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Physical Layer
Reference Books
Slides and materials are taken from:
Computer Networks: A Top-Down Approach by
Behrouz A. Forouzan and Firouz
Mosharraf, McGraw-Hill
Topics covered
Data and signals
Analog, digital
Transmission Impairment
Analog Signal
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of
intensity (continuous) over a period of time.
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Another Example
Fourier analysis is a tool that changes a timedomain signal to a frequency-domain signal and
vice versa.
A composite periodic signal with a period T
(frequency f = 1/T) can be decomposed into a
series of sine (and cosine) functions in which
each function is an integral harmonics of the
fundamental frequency f.
Digital Signal
A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only
a limited number of defined values, e.g. 0 or 1.
Example?
Digital Signals
Bit Rate:
Duration of a single bit
Number of values a bit can take
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Transmission Impairment
Signals travel through transmission media, which
are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment
signal at the beginning of the medium is not the
same as the signal at the end of the medium.
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Distortion
Different frequencies
propagate at different
speed through the
transmission medium
Noise
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..
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This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.881 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can
increase the bandwidth of the line (example?)
improve the signal-to noise ratio (example?)
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
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Digital-to-Digital Conversion
The conversion involves three techniques: line
coding, block coding, and scrambling.
We will only cover line coding, which is always
needed.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
If the signal is analog and the transmission is digital,
we need to convert the analog signals to digital
signals before transmission.
The tendency today is to change an analog signal to
digital data because the digital signal is less
susceptible to noise.
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
Original Signal Recovery
PCM Bandwidth
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Example
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as
follows.
Example
We want to digitize audio signals for human consumption
(e.g. music). What is the bit rate, assuming 10 bits per
sample?
Solution
The human hearing frequency ranges from 20Hz to 20kHz.
Sampling rate = 40kHz
Bit rate = 40 * 10 = 400 kbps
Baseband Transmission
Baseband Transmission
Broadband Transmission
ANALOG TRANSMISSION
Modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying
Binary ASK (BASK)
Binary FSK (BFSK)
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Eg. 8-QAM
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
A1 1
A2 1
A1 2
A2 2
A1 3
A2 3
A1 4
A2 4
A constellation
diagram illustrates the
amplitude and phase
of a signal element
A signal element type
is represented as a dot
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8 PSK
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16 QAM