Computer Network and

Data Communication
Course Instructor: Engr. Bilal Hasan
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 Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware
and signaling mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model
which actually deals with the physical connectivity of two different stations. This
layer defines the hardware equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used to
represent binary signals etc.
 Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over
frames to physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which
represent binary data.The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media
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Communication at the physical layer

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Signals
When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into electromagnetic
signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as file on the disk.Both
analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog signals.
Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses. Digital signals are
used within the circuitry of a computer system.
Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by continuous
electromagnetic waves.
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Comparison of analog and digital signals

Analog and Digital Data
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. For example, an
analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous
form; the movements of the hands are continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock
that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values.
When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a
microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital
signal.
Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated
into an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
Analog and Digital Signals
Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signal has infinitely many
levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through
and includes an infinite number of values along its path. A digital signal, on the other hand, can have
only a limited number of defined values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as
1 and 0.
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Periodic and Non periodic

Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or non periodic
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent
identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle. A non periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern
or cycle that repeats over time. Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non periodic. In data communications, we
commonly use periodic analog signals and non periodic digital signals.

PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
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Sine Wave
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we visualize it as a simple oscillating
curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow. Each cycle consists
of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single arc followed by a single arc below it. A sine wave can be
represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency, and the phase. These three parameters fully
describe a sine wave.
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Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional to the energy it carries. For
electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.

Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes
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Period and Frequency

Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s. Note that period and frequency are just
one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency
is the inverse of period, as the following formulas show.
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Units of period and frequency

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Phase
The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. If we think of the wave as
something that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It
indicates the status of the first cycle. hase is measured in degrees or radians [360º is 2π rad; 1º is 2π/360 rad, and 1
rad is 360/(2π)].

Wavelength
Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission medium. Wavelength binds the period or the
frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium.

Wavelengths are high-capacity methods of transporting Wavelength and period

data from one point to another, using fiber optics. They are
used for core networking between, for instance, data
centers or head offices.
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Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation speed (the

speed of light) and the period of the signal. However, since period and
frequency are related to each other, if we represent wavelength by λ,
propagation speed by c (speed of light), and frequency by f, we get

Composite signal
A composite signal is a combination of two or more simple sine waves with different
frequency, phase and amplitude.
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Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have many reasons as given:
 Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently strong. When the signal passes through the
medium, it tends to get weaker. As it covers distance, it loses strength.
 Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
 Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal speed and frequency do not match, there are
possibilities that signal reaches destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier
than the previously sent ones.
 Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information
being carried. Noise can be characterized in one of the following class:
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 Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise
is unavoidable.
 Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if
two different frequencies are sharing a medium and one of them has excessive strength or the component itself is not
functioning properly, then the resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected.
 Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media. This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of
second medium.
 Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components.
Digital data is mostly affected by this sort of noise.
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Transmission Media
The media over which the information between two computer systems is sent, called transmission media.
Transmission media comes in two forms.
 Guided Media
All communication wires/cables are guided media, such as UTP, coaxial cables, and fiber Optics. In this media, the
sender and receiver are directly connected and the information is send (guided) through it.
 Unguided Media
Wireless or open air space is said to be unguided media, because there is no connectivity between the sender and
receiver. Information is spread over the air, and anyone including the actual recipient may collect the information.
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Transmission Media Type

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Channel Capacity
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel
capacity. We count it as data rate in digital world. It depends on
numerous factors such as:
 Bandwidth:  The physical limitation of underlying media.
 Error-rate:  Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
 Encoding:  The number of levels used for signaling.
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Network bandwidth
Network bandwidth is a measure of the data transfer rate or capacity of a given network. It’s a
crucial network measurement for understanding the speed and quality of a network.
Network bandwidth is commonly measured in bits per second (bps). In practice, organizations
and internet service providers (ISPs) measure bandwidth in megabits per second (Mbps) or
gigabits per second (Gbps).

Network bandwidth vs. throughput

Bandwidth in networking is the maximum possible data transfer rate of a network or internet
connection.
Throughput is the actual data transferred successfully in a network. Measuring network
bandwidth doesn’t consider whether a test data transfer results in successful or unsuccessful
data transmission. It simply calculates the amount of data transferred in the network.
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Different types of network bandwidths

For business communications, there are several service classes, each with multiple service options. Some are better suited for
specific business applications than others due to factors such as bandwidth of network, latency, and throughput. The primary
classes are as follows:
1. Public Wireless
Long Term Evolution (LTE) cellular service, also known as 4G, and satellite are typically more expensive than terrestrial services
with comparable bandwidth. They may be the only option in areas where cable providers do not provide internet access and
existing twisted pair copper phone lines cannot meet data demands.
2. Public Broadband
Broadband, also known as broad bandwidth, refers to high-speed internet connections provided by cable or telephone
companies. To transfer large amounts of data, broadband internet employs multiple data channels.
The main advantage of broadband is its low cost for high bandwidth. Security and dependability are examples of tradeoffs.
3. Private Networks
Private networks do not share resources. They are sold as professional business services through carriers, with Service Level
Agreements (SLA) that include Quality of Service (QoS) terms. As a result, contracts are significantly more expensive than best-
effort public broadband services, and contract durations are lengthy (typically 36 to 60 months).
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4. Software-Defined Wide Area Networks (SD-WAN)

Some SD-WAN technologies enable the combination of any service from any provider to form a resilient
private/public network. Some advantages of having two or more internet connections.
 Resilience and carrier outage protection.
 Compliance and security.
 Low-cost expansion of existing MPLS networks.

Latency
Latency is influenced by the number of devices on the network as well as the type of connection device. Because
hubs broadcast all messages to all devices, hub-based networks typically have higher latency than switch-based
networks. Messages are only sent to the intended recipient in switch-based networks.
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Difference between Bandwidth and Speed
Bandwidth  Speed
The amount of data that can be transferred in a given
amount of time is referred to as bandwidth.
It is not affected by download speed, upload speed, or
latency.
Bits per second (bps) or hertz (Hz) are the units of
measurement.
Always more important than speed.
Bandwidth is the amount of space available for data
transmission.
Lecture #
The term “speed” refers to the rate at which something
is completed.
It is determined by the download speed, upload speed,
and latency.
The speed of the internet is measured in Mbps.
Speed is never greater than bandwidth.
The rate at which data is transferred is referred to as
speed.
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Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can be
simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into
low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and
light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-
multiplexer receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different
receivers.
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Frequency Division Multiplexing

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the
spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel. Each
user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All channels are
divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are separated by guard
bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.
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Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In TDM
the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data
within the provided time slot only. TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer
and De-multiplexer are timely synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing
technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals.

Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to accommodate more data signals.
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Code Division Multiplexing

Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division
Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full
bandwidth and transmit signals all the time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal codes to
spread signals.
Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes
independently, inside the whole bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the chip code signal
it has to receive.
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Switching
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the destination. When
data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress. A
communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into
two major categories:

 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous handshaking is required

and acknowledgements are optional.

 Connection Oriented:  Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to pre-establish
circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is
completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned down immediately
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Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called circuit switching. There 'is a
need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other data is permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the
data, circuit must be established so that the data transfer can take place.Circuits can be permanent or temporary.
Applications which use circuit switching may have to go through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit

Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message switching, the whole message
is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its entirety. A switch working on message switching, first receives the
whole message and buffers it until there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having
enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
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Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message
is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the
header of each packet and transmitted independently. It is easier for intermediate networking
devices to store small size packets and they do not take much resources either on carrier path or
in the internal memory of switches. Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from
multiple applications can be multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching
technique. Packet switching enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities.
Packets are stored and forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
Quiz # 1 Marks 5

 Define Simplex, Duplex and Full duplex ?

 What is Physical Topology, define any two of them ?
 What are the type of switches ?
 What Major Difference between UTP and STP Cables?
 What is OSI Layer name each of them on which layer Error Detection is done and which layer
is said to be heart of OSI Layer ?
 Give abbreviation of SNMP and RARP and on which port TFTP and HTTPS work ?
Quiz # 1 Marks 5

 What is the data communication name components of data communication ?

 What do you understand by the term Network and what are the key aspect of Network ?
 Define Ring and Bus topology ?
 Key difference between UPD and TCP ?
 Name all the OSI Layer and describe in one line the purpose of Application and Transport layer?
 Give abbreviation of SCTP and SMTP and on which port NTP and SSH work ?
Thank You