Digital Modulation

Systems
ECEN 30094: MODULATION AND CODING TECHNIQUES
Digital Modulation

 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS
 the transmission, reception, and processing of information with the use of electronic
circuits.
 INFORMATION
 defined as knowledge or intelligence that is communicated (i.e., transmitted or
received) between two or more points.
 DIGITAL MODULATION
 the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers) between two or more
points in a communications system.
 DIGITAL RADIO
 Another term for digital modulation since digitally modulated signals can be
propagated through Earth’s atmosphere and used in wireless communications
systems
Digital Modulation

 Digital communications include systems where relatively high-frequency

analog carriers are modulated by relatively low-frequency digital
information signals (digital radio) and systems involving the transmission of
digital pulses (digital transmission).
 Digital transmission systems transport information in digital form and,
therefore, require a physical facility between the transmitter and receiver,
such as a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, or an optical fiber cable.
 Both analog and digital modulation systems use analog carriers to transport
the information through the system. However, with analog modulation
systems, the information signal is also analog, whereas with digital
modulation, the information signal is digital, which could be computer-
generated data or digitally encoded analog signals.
 Digital Modulation

 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)

 Referring to equation above, if the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is
produced.
 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)
 If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced.
 PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)
 If the phase of the carrier (θ) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is
produced.
 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)
 If both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) results.
Digital Modulation

 Applications of digital modulation includes:

 Relatively low-speed voice-band data communications modems, such as those
found in most personal computers.
 High-speed data transmission systems, such as broadband digital subscriber lines
(DSL).
 Digital microwave and satellite communications systems.
 Cellular telephone Personal Communications Systems (PCS).
Digital Modulation
Digital Modulation

 TRANSMITTER
 In the transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and then encodes the
incoming data into groups of bits that modulate an analog carrier. The modulated
carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, and then transmitted through the transmission
medium to the receiver.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
 The transmission medium can be a metallic cable, optical fiber cable, Earth’s
atmosphere, or a combination of two or more types of transmission systems.
 RECEIVER
 In the receiver, the incoming signals are filtered, amplified, and then applied to the
demodulator and decoder circuits, which extracts the original source information from
the modulated carrier. The clock and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog
carrier and digital timing (clock) signals from the incoming modulated wave since
they are necessary to perform the demodulation process.
Information Capacity, Bits, and Bit Rate

 Information Theory
 a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate
information through electronic communications systems.
 Information Capacity
 a measure of how much information can be propagated through a
communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time.
 represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through a
system in a given unit of time.
 Binary Digit or Bit
 the most basic digital symbol used to represent information
 Bit Rate
 is simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits
per second (bps).
Hartley’s Law

 From the equation, it can be seen that information capacity is a linear

function of bandwidth and transmission time and is directly proportional to
both. If either the bandwidth or the transmission time changes, a directly
proportional change occurs in the information capacity
Shannon Limit for Information Capacity

 In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone

Laboratories) published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal
relating the information capacity of a communications channel to
bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the
better the performance and the higher the information capacity.
M-ary Encoding

 M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M simply represents a digit
that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations
possible for a given number of binary variables. It is often advantageous to
encode at a level higher than binary (sometimes referred to as beyond
binary or higher-than-binary encoding) where there are more than two
conditions possible.
 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

 Baud, like bit rate (which it is sometimes confused with), is also a rate of
change; however, baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the
transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.
 Hence, baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate
and, therefore, the terms symbols per second and baud are often used
interchangeably.
 A signaling element is sometimes called a symbol and could be encoded
as a change in the amplitude, frequency, or phase.
 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

 According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through

an ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the
bandwidth of the medium. The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary
to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or
sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, fb=2B, where fb is the bit
rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.
 The actual bandwidth necessary to propagate a given bit rate depends on
several factors, including the type of encoding and modulation used, the
types of filters used, system noise, and desired error performance. The ideal
bandwidth is generally used for comparison purposes only.
 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

 Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity is:

 The equation can be rearranged to solve for the minimum bandwidth

necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers

𝑓
 If N is substituted for log2 M, the equation reduces to B= 𝑏 where N is the
𝑁
number of bits encoded into each signaling element.
 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

 If information bits are encoded (grouped) and then converted to signals with
more than two levels, transmission rates in excess of 2B are possible. In addition,
since baud is the encoded rate of change, it also equals the bit rate divided by
the number of bits encoded into one signaling element. Thus,

 By comparing the two equations, it can be seen that with digital modulation,
the baud and the ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the same value and
are equal to the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded. This statement
holds true for all forms of digital modulation except frequency-shift keying.
Amplitude-Shift Keying
ECEN 30094: MODULATION AND CODING TECHNIQUES
Amplitude-Shift Keying

 The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK),

where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an
analog carrier. ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except
there are only two output amplitudes possible. Amplitude-shift keying is
sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM) and on-off keying
(OOK). Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying is
Amplitude-Shift Keying

 𝑣𝑎𝑠𝑘 𝑡 = amplitude-shift keying wave

 𝑣𝑚 𝑡 = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
 A/2= unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
 𝜔𝑐 = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Amplitude-Shift Keying
 Amplitude-Shift Keying

 Figure 2 shows the input and output waveforms from

an ASK modulator. From the figure, it can be seen
that for every change in the input binary data
stream, there is one change in the ASK waveform,
and the time of one bit (𝑡𝑏 ) equals the time of one
analog signaling element (𝑡𝑠 ). It is also important to
note that for the entire time the binary input is high,
the output is a constant-amplitude, constant-
frequency signal, and for the entire time the binary
input is low, the carrier is off. The bit time is the
reciprocal of the bit rate and the time of one
signaling element is the reciprocal of the baud.
Therefore, the rate of change of the ASK waveform
(baud) is the same as the rate of change of the
binary input (bps); thus, the bit rate equals the baud.
With ASK, the bit rate is also equal to the minimum
Nyquist bandwidth.
Amplitude-Shift Keying

 Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary to pass a 10 kbps

binary signal using amplitude shift keying.
Amplitude-Shift Keying
ASK Demodulation

 COHERENT DETECTION
 NON-COHERENT DETECTION
Coherent Detection
Non-Coherent Detection
ASK Applications

 Low-frequency RF applications
 Home automation devices
 Industrial networks devices
 Wireless base stations
 Tire pressuring monitoring systems
Suggested reading materials

 Tomasi
 https://www.elprocus.com/amplitude-shift-keying-ask-working-and-
applications/
Frequency-Shift Keying
Frequency-Shift Keying

 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low-performance type

of digital modulation. FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation
similar to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a
binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a
continuously changing analog waveform. Consequently, FSK is sometimes
called binary FSK (BFSK). The general expression for FSK is
 𝑣𝑓𝑠𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)∆𝑓 𝑡
 𝑣𝑓𝑠𝑘 𝑡 = binary FSK waveform
 𝑉𝑐 = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
 𝑓𝑐 = analog carrier center frequency (Hz)
 ∆𝑓= peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (Hz)
 𝑣𝑚 (𝑡)= binary input (modulating) signal (volts)
Frequency-Shift Keying
Frequency-Shift
Keying

 With binary FSK, the carrier center

frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated)
up and down in the frequency
domain by the binary input signal.
As the binary input signal changes
from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice
versa, the output frequency shifts
between two frequencies: a mark,
or logic 1 frequency (fm), and a
space, or logic 0 frequency(fs). The
mark and space frequencies are
separated from the carrier
frequency by the peak frequency
deviation (Δf) and from each other
by 2Δf.
FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

 In the figure, it can be seen that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as the
time the FSK output is a mark of space frequency (ts). Thus, the bit time
equals the time of an FSK signaling element, and the bit rate equals the
baud.
FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

 The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as

 Note how closely the last equation resembles Carson’s rule for determining the
approximate bandwidth for an FM wave. The only difference in the two
equations is that, for FSK, the bit rate (fb) is substituted for the modulating-signal
frequency (fm).
FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

 Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and
(c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space
frequency of 51 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
FSK Bit Rate, Baud,
and Bandwidth
 Bessel functions can also be used to
determine the approximate bandwidth for
an FSK wave. As shown in Figure 5, the
fastest rate of change (highest
fundamental frequency) in a nonreturn-to-
zero (NRZ) binary signal occurs when
alternating 1s and 0s are occurring (i.e., a
square wave). Since it takes a high and a
low to produce a cycle, the highest
fundamental frequency present in a square
wave equals the repetition rate of the
square wave, which with a binary signal is
𝒇
equal to half the bit rate. Therefore, 𝒇𝒂 = 𝟐𝒃.
Where 𝒇𝒂 is the highest fundamental
frequency of the binary input signal (hertz).
FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

∆𝒇
 The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK; thus, 𝒉 = .
𝒇𝒂

 The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) is that which yields the
widest bandwidth. The worst-case or widest bandwidth occurs when both
the frequency deviation and the modulating-signal frequency are at their
maximum values. As described earlier, the peak frequency deviation in FSK
is constant and always at its maximum value, and the highest fundamental
frequency is equal to half the incoming bit rate. Thus,
FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

 Using a Bessel table, determine the minimum bandwidth for the same FSK
signal described in the previous example with a mark frequency of 49 kHz,
a space frequency of 51 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
FSK Transmitter

 The figure shows a simplified binary FSK

modulator, which is very similar to a
conventional FM modulator and is very
often a voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO). The center frequency (fc) is
chosen such that it falls halfway
between the mark and space
frequencies. A logic 1 input shifts the
VCO output to the mark frequency,
and a logic 0 input shifts the VCO
output to the space frequency.
Consequently, as the binary input
signal changes back and forth
between logic 1 and logic 0
conditions, the VCO output shifts or
deviates back and forth between the
mark and space frequencies.
FSK Transmitter

 In a binary FSK modulator, ∆𝒇 is the peak frequency deviation of the carrier

and is equal to the difference between the carrier rest frequency and either
the mark or the space frequency (or half the difference between the
carrier rest frequency) and either the mark or the space frequency (or half
the difference between the mark and space frequencies). A VCO-FSK
modulator can be operated in the sweep mode where the peak
frequency deviation is simply the product of the binary input voltage and
the deviation sensitivity of the VCO. With the sweep mode of modulation,
the frequency deviation is expressed mathematically as ∆𝒇 = 𝑽𝒎 (𝒕)𝒌𝒍
where:
 ∆𝒇 = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
 𝑽𝒎 (𝒕) = peak binary modulating-signal voltage (volts)
 𝒌𝒍 = deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt)
FSK Transmitter

 With binary FSK, the amplitude of the input signal can only be one of two
values, one for a logic 1 condition and one for a logic 0 condition.
Therefore, the peak frequency deviation is constant and always at its
maximum value. Frequency deviation is simply plus or minus the peak
voltage of the binary signal times the deviation sensitivity of the VCO. Since
the peak voltage is the same for a logic 1 as it is for a logic 0, the
magnitude of the frequency deviation is also the same for a logic 1 as it is
for a logic 0.
FSK Transmitter
FSK  FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit such as
the one shown below. The FSK input signal is
Receiver simultaneously applied to the inputs of both bandpass
filters (BPFs) through a power splitter. The respective filter
passes only the mark or only the space frequency on to
its respective envelope detector. The envelope
detectors, in turn, indicate the total power in each
passband, and the comparator responds to the largest
of the two powers. This type of FSK detection is referred
to as noncoherent detection; there is no frequency
involved in the demodulation process that is
synchronized either in phase, frequency, or both with
the incoming FSK signal.
FSK  The figure below shows the block diagram for a
coherent FSK receiver. The incoming FSK signal is
Receiver multiplied by a recovered carrier signal that has the
exact same frequency and phase as the transmitter
reference. However, the two transmitted frequencies
(the mark and space frequencies) are not generally
continuous; it is not practical to reproduce a local
reference that is coherent with both of them.
Consequently, coherent FSK detection is seldom used.
  The most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK
FSK signals is the phase-locked loop (PLL), which is shown in
block diagram form below. A PLL-FSK demodulator works
Receiver similarly to a PLL-FM demodulator. As the input to the PLL
shifts between the mark and space frequencies, the dc
error voltage at the output of the phase comparator follows
the frequency shift. Because there are only two input
frequencies (mark and space), there are also only two
output error voltages. One represents a logic 1 and the
other a logic 0. Therefore, the output is a two-level (binary)
representation of the FSK input. Generally, the natural
frequency of the PLL is made equal to the center frequency
of the FSK modulator. As a result, the changes in the dc
error voltage follow the changes in the analog input
frequency and are symmetrical around 0 V.
FSK Receiver

 Binary FSK has a poorer error performance than PSK or QAM and,
consequently, is seldom used for high-performance digital radio systems. Its
use is restricted to low-performance, low-cost, asynchronous data modems
that are used for data communications over analog, voice-band
telephone lines.
Applications of FSK

 Voice grade lines for data rates up to 1200bps

 Hgh frequency radio transmission from 3 to 30MHz
 Coax based LAN @ higher frequencies
  Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CP-FSK) is binary FSK
Continuous- except the mark and space frequencies are synchronized with the
input binary bit rate. Synchronous simply implies that there is a
Phase precise time relationship between the two; it does not mean they
are equal. With CP-FSK, the mark and space frequencies are
Frequency- selected such that they are separated from the center frequency
by an exact multiple of one-half the bit rate (fm and fs=n[fb /2]),
Shift Keying where n=any integer). This ensures a smooth phase transition in the
analog output signal when it changes from a mark to a space
frequency or vice versa. The figure below shows a noncontinuous
FSK waveform. It can be seen that when the input changes from a
logic 1 to a logic 0 and vice versa, there is an abrupt phase
discontinuity in the analog signal. When this occurs, the
demodulator has trouble following the frequency shift;
consequently, an error may occur.
Continuous-  The figure below shows a continuous phase FSK
waveform. Notice that when the output frequency
Phase changes, it is a smooth, continuous transition.
Consequently, there are no phase discontinuities. CP-
Frequency- FSK has a better bit-error performance than
Shift Keying conventional binary FSK for a given signal-to-noise ratio.
The disadvantage of CP-FSK is that it requires
synchronization circuits and is, therefore, more
expensive to implement.
PHASE-SHIFT KEYING
ECEN 30094
Phase-Shift Keying

 Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-

amplitude digital modulation. PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme
similar to conventional phase modulation except with PSK the input is a
binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases
possible. The input binary information is encoded into groups of bits before
modulating the carrier. The number of bits in a group ranges from 1 to 12 or
more. The number of output phases is defined by M and determined by the
number of bits in the group (n).
 Binary PSK
 Quarternary PSK
 8-PSK
 16-PSK
Binary Phase-Shift Keying

 The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N=1 and
M=2. Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (2^1=2) are possible for the carrier.
One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0.
As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a
1), the phase of the output carrier shifts between two angles that are
separated by 180°. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying
(PRK) and biphase modulation. BPSK is a form of square-wave modulation
of a continuous wave (CW) signal.
Binary Phase-Shift Keying
Binary Phase-Shift Keying

 The BPSK modulation is a very basic technique used in various wireless

standards such as CDMA, WiMAX (16d, 16e), WLAN 11a, 11b, 11g, 11n,
Satellite, DVB, Cable modem etc. It is considered to be more robust among
all the modulation types due to difference of 180 degree between two
constellation points. Hence it can withstand severe amount of channel
conditions or channel fading. It is used in OFDM and OFDMA to modulate
the pilot subcarriers used for channel estimation and equalization. As we
know different channels are used for specific data transmission in cellular
systems. The channels used to transmit system related informations which
are very essential are modulated using BPSK modulation.
BPSK Transmitter

 The balanced modulator acts as a

phase reversing switch. Depending
on the logic condition of the digital
input, the carrier is transferred to the
output either in phase or180° out of
phase with the reference carrier
oscillator.
BPSK
Transmitter
 The balanced modulator
has two inputs: a carrier
that is in phase with the
reference oscillator and the
binary digital data. For the
balanced modulator to
operate properly, the digital
input voltage must be
much greater than the
peak carrier voltage. This
ensures that the digital
input controls the on/off
state of diodes D1 to D4.
BPSK Transmitter

 If the binary input is a logic 1 (positive voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are

forward biased and on, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off.
With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across
transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage across T1. Consequently,
the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator.
BPSK Transmitter

 If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are

reverse biased and off, while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on.
As a result, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180° out
of phase with the carrier voltage across T1. Consequently, the output signal
is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator.
BPSK Transmitter

 A constellation diagram,
which is sometimes called a
signal state-space diagram,
is similar to a phasor diagram
except that the entire phasor
is not drawn. In a
constellation diagram, only
the relative positions of the
peaks of the phasors are
shown.
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK

 For BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal to the input rate of
change (bps), and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input
binary data are an alternating 1/0 sequence. The fundamental frequency
(fa) of an alternative 1/0 bit sequence is equal to one-half of the bit rate
(fb/2). Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulator is proportional to
𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑎 𝑡) × sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) where 𝑓𝑎 is the maximum
fundamental frequency of binary input (Hz) and 𝑓𝑐 is the reference carrier
frequency.
 The minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth, B, is equal to 2fb/2 or simply
fb, which is the input rate.
 It can also be seen that the time of one BPSK signaling element (ts) is equal
to the time of one information bit (tb), which indicates that the bit rate
equals the baud.
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK

 For a BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit
rate of 10 Mbps, determine the maximum and minimum upper and lower
side frequencies, draw the output spectrum, determine the minimum
Nyquist bandwidth, and calculate the baud.
BPSK Receiver
Quarternary Phase-Shift Keying
Quaternary Phase-Shift
Keying
ECEN 30094
QPSK

 Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes

called, is aother form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital
modulation. QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M = 4
(hence, the name “quaternary” meaning “4”). With QPSK, four output
phases are possible for a single carrier frequency. Because there are four
output phases, there must be four different input conditions. Because the
digital input to a QPSK modulator is a binary (base 2) signal, to produce
four different input combinations, the modulator requires more than a single
input bit to determine the output condition.
QPSK

 With two bits, there are four possible conditions: 00, 01, 10, and 11.
Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of
two bits, called dibits. In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of
the four possible output phases (+45°, +135°, -45°, and -135°). Therefore, for
each two-bit dibit clocked into the modulator, a single output change
occurs, and the rate of change at the output (baud) is equal to one-half
the input bit rate (i.e., two input bits produce one output phase change).
QPSK Transmitter
QPSK Truth Table
QPSK Phasor Diagram
QPSK Constellation Diagram
Output phase-versus-time relationship
for a QPSK modulator
Bandwidth Considerations of QPSK

𝑓𝑏ൗ
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝐵𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 2
Sample Problem

 For a QPSK modulator with an input data rate (fb) equal to 10 Mbps and a
carrier frequency of 70 MHz, determine the minimum double-sided Nyquist
bandwidth (fN) and the baud.
Sample Problem

 Answer: BW=5MHz, baud=5 megabaud

QPSK Receiver
Offset QPSK

 Offset QPSK (OQPSK) is a modified form of QPSK where thebit waveforms on

the I and Q channels are offset or shifted in phase from each other by one-
half of a bit time.
Offset QPSK
BINARY PHASE-SHIFT
KEYING
ECEN 30094
Phase-Shift Keying

 Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-

amplitude digital modulation. PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme
similar to conventional phase modulation except with PSK the input is a
binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases
possible. The input binary information is encoded into groups of bits before
modulating the carrier. The number of bits in a group ranges from 1 to 12 or
more. The number of output phases is defined by M and determined by the
number of bits in the group (n).
 Binary PSK
 Quarternary PSK
 8-PSK
 16-PSK
Binary Phase-Shift Keying

 The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N=1 and
M=2. Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (2^1=2) are possible for the carrier.
One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0.
As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a
1), the phase of the output carrier shifts between two angles that are
separated by 180°. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying
(PRK) and biphase modulation. BPSK is a form of square-wave modulation
of a continuous wave (CW) signal.
Binary Phase-Shift Keying
Binary Phase-Shift Keying

 The BPSK modulation is a very basic technique used in various wireless

standards such as CDMA, WiMAX (16d, 16e), WLAN 11a, 11b, 11g, 11n,
Satellite, DVB, Cable modem etc. It is considered to be more robust among
all the modulation types due to difference of 180 degree between two
constellation points. Hence it can withstand severe amount of channel
conditions or channel fading. It is used in OFDM and OFDMA to modulate
the pilot subcarriers used for channel estimation and equalization. As we
know different channels are used for specific data transmission in cellular
systems. The channels used to transmit system related informations which
are very essential are modulated using BPSK modulation.
BPSK Transmitter

 The balanced modulator acts as a

phase reversing switch. Depending
on the logic condition of the digital
input, the carrier is transferred to the
output either in phase or180° out of
phase with the reference carrier
oscillator.
BPSK
Transmitter
 The balanced modulator
has two inputs: a carrier
that is in phase with the
reference oscillator and the
binary digital data. For the
balanced modulator to
operate properly, the digital
input voltage must be
much greater than the
peak carrier voltage. This
ensures that the digital
input controls the on/off
state of diodes D1 to D4.
BPSK Transmitter

 If the binary input is a logic 1 (positive voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are

forward biased and on, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off.
With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across
transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage across T1. Consequently,
the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator.
BPSK Transmitter

 If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are

reverse biased and off, while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on.
As a result, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180° out
of phase with the carrier voltage across T1. Consequently, the output signal
is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator.
BPSK Transmitter

 A constellation diagram,
which is sometimes called a
signal state-space diagram,
is similar to a phasor diagram
except that the entire phasor
is not drawn. In a
constellation diagram, only
the relative positions of the
peaks of the phasors are
shown.
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK

 For BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal to the input rate of
change (bps), and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input
binary data are an alternating 1/0 sequence. The fundamental frequency
(fa) of an alternative 1/0 bit sequence is equal to one-half of the bit rate
(fb/2). Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulator is proportional to
𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑎 𝑡) × sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) where 𝑓𝑎 is the maximum
fundamental frequency of binary input (Hz) and 𝑓𝑐 is the reference carrier
frequency.
 The minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth, B, is equal to 2fb/2 or simply
fb, which is the input rate.
 It can also be seen that the time of one BPSK signaling element (ts) is equal
to the time of one information bit (tb), which indicates that the bit rate
equals the baud.
Bandwidth considerations of BPSK

 For a BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit
rate of 10 Mbps, determine the maximum and minimum upper and lower
side frequencies, draw the output spectrum, determine the minimum
Nyquist bandwidth, and calculate the baud.
BPSK Receiver
8-PSK and 16-PSK
8-PSK

 With 8-PSK, three bits are encoded, forming tribits and producing eight
different output phases. With 8-PSK, n=3, M=8, and there are eight possible
output phases. To encode eight different phases, the incoming bits are
encoded in groups of three, called tribits (23 = 8).
8-PSK Transmitter
8-PSK Transmitter
8-PSK Modulator Phasor Diagram
8-PSK Modulator Constellation Diagram
8-PSK Modulator Truth Table
Output phase-versus-time relationship
for an 8-PSK modulator
Bandwidth Considerations of 8-PSK

𝑓𝑏
 Bandwidth=Baud= ൗ3
8-PSK Receiver
16-PSK

 16-PSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M=16; there are 16 different

output phases possible. With 16-PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are
combined, producing 16 different output phases.
16-PSK Truth Table
16-PSK Constellation Diagram
PSK Limitations

 For an M-ary PSK system with 64 output phases (n=6), the angular
separation between adjacent phases is only 5.6°. This is an obvious
limitation in the level of encoding (and bit rates) possible with PSK, as a
point is eventually reached where receivers cannot discern the phase of
the received signaling element. In addition, phase impairments inherent on
communications lines have a tendency to shift the phase of the PSK signal,
destroying its integrity and producing errors.
Quadrature-Amplitude
Modulation
QAM

 Quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation

similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the
amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier. With QAM, amplitude
and phase-shift keying are combined in such a way that the positions of
the signaling elements on the constellation diagrams are optimized to
achieve the greatest distance between elements, thus reducing the
likelihood of one element being misinterpreted as another element.
Obviously, this reduces the likelihood of errors occurring.
8-QAM

 8-QAM is an M-ary encoding technique where M=8. Unlike 8-PSK, the

output signal from an 8-QAM modulator is not a constant-amplitude signal.
8-QAM Transmitter
8-QAM Transmitter Truth Table
8-QAM Transmitter Truth Table
Phasor Diagram
Constellation Diagram
Output phase and amplitude-versus-
time relationship for 8-QAM
Bandwidth considerations of 8-QAM

𝑓𝑏
 Bandwidth=Baud= ൗ3
8-QAM Receiver

 An 8-QAM receiver is almost identical to the 8-PSK receiver. The differences

are the PAM levels at the output of the product detectors and the binary
signals at the output of the analog-to-digital converters. Because there are
two transmit amplitudes possible with 8-QAM that are different from those
achievable with 8-PSK, the four demodulated PAM levels in 8-QAM are
different from those in 8-PSK. Therefore, the conversion factor for the
analog-to-digital converters must also be different. Also, with 8-QAM the
binary output signals from the I channel analog-to-digital converter are the
I and C bits, and the binary output signals from the Q channel analog-to-
digital converter are the Q and C bits.
16-QAM

 As with the 16-PSK, 16-QAM is an M-ary system where M=16. The input data
are acted on in groups of four (24 = 16). As with 8-QAM, both the phase
and the amplitude of the transmit carrier are varied.
16-QAM Transmitter
Truth tables for the I- and Q-channel 2-to-4-
level converters
16-QAM Transmitter Truth Table
16-QAM Phasor Diagram
16-QAM Constellation Diagram
Bandwidth considerations of 16-QAM

𝑓𝑏
 Bandwidth=Baud= ൗ4