Signals

One of the major concerns of the physical layer lies in moving data in the form of
electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium. Whether we are collecting
numerical statistics from another computer, sending animated pictures from a design
workstation or causing a bell to ring at a distant control center, we are working with the
transmission of data across network connections.
Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in a form that can be
transmitted over a network. For example, we cannot roll up a photograph, insert it into a
wire, and transmit it across town. We can, however, transmit an encoded description of
the photography. Instead of sending the actual photograph, we can use an encoder to
create a stream of 1s and 0s that tell the receiving device how to reconstruct the image of
the photograph.
We cannot even send 1s and 0s across network links. They must be further
converted to a form that transmission media can accept. Transmission media work by
conducting energy along a physical path. So a data stream of 1s and 0s must be turned
into energy in the form of electromagnetic signals. So, in order to transmit the data, it
must be converted into electromagnetic signals.

Electromagnetic Signals and Electromagnetic Spectrum

Almost all signals (analog or digital) used for communication are converted into
electromagnetic signals and are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of frequencies from radio waves to
gamma rays. So, electromagnetic spectrum is a name that scientists have given to many
types of radiation (energy emitted in the form of waves), when they want to talk about
them as a group.

The light that our eyes can see is actually part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum consists of the colors that we see in a
rainbow - from reds and oranges, through blues and purples. Each of these colors actually
corresponds to a different wavelength of light.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes, from longest wavelength to shortest:
radio waves, microwaves, infrared, optical, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
A diagram on the next page shows a complete range of Electromagnetic spectrum
from long radio waves to very short gamma rays.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 1 of 23

 Waves
There are some waves in the nature that we can see i.e. waves in the ocean that travel on
the surface of the water etc. There are some other kinds of waves too that we cannot see,
but we experience them every day. These waves are called electromagnetic waves.
Sound is also a type of wave that we cannot see. Like ocean waves, sound waves
need a medium to travel through. Sound can travel through air because air is made of
molecules. These molecules carry the sound waves by bumping into each other. Sound
can travel through anything made of molecules even water. There is no sound in space
because there are no molecules there to transmit the sound waves.
Electromagnetic waves are unlike sound waves because they do not need
molecules to travel. This means that electromagnetic waves can travel through air and
solid materials but they can also travel through empty space. This is why astronauts on
space walks use radios to communicate.
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 2 of 23

 Electromagnetic Waves
When we listen to the radio, watch TV, or cook dinner in a microwave oven, we are using
electromagnetic waves. So, radio waves, television waves, and microwaves etc are all
types of electromagnetic waves. They only differ from each other in wavelength.

Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between one wave crest (top) to the next. Waves in the
electromagnetic spectrum vary in size from very long radio waves i.e. the size of
buildings, to very short gamma rays smaller than the size of the nucleus of an atom.

An important point is that electromagnetic waves can not only be described by

their wavelength, but also by their energy and frequency. This means that it is correct to
talk about the energy of an X-ray or the wavelength of a microwave or the frequency of a
radio wave.
The wavelength of electromagnetic energy is measured in distance (meters), its
frequency is measured in time (cycles per second), its phase is measured as an angle in
(degrees), and amplitude is measured in power (electron volts).

Analog and Digital

Data and Signals that represent electromagnetic signals can take either Analog or Digital
form. So, Data and Signals can be Analog as well as Digital.

Analog and Digital Data

Data can be analog or digital i.e. we can represent data in Analog as well as in Digital
form.
An example of analog data is the human voice. When someone speaks, an analog
wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone and converted to an
analog signal or sampled later and converted to a digital signal.
An example of digital data is the data stored in the memory of a computer in the
form of 0s and 1s. It can be converted to a digital signal when it is transferred from one
position to another inside or outside the computer or modulated into an analog signal and
then sent through a transmission medium to another computer.

Analog and Digital Signals

The way we represent data, Signals can also be in analog or digital. An analog signal has
infinitely many level of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from value A

Chapter 3: Signals Page 3 of 23

to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along it path. A
digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values, often
as simple as 1 and 0.
The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular
axes. The vertical axis represents the value of strength of a signal. The horizontal axis
represents the passage of time. The figure illustrates an analog and digital signal.

Comparison of Analog and Digital Signals

The curve representing the analog signal is passing through an infinite number of
points. The vertical lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump the
signal makes from value to value.

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms i.e. periodic and aperiodic (non
periodic)
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of one
full pattern is called a cycle.
An aperiodic signal changes without exhibiting or showing a pattern or cycle that
repeats over time.
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or aperiodic. In data
communication, however, we commonly use periodic analog signals and aperiodic digital
signals to send data from one point to another.
In data communication, we commonly use periodic analog signals and aperiodic
digital signals.

Analog Signals
Analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple analog signal, a sine
wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite signal is composed of
multiple sine waves.

Sine Wave
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. Visualized as a
A sine wave

Chapter 3: Signals Page 4 of 23

 simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a
continuous, rolling flow. The figure drawn on the previous page shows a sine wave. Each
cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
We can mathematically describe a sine wave as

s(t) = A sin ( 2 π f t + Φ )

where s is the instantaneous or immediate amplitude, A the peak amplitude, f is

the frequency, and Φ is the phase. These three characteristics fully describe a sine wave.

Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal represents the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally
measured in volts.
Amplitude

Period and Frequency

Period refers to the amount of time in seconds that a signal needs to complete one cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in one second. Period and frequency are just
one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency
is the inverse of period, and is shown in the following formula.

f=1/T and T=1/f

So, Frequency and Period are inverse of each other. Period and Frequency is shown is the
following figure

Period and Frequency

Chapter 3: Signals Page 5 of 23

Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in hertz (Hz).
Units of frequency and period are shown in the following table.

Units of Period and Frequency

Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent
Second (s) 1 s Hertz (Hz) 1 Hz
3
Milliseconds (ms) 10 s
-3
Kilohertz (KHz) 10 Hz
6
Microseconds (µs) 10-6 s Megahertz (MHz) 10 Hz
9
Nanoseconds (ns) 10-9 s Gigahertz (GHz) 10 Hz
Picoseconds (ps) -12
10 s Terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

We know that frequency is the relationship of a signal to time and that the
frequency of a wave is the number of cycles it completes per second. But another way to
look at frequency is as a measurement of the rate of change. Electromagnetic signals are
oscillating waveforms; that is, they fluctuate continuously and predictably above and
below a mean energy level. A 40-Hz signal has one-half the frequency of an 80-Hz
signal; it completes one cycle in twice the time of the 80-Hz signal, so each cycle also
takes twice as long to change from its lowest to its highest voltage levels. Frequency,
therefore, though described in cycles per second (hertz), is a general measurement of the
rate of change of a signal with respect to time. Not included
If the value of a signal changes over a very short span of time, its frequency is
high. If it changes over a long span of time, its frequency is low.

Two Extremes of Signals

If a signal does not change at all or if a signal maintains a constant voltage level for the
entire time in which it is active, then for such a case, its frequency is zero. Conceptually,
this idea is simple one. If a signal does not change at all, it never completes a cycle, so its
frequency is 0 Hz.
If a signal changes instantenously, or if it jumps from one level to another in no
time., then its frequency is infinite. In other words, when a signal changes instantenously,
its period is zero; since frequency is the inverse of period, in this case, the frequency is
1/0, or infinite (unbounded).
So, if a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero, and if a signal changes
instantenously, its frequency is infinite.

Phase
The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero. If we think
of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis,
phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the status of the first cycle. So, phase
describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360 ○ is 2π radian and 180○ is π radian; 1○
is 2π/360 radian or 1○ is π/180 radian, and 1 radian is 360/(2π)]. A phase shift of 360 ○
corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180 ○ corresponds to a shift of
one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90 ○ corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a
period.
Diagram on the next page shows phases.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 6 of 23

 Relationships between different phases

Example
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with respect to time zero. What is the phase in
degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that one complete cycle is 360○. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

Phase in Degrees = 1 / 6 x 360 = 60○

Phase in Radians = 60 x 2π / 360 rad = π / 3 rad = 1.046 rad

Chapter 3: Signals Page 7 of 23

 Examples of Sine Waves
A visual comparison of signals with different characteristics can give a better
understanding of these characteristics. The figure drawn shows three sine waves with
different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.

Sine Wave examples

Time and Frequency Domains

A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency and phase. Sine
waves have been shown in the diagrams using what is called a time-domain plot. The
time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an
amplitude versus time plot). Phase and Frequency are not explicitly measured on a time-
domain plot.
To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we can use what is
called a frequency-domain plot. The figure drawn compares the time domain
(instantenous amplitude with respect to time) and the frequency domain (peak amplitude
with respect to frequency).

Chapter 3: Signals Page 8 of 23

 Time and Frequency domains
The figure shows three signals with varying frequencies. Compare the models
within each pair to check which sort of data is best suited to convey. All three signals
have a peak amplitude of 5 volts (V). The frequency of the first signal is 0; and it is
shown in the frequency domain with a spike at frequency 0 and a height of 5 (its
amplitude). The second signal has a frequency of 8, so it is shown in the frequency
domain with a spike of height 5 and a frequency of 8. Finally, the third is shown with a
frequency of 16 at the same height. We can note that in the frequency domain we can
show two characteristics of a signal with only one spike; the position is the frequecy, and
the height is the peak amplitude. The phase of a signal cannot be shown in the frequency
domain; and for that another domain is required, and is not discussed here.
So, an analog signal is best represented in the frequency domain.

Composite Signals
Uptill now, more focus was towards simple signals (sine waves). Although a simple sine
wave signal is very useful for some purposes, it is useless for data communications. We
can send a single sine wave to carry electric energy form one place to another. For
example, the power company sends a single sine wave with a frequency of 60 Hz to
distribute electric energy to our houses and businesses. We can use a single sine wave to
send an alarm to a security center when a burglar opens a door or a window in our house.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 9 of 23

In the first case, the sine wave is carrying energy; in the second, the presence of signal
infers danger.
If we used one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the phone, we
would always hear a buzz; it would make no sense and carry no information. If we send
one single sine wave to convey data, we would always be sending alternating 1s and 0s,
which does not have any communication value.
So, a single frequency sine wave is not useful in data communicatoins; we need to
change one or more of its characteristics to make it useful.
If we want to use a sine wave for communication, we need to change one or more
of its characteristics. For example, when the data to be sent are a 1 bit, we can sent a
maximum amplitude; when it is a 0 bit, we can send a minimum amplitude. However, we
need to keep in mind that when we change one or more characteristics of a sine wave, it
is no longer a simple sine wave. Instead, it is a composite signal made of many simple
sine waves. A mere or simple change in the amplitude, frequency or phase creates a new
set of frequencies. Intutively, change is related to frequency; more chagne means creating
more frequencies.
So, when we change one or more characteristics of a single frequency signal, it
becomes a composite signal made of many frequencies.

Fourier Analysis
In the early 1900s, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier showed that any
composite signal is a sum of a set of sine waves of different frequencies, phases, and
amplitudes. In other words, we can write a composite signal as

s(t) = A1 sin (2 π f1 t + Φ1) + A2 sin (2 π f2 t + Φ2) + A3 sin (2 π f3 t + Φ3) + . . .

According to fourier analysis, any composite signal can be represented as a

combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies, phases and amplitudes.

Let us consider the square wave of the drawn figure with a peak amplitude of A
and a frequency of f (period T).
Square Wave

According to Fourier analysis, we can prove that this signal can be decomposed
into a series of sine waves as shown below.

s(t) = 4A / π sing 2πft + 4A / 3π sin[2π(3f)t] + 4A / 5π sin [2π(5f)t] + . . .

Chapter 3: Signals Page 10 of 23

 In other words, we have a series of sine waves with frequencies f, 3f, 5f, 7f, . . .
and amplitudes 4A / π, 4A / 3π, 4A / 5π, 4A / 7π, and so on. The term with frequency f is
dominant and is called the fundamental frequency. The term with frequency 3f is called
the third harmonic, the term with frequency 5f is the fifth harmonic, and so on. To
recreate the complete square wave signal required all the odd harmonics up to infinity.
For example, if the square wave has a frequency of 5000, the components have
frequencyes 5000, 15000, 25000 and so on. The diagram shows three of the harmonics.
Three harmonics

If we add these three harmonics, we do not get a square wave, we get something
which is close, but not exact. As shown in the following figure. If we need something
close to a square wave, we need to add more harmonics.

Adding first three harmonics

Frequency Spectrum
The description of a signal using the frequency domain and containing all its components
is called the frequency spectrum of that signal. For example the following figure shows
the frequency specturm of a square wave and the frequency specturm of a signal which is
very close to a square wave (only three harmonics).
Frequency spectrum comparison

Chapter 3: Signals Page 11 of 23

 Composite Signal and Transmission Medium
A signal needs to pass through a transmission medium (cable or air). However, each
medium has its own characteristics. One of the characteristics of a medium is related to
frequency. A medium may pass some frequencies and may block or weaken others. This
means that when we send a composite signal, contaning many frequencies, at one end of
a transmission medium, we may not receive the same signal at the other end. To maintain
the integrity of the signal, the medium needs to pass every frequency (and also preserve
the amplitude and phase).
What we must realize is that no transmission medium is perfect. Each medium
passes some frequencies, weakens others, and blocks still others. This means that when
we send our square waves signal through a medium, we get something at the other end
which is not a square wave at all. The following figure shows this concept.

Signal corruption

Bandwidth
The range of frequencies that a medium can pass is called its Bandwidth. As no medium
can pass or block all frequencies, the bandwidth normally refers to the range of
frequencies that a medium can pass without losing one-half of the power contained in that
signal.
The bandwidth is a range and is normally referred to as the difference between
two numbers. For example, if a medium can pass frequencies between 1000 and 5000
without losing most of the power contained in this range, its bandwidth is 5000 – 1000 or
4000.
If the bandwidth of a medium does not match the spectrum of a signal, some of
the frequencies are lost. For example, Voice normally has a spectrum of 300 to 3300 Hz
(a bandwidth of 3000 Hz). If we use a transmission line with a bandwidth of 1000 Hz
(between 1500 and 2500 Hz), we lose some frequencies in our voice; it my not even be
recognizable.
So, the bandwidth is a property of a medium. It is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily pass.
The figure shows the range of frequencies a medium can pass and the relative
amplitude of the frequencies passed.
Bandwidth

Chapter 3: Signals Page 12 of 23

 We can see that the media may pass some frequencies above 5000 and below
1000, but according to the criteria, the amplitudes of those frequencies are less than those
in the middle.

Example
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000 and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000
Hz). A medium can pass frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000 Hz).
Can this signal successfully pass through this medium?

Solution
The answer is NO.
Although the signal can have the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not overlap.
The medium can only pass the frequencies between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is
totally lost.

Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 Hz, what is the bandwidth?
Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency,
fl be the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth, then
B = fh - fl
B = 900 – 100
B = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 shown in the figure

Example
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency?
Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of the same amplitude.

Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl be the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth, then
B = fh - fl

Chapter 3: Signals Page 13 of 23

 20 = 60 – fl
fl = 60 - 20
fl = 40 Hz

The spectrum contains all integral frequencies shown in the figure above

Digital Signals
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, data can be represented by a digital
signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal is shown in the following diagram.
A digital signal

Bit Interval and Bit

The Bit Interval is the time required to send one single bit. The Bit Rate is the number
of bit intervals per second.
So, the Bit Rate is the number of bits send in 1 second and is usually expressed in
Bits Per Second i.e. bps

Bit Rate and Bit Interval

Example
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the duration of each bit (bit interval)?

Chapter 3: Signals Page 14 of 23

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.

Bit Interval = 1 / Bit Rate

Bit Interval = 1/ 2000 seconds
Bit Interval = 0.000500 s
Bit Interval = 0.000500 x 106 s
Bit Interval = 500 s

Digital Signal as a Composite Signal

A digital signal, with all its sudden changes, is actually a composite signal having an
infinite number of frequencies. In other words, the bandwidth of a digital signal is
infinite.

Digital Signal through a Wide-Bandwidth Medium

If a medium has a wide bandwidth, we can send a digital signal through it. Although,
some of the frequencies will be blocked by the medium, but still enough frequencies will
be passed to preserve a decent signal shape. So, a dedicated medium such as coaxial
cable, can be used to send a digital signal through a Local Area Network.

Digital Signal through a Band-Limited Medium

Data can be sent through a band-limited medium. Sending data using band-limited
telephone lines to the Internet is an example of this fact.

Lets assume, that our computer creates 6 bps, i.e. every second, 6 bits are
produced by the computer. One second, we may have 111111, another second 001010,
another second 101010, and so on. We use an encoding method that uses a positive value
to represent 1 and a negative value to represent 0. The diagram shows two signals.
Digital versus Analog

Chapter 3: Signals Page 15 of 23

 We can simulate any of these patterns using single-frequency signal. The best
case is 111111 or 000000. We can simulate this case by sending a signal of frequency of
zero. The worst case is definitely 101010 or 010101. These are the worst case, because
there are more changes in this patern than in any other pattern; with each succeeding bit
there is a change. More change means higher frequency. However, we can simulate this
digital signal by using a single-frequency analog signal with a frequency of 3 Hz, one-
half of the bit rate. So we have

Best case: bit rate = 6 frequency = 0

Worst case: bit rate = 6 frequency = 3

All other cases are between the best and the worst cases. If we need to simulate
this digital signal of data rate 6 bps, sometimes we need to send a signal of frequency 0,
sometimes 1, sometimes 2, and somethimes 3 Hz. So, we need our medium to be able to
pass frequencies of 0 to 3 Hz. In this particular example, our medium should have a
bandwidth of 3 Hz (3 – 0).
On generalizing this simple example, we can find a very simple relationship
between the bit rate and bandwidth. To send, n bps through an analog channel using
above approximation, we need a bandwidth B, such that B = n / 2.

Using More Harmonics

The case discussed previously was based on one harmonic. For each pattern, we send a
single frequency signal using a frequency of 0 to 3 Hz. However, in many situations, a
one frequency signal is not very appropriate; the analog signal may look very different
from the digital signal. The receiver may not recognize the signal correctly.
To imporve the shape of the signal for better communication. Particularly for high
data rates, we need to add some harmonics, as previously we used odd harmonics. So, if
we add the third harmonic to each case, we need B = n / 2 + 3n / 2 = 4n/2 Hz; if we add
third and fifth harmonics, we need B = n / 2 + 3n / 2 + 5n / 2 = 9n/2 Hz; and so on. In
other words, we have
B >= n / 2 or n <= 2B

The following table shows how much bandwidth would be required to send 1000
bps using this method.

Bandwidth Requirements
Bit Harmonic Harmonics Harmonics Harmonics
Rate 1 1, 3 1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5, 7
n = 1 Kbps B = 500 Hz B = 2 KHz B = 4.5 KHz B = 8 KHz
n = 10 Kbps B = 5 KHz B = 20 KHz B = 45 KHz B = 80 KHz
n = 100 Kbps B = 50 KHz B = 200 KHz B = 450 KHz B = 800 KHz

The required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate. If we double the bit rates,
we need to double the bandwidth.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 16 of 23

 Digital and Analog Bandwidth
Digital and Analog bandwidth represent the same property of a medium, but in different
scales and units. The analog bandwidth of a medium is expressed in Hertz, and the digital
bandwidth in Bits Per Second i.e. bps.

Digital Bandwidth Analog Bandwidth

If we are sending digital data through a
medium, we are concerned with digital
bandwidth (expressed in Bits Per Second
i.e. bps)
Digital bandwidth is the maximum bit rate
that a medium can pass.
If we are sending analog data through a
medium, we are concerned with analog
bandwidth (expressed in Hertz).
Analog bandwidth is the range of
frequencies that a medium can pass.

Low-pass and Band-pass Channel

A channel or link is either low-pass or band-pass.
Low-pass and Band-pass channels

A Low-pass channel has a bandwidth with frequencies between 0 and f. The lower limit
is 0, and the upper limit can be any frequency (including infinity).
A Band-pass channel has a bandwidth with frequencies between f1 and f2.

Digital Transmission
A digital signal theoretically needs a bandwidth between 0 and infinity. The lower limit
i.e. 0 is fixed and the upper limit (infinity) can be relaxed if we accept a limited number
of bandwidth. So, this means that a bandwidth between 0 and f for a low pass signal is
used.
We have low-pass channel only if the medium is dedicated to two devices (point-
to-point) or shared between several devices in time, i.e. in Wired LAN, a cable can be
shared between stations and we can transmit data digitally in this system. So, Digital
transmission needs a low-pass channel.

Analog Transmission
An analog signal normally has a narrower bandwidth than a digital signal with
frequencies between f1 and f2. So, an analog channel requires a band-pass channel. The
bandwidth in analog signal can always be shifted, i.e. we can always shift a signal with a
bandwidth from f1 to f2 to a signal with a bandwidth from f3 to f4 as long as the
bandwidth remains the same.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 17 of 23

 A band-pass channel is more available than a low-pass channel. The bandwidth of
a medium can be divided into several band-pass channels to carry several analog
transmissions. For example, in analog cellular telephony, a limited bandwidth is divided
between many telephone users. Each user has a bandwidth between 0 to 30 KHz, with
each signal shifted appropriately.

Data Rate Limits

How fast we can send the data in Bits per second over a channel depends upon three
factors i.e.

 The available bandwidth

 The level of signals we can use &
 The quality of channel i.e. the level of the noise

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate.

i) Nyquist (Noiseless channel) &

ii) Shannon (Noisy channel)

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit
rate.
Bit Rate = 2 x Bandwidth x log2 L

In this formula, Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel. L is the number of signal
levels used to represent data, and Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two
signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Solution
Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log22 = 6000 bps

Example
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for
each level, we send two bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Solution
Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log24 = 12,000 bps

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel, the channel is always noisy. In 1944,
Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the
theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel.

Capacity = Bandwidth x log2 (1 + SNR)

Chapter 3: Signals Page 18 of 23

Bandwidth is the Bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio and
capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second. The SNR is the statistical ratio
of the power of the signal to the power of the noise.

Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is
almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as

Solution
C = B x log2 (1 + SNR)
C = B x log2 (1 + 0)
C = B x log2 (1)
C=Bx0
C=0

Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone
line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The signal-to-noise ratio
is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

Solution
C = B x log2 (1 + SNR)
C = 3000 x log2 (1 + 3162)
C = 3000 x log2 (3163)
C = 3000 x 11.62
C = 34.860 bps

Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63; what is the
appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we’ll use Shannon formula to find our upper limit

C = B x log2 (1 + SNR)
C = 106 x log2 (1 + 63)
C = 106 x log2 (64)
C = 6 Mbps

Although the Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, this is the upper limit. For better
performance we choose something lower, for example 4 Mbps. Then we use the Nyquist
formula to find the number of signal levels.
Now, we’ll use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2 x 1 MHz x log 2 L
L=4

Chapter 3: Signals Page 19 of 23

 Transmission Impairments
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfections
cause impairment (damage) in the signal. So, due to transmission impairments, the signal
at the beginning and end of the medium are not the same, i.e. what is sent is not what is
received.
Three types of impairment usually occur, i.e. Attenuation, Distortion and Noise.

Attenuation means loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy so that it can overcome the resistance of the medium.

That is why a wire carrying electrical signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of
the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss,
amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Amplifiers, amplify the attenuated signal.
In order to check whether the signal has lost or gained strength, Decibel (dB) is used to
measure the relative strengths of two signals or a signal at two different points. Decibel
can be negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

dB = 10 log10 (P2 / P1)

where, P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

Example
Imagine a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to half.
This means that P2 = 1/2 P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

Solution
10 log10 (P2 / P1) = 10 log10 (0.5 P1 / P1) = 10 log10 (0.5) = 10 (-0.3) = -3 dB

Chapter 3: Signals Page 20 of 23

Example
Imagine a signal travels through an amplifier and its power is increased ten times. This
means that P2 = 10 x P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as

Solution
10 log10 (P2 / P1) = 10 log10 (10 P1 / P1) = 10 log10 (10) = 10 (1) = 10 dB

One reason that we use the decibel to measure the changes in the strength of a signal is
that decibel numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are talking about several
points instead of just two (cascading).

Example
Consider a signal travels a long distance from point 1 to point 4 as shown in the figure.

The signal is attenuated by the time it reaches point 2. Between points 2 and 3, the signal
is amplified. Again, between points 3 and 4, the signal is attenuated. We can find the
resultant decibel for the signal just by adding the decibel measurements between each set
of points.

Solution
dB = -3 + 7 –3
dB = +1

So, +1 here means that signal has gained power

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion occurs in a
composite signal, made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own
propagation speed through a medium and therefore its own delay in arriving at the final
destination.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 21 of 23

Noise is another problem. Several types of noise such as thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion
of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliance. These devices act as a
sending antenna and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna. Crosstalk is
the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as
the receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short
period of time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on. Effects of Noise on
signal are shown in the diagram

Signal Measurements
Some measurements used in data communication are Throughput, Propagation Speed,
Propagation Time and Wavelength.

Throughput is the measurement of how fast data can pass through an entity i.e. a point
or a network. If wall is considered as an entity through which bits pass, throughput is the
number of bits that can pass this wall in one second.

Propagation Speed measures the distance a signal or a bit can travel through a medium
in one second. The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium
and on the frequency of the signal. For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a
speed of 3 x 108 m/s. It is lower in air and much lower in a cable.

Propagation Time measures the time required for a signal (or a bit) to travel from one
point of the transmission medium to another. The propagation time is calculated by
dividing the distance by the propagation speed. This concept is shown in the figure

Chapter 3: Signals Page 22 of 23

 Propagation Time = Distance / Propagation Speed

Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission

medium. Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium. In other words, while the frequency of a signal is
independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on both the frequency and the
medium. Although wavelength can be associated with electrical signals, it is customary to
use wavelengths when talking about the transmission of light in an optical fiber. The
wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.

Wavelength can be calculated given the propagation speed and the period of the signal.

Wavelength = Propagation Speed x Period

Wavelength is normally measures in micrometers (microns) instead of meters etc.

Chapter 3: Signals Page 23 of 23