cos ωct mh (t )sin ωct
Single Tone SSB Modulation:
SSB (t )  Ac m(t )cos ωct mh (t )sin ωct 

Let a single tone message single be m(t )  Am cos ωmt
65
Frequency spectrum of single Tone SSB Modulation
Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its
bandwidth is Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one
sideband, its bandwidth is half of the bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave =
Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is and it is equal to

the frequency of the modulating signal.
Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.
for the upper sideband
OR
for the lower sideband
Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency
components.
66

is the peak value of cos signal
In this case, the power of the upper sideband is
side band power.
Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is
Advantages of SSB:
 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC

waves.
 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.
Disadvantages of SSB:
 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.
 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and
receiver have excellent frequency stability.
Applications of SSB:
 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.
 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
67
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.
Generation of SSB-SC Waves:

The following two methods generate SSBSC wave
 Frequency discrimination method
 Phase discrimination method
Frequency Discrimination Method:

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using
frequency discrimination method.
This modulator consists of a product modulator, carrier oscillator and

band pass filter designed to pass the desired sideband.
At the output of the product modulator, we get the DSB-SC modulated wave
which contains the two sidebands only.
The band pass filter will pass only one of these sidebands and produce the
SSB modulated wave at its output. This means the band pass filter can be
tuned to either upper sideband or lower sideband frequencies to get the
respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.
Demerit:
Let us consider above figure which shows the DSB-SC signal at the output
of the product modulator which contains both the sidebands.
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The frequency difference between the highest frequency in LSB and the
lowest frequency in USB is too small as shown in below figure.
Fig.: spectrum of message signal and product modulator output
This makes the design of the band pass filter extremely difficult because its
frequency response needs to have very sharp change over from attenuation
to pass band and vice versa.
Design of band pass Filter:
The design of band pass filter must be based on satisfying the following
conditions:
1. Passband of the BPF should occupy the same frequency range as that
occupied by the spectrum of the desired SSB modulated wave.
2. The width of the guard band which separates the passband from stopband
be twice the lowest frequency component of the message signal . i.e. Guard
band = 2f1 Hz
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Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using
phase discrimination method.
This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two phase

shifters, one local oscillator and one summer block. The product modulator
produces an output, which is the product of two inputs. The phase
shifter produces an output, which has a phase lag of with respect to
the input.
The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block
produces an output, which is either the sum of two inputs or the difference
of two inputs based on the polarity of inputs.
The modulating signal and the carrier signal
are directly applied as inputs to the upper product modulator. So, the upper
product modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two
inputs.
The output of upper product modulator is
70
The modulating signal and the carrier signal

are phase shifted by before applying as inputs to the lower product
modulator. So, the lower product modulator produces an output, which is
the product of these two inputs.
The output of lower product modulator is
Add and in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave having a

lower sideband.
Subtract from in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave

having a upper sideband.
Hence, by properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we

will get SSBSC wave having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.
Advantages:
1. It can generate the SSB signal at any frequency, so the frequency up
converter stage is not required.
71
2. It can use the low audio frequencies as modulating signal.(In filter method,
this is not possible ) .
3. It is easy to switch from one sideband to other.
Drawbacks:
1. The main drawback is that the design of the 90o phase shifting network for
the modulating signal is extremely critical.
2. This network has to provide a correct phase shift of 90o at all the modulating
frequencies which are practically difficult to achieve.
Demodulation of SSB-SC waves:

The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is
known as detection or demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used
for demodulating SSBSC wave.
Coherent Detector:
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating SSBSC wave) is
used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection. Following is the block diagram of
coherent detector.
In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by
multiplying it with a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the
carrier used in SSBSC modulation. The resulting signal is then passed
through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired message
signal.
Consider the following SSB-SC wave having a lower sideband.
72
From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as
Substitute s(t) and c(t) values in the above equation.
filter.
Therefore, the output of low pass filter is
Here, the scaling factor is
We can use the same block diagram for demodulating SSBSC wave having
an upper sideband. Consider the following SSBSC wave having an upper
sideband.
We can write the output of the product modulator as
Substitute s(t) and c(t) values in the above equation.
73
filter.
Therefore, the output of the low pass filter is
Here too the scaling factor is .
Therefore, we get the same demodulated output in both the cases by using
coherent detector.
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation:

In the SSBSC modulated signal has only one sideband frequency.
Theoretically, we can get one sideband frequency component completely by
using an ideal band pass filter. However, practically we may not get the
entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some information gets
lost. Also, the SSB modulation does not allow transmission of extremely low-
frequency signal accurately.
Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique was
introduced to overcome the drawbacks of SSB modulation. As SSB
modulation requires accurate frequency response of the filter to transmit
only one sideband completely.
Definition: Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation is a modulation technique
which allows transmission of one sideband in addition with a part or
vestige of the other. It is basically a compromise between DSB-SC and
SSB modulation.
Usually, VSB technique is used in TV transmission as television signal are
extremely low-frequency signals.
74
The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the below figure.

Description of frequency domain:
Let’s have a look at the spectrum of the message signal and VSB signal
It is already clear that in vestigial sideband modulation some eliminated

portion of USB is compensated by the vestige of LSB.(I.e., Along with the
upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in
this technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a
part of the upper sideband.) A guard band of very small width is laid on
either side of VSB in order to avoid the interferences.
Bandwidth of VSB-SC modulation:
We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is . Since the
VSBSC modulated wave contains the frequency components of one side
band along with the vestige of other sideband, the bandwidth of it will be the
sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave and vestige frequency .
i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave =
The bandwidth of the vestigial sideband signal is given by
75
Performance comparison of Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation with

DSB-SC and SSB modulation:
An amplitude modulated signal consists of two sidebands along with a
carrier. However, systems utilizing suppression of the signal eliminates
sometimes carrier only and sometimes one sideband along with the carrier.
Due to this, there exist some comparison points between them.
 A system utilizing a conventional amplitude modulation technique increases
both power consumption and bandwidth. However, DSB-SC and SSB
systems reduce the power consumption. Among all VSB system is best when
it comes to bandwidth utilization.
 In case of DSB-SC and SSB modulation techniques, the filter must be highly
efficient in order to suppress the carrier and desired sideband. On contrary,
VSB does not need such accurate filtering characteristics.
 The conventional method of amplitude modulation provides simple
demodulation at the receiver end. However, the detection process of DSB-
SC, SSB, VSB signals is costly and difficult. Hence for broadcasting
purposes, the conventional technique is mostly used.
Advantages of Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation:
1. It is a highly efficient modulation technique used for wave transmission.
2. It reduces the bandwidth utilization.
3. The filter characteristics do not need to be highly accurate thus making its
design simple.
4. It easily transmits low-frequency components and possesses good phase
characteristics.
Disadvantages of Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
1. Its bandwidth requirement is somewhat higher than that of SSB
modulation, due to the presence of vestige.
2. Vestigial sideband modulation leads to a complex demodulation process at
the receiver end.
Application of Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
For the transmission of television signals, VSB technique is widely
used. As during transmission of TV signals, there is a need of simultaneous
transmission of both audio and video information.
76
The spectrum of transmission of TV signals using VSB technique in the

figure shown below.
VSB technique allows the transmission of the upper sideband along

with the vestige of lower sideband. However, suppresses the remaining part.
From 1.25 MHz of lower sideband band, 0.75 MHz vestige is transmitted and
rest is suppressed. This basically simplifies the filtering requirements.
Hence, by this, we can reduce the bandwidth requirement to 6 MHz from
9MHz.
Generation of VSBSC:
Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. The
VSBSC modulator is shown in the following figure.
In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the
product modulator. Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband
shaping filter. This filter produces an output, which is VSBSC wave.
77
The modulating signal m(t) and carrier signal are applied as

inputs to the product modulator. Hence, the product modulator produces an
output, which is the product of these two inputs.
Therefore, the output of the product modulator is
Apply Fourier transform on both sides
The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f) This
filter has the input p(t) and the output is VSBSC modulated wave s(t).
The Fourier transforms of p(t) and s(t) are P(f) and S(f) respectively.
Mathematically, we can write S(f) as
Substitute P(f) value in the above equation.
The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.

Demodulation of VSBSC:
Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC
wave. Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC
wave) is used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection
is called as coherent or synchronous detection. The VSBSC demodulator
is shown in the following figure.
78
In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave
by multiplying it with a carrier, which is having the same frequency and the
phase of the carrier used in VSBSC modulation. The resulting signal is then
passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired
message signal.
Let the VSBSC wave be s(t) and the carrier signal is
From the figure, we can write the output of the product modulator as
Apply Fourier transform on both sides
We know that
From the above equation, let us find and
Substitute, and values in
In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of
the desired message signal frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by
passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
79

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS VEC-ECE

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

Amplitude Modulation: Need for modulation, Amplitude Modulation - Time

Communication means sharing or exchanging information between two or

 The function of information source is to produce the required

A collection of elements which works together to convey (send, receive, and

Eg: sine wave, square wave, sawtooth wave, etc.

Frequency range of signals:

signal does not contain any information so even if we change the

Modulation is the process of changing the some characteristics (amplitude,

Types of Signals in Modulation:

Need for Modulation:

We know that the sound frequency range is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. If the multiple

frequency. Therefore, after modulation, the signal can be directly radiated

For instance, to radiate an audio signal frequency of 20 kHz directly into

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to construct.

 The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave

 If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the

S.NO Modulation What Constant Constant

*****w. r. t Amplitude of Message Signal

The above figures show the amplitude modulation.

The carrier signal does not contain any information so even if we

Amplitude modulation was the earliest modulation technique used to

In amplitude modulation, the message signal is an audio signal which

Mathematical Expression of AM:

and the carrier signal be,

is the Amplitude modulated signal.

Where is Constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

The term is called Envelope of the AM wave.

Note: In A.M. Carrier is also Transmitting along with the Modulated

Before Modulation, Magnitude is : Ac

x(t) = X(f) General Notation

m(t) = M(f) Used for Message Signal(KHz)

c(t) = C(f) Used for Carrier Signal(MHz)

s(t) = S(f) Used for Modulated Signal(MHz)

Single tone modulation:

Multi tone modulation:

Case 1: Single tone modulation

Where = Modulation index

2 cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)

cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)

Frequency Spectrum of Amplitude Modulation:

Example: A carrier of 800 kHz frequency which is modulated by a message

Another sideband frequencies are created below the carrier frequency.

Modulation index of amplitude modulation:

From the above figure, we can write,

Taking the ratio of equation (2) and (5),

Over-modulation causes severe distortion of the waveform of the message

Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

Where = Modulation index

2 cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)

cosA cosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)

Substitute and values in bandwidth formula.

Power relations in AM waves:

Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband,

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

Where, is the rms value of cos signal.

Upper sideband power

If μ=1 i.e. for 100% modulation

μ=1/ 80KW + 20KW

Let be un modulated current and be the total or modulated current of

Power Efficiency of AM wave: