Topic 3

Physical Layer

CMPN 369 Page 1

Jan 5, 1998
 The Physical Layer

• The Physical Layer performs bit by bit

transmission of the frames given to it
by the Data Link Layer.

• The specifications of the Physical Layer

include:
• Mechanical and electrical interfaces
• Sockets and wires used to connect the
host to the network
• Voltage levels uses (e.g. -5V and +5V)
• Encoding techniques (e.g. Manchester
encoding)
• Modulation techniques used (e.g. square
wave)
• The bit rate and the baud rate.
 Signal Transmission

• Electronic energy to send

signals that communicate
from one node to another
• Two methods of
transmitting data
¯ Digital signaling
¯ Analog signaling
Comparison of Digital
and Analog
 Fourier Analysis
Any reasonably behaved periodic function, g(t) with
period T can be constructed as the sum of a
(possibly infinite) number of sines and cosines

where f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency, an

and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the
nth harmonics (terms), and c is a constant. Such
a decomposition is called a Fourier series. From
the Fourier series, the function can be
reconstructed; that is, if the period, T, is known
and the amplitudes are given, the original function
of time can be found
•let us consider a specific example: the
transmission of the ASCII character ''b'' encoded
in an 8-bit byte.
•The bit pattern that is to be transmitted is
01100010.
•The left-hand part of shows the voltage output by
the transmitting computer.
•The Fourier analysis of this signal yields the
coefficients

•The Fourier analysis of this signal yields the

coefficients:
Bandwidth-Limited
Signals
Bandwidth-Limited
Signals
• The root-mean-square amplitudes, ,
for the first few terms are shown on the
right-hand side of Fig. 2-1(a).
• These values are of interest because their
squares are proportional to the energy
transmitted at the corresponding
frequency.
• No transmission facility can transmit
signals without losing some power in the
process.
• All transmission facilities diminish different
Fourier components by different amounts,
thus introducing distortion
• Usually, the amplitudes are transmitted
undiminished from 0 up to some frequency
fc [measured in cycles/sec or Hertz (Hz)]
with all frequencies above this cutoff
frequency attenuated.
• The range of frequencies transmitted
without being strongly attenuated is called
the bandwidth.
• The bandwidth is a physical property of the
transmission medium and usually depends
on the construction, thickness, and length
of the medium.
• Now let us consider how the signal of Fig.
2-1(a) would look if the bandwidth were so
low that only the lowest frequencies were
transmitted [i.e., if the function were being
approximated by the first few terms of Eq.
(2-1)].
• Figure 2-1(b) shows the signal that results
from a channel that allows only the first
harmonic (the fundamental, f) to pass
through.
• Similarly, Fig. 2-1(c)-(e) show the spectra
and reconstructed functions for higher-
bandwidth channels .
• Given a bit rate of b bits/sec, the time
required to send 8 bits (for example) 1 bit at
a time is 8/b sec, so the frequency of the
first harmonic is b/8 Hz.
• An ordinary telephone line, often called a
voice-grade line, has an artificially-
introduced cutoff frequency just above
3000 Hz.
• This restriction means that the number of
the highest harmonic passed through is
roughly 3000/(b/8) or 24,000/b, (the cutoff is
not sharp).
Relation between data rate
and harmonics
• For some data rates, the numbers work out
as shown in Fig. 2-2.
• From these numbers, it is clear that trying
to send at 9600 bps over a voice-grade
telephone line will transform Fig. 2-1(a) into
something looking like Fig. 2-1(c), making
accurate reception of the original binary bit
stream tricky.
• It should be obvious that at data rates
much higher than 38.4 kbps, there is no
hope at all for binary signals, even if the
transmission facility is completely
noiseless.
• In other words, limiting the bandwidth
limits the data rate, even for perfect
channels.
• However, sophisticated coding schemes
that make use of several voltage levels do
exist and can achieve higher data rates.
 The Maximum Data
Rate of a Channel
• Henry Nyquist, realized that even a perfect
channel has a finite transmission capacity.
• He derived an equation expressing the
maximum data rate for a finite bandwidth
noiseless channel.
• Nyquist proved that if an arbitrary signal
has been run through a low-pass filter of
bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be
completely reconstructed by making only
2H (exact) samples per second.
• If the signal consists of V discrete levels,
Nyquist's theorem states:

For example, a noiseless 3-kHz channel

cannot transmit binary (i.e., two-level)
signals at a rate exceeding 6000 bps.
• So far we have considered only noiseless
channels.
• If random noise is present, the situation
deteriorates rapidly.
• And there is always random (thermal) noise
present due to the motion of the molecules
in the system.
• The amount of thermal noise present is
measured by the ratio of the signal power to
the noise power, called the signal-to-noise
ratio.
• If we denote the signal power by S and the
noise power by N, the signal-to-noise ratio
is S/N. Usually, the ratio itself is not quoted;
instead, the quantity 10 log10 S/N is given.
• These units are called decibels (dB). An S/N
ratio of 10 is 10 dB, a ratio of 100 is 20 dB, a
ratio of 1000 is 30 dB, and so on.
• Shannon's major result is that the
maximum data rate of a noisy channel
whose bandwidth is H Hz, and whose
signal-to-noise ratio is S/N, is given by

For example, a channel of 3000-Hz

bandwidth with a signal to thermal noise ratio
of 30 dB (typical parameters of the analog
part of the telephone system) can never
transmit much more than 30,000 bps, no
matter how many or how few signal levels
are used and no matter how often or how
infrequently samples are taken.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

 Signals travel through transmission

media, which are not perfect.
 The imperfection causes signal
impairment.
 This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium.
 What is sent is not what is received.
 Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.

20
Attenuation

21
 Example

Suppose a signal travels through a

transmission medium and its power is
reduced to one-half.
This means that P2 is (1/2)P1.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of
power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to

losing one-half the power.

22
 Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and

its power is increased 10 times.
This means that P2 = 10P1 .
What is the amplification (gain of power)?

23
 Example

One reason that engineers use the decibel

to measure the changes in the strength of
a signal is that decibel numbers can be
added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading)
instead of just two.
A signal travels from point 1 to point 4.

In this case, the decibel value can be

calculated as

24
 Example

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure

signal power in milliwatts.
In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is
the power in milliwatts.
Calculate the power of a signal with dBm =
−30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

25
 Example

The loss in a cable is usually defined in

decibels per kilometer (dB/km).
If the signal at beginning of a cable with
−0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is
the power of the signal at 5 km?

Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 ×
( − 0.3) = − 1.5 dB. We can calculate the
power as

26
Distortion

27
Noise

28
 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the

power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the
values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be
calculated as follows:

29
Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

30
 Example

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a

noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life;

it is an ideal.

31
 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the

performance of the network—how good is
it?

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in

two contexts

The first, bandwidth in hertz,

refers to the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

The second, bandwidth in bits per second,

refers to the speed of bit transmission in a
channel or link.

32
 Examples

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4

kHz for voice or data.
The bandwidth of this line for data
transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a
sophisticated modem to change the
digital signal to analog.

If the telephone company improves the

quality of the line and increases the
bandwidth to 8 kHz,
we can send 112,000 bps.

33
 Example

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can

pass only an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average
of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of
this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the

bandwidth in this case.

34
 Example

What is the propagation time if the

distance between the two points is 12,000
km? Assume the propagation speed to be
2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over

the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is
a direct cable between the source and the
destination.
35
 Example

What are the propagation time and the

transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message
if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps?
Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, because the message

is short and the bandwidth is high, the
dominant factor is the propagation time, not
the transmission time.
The transmission time can be ignored.

36
 Example

What are the propagation time and the

transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message
if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps?
Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, because the

message is very long and the bandwidth is
not very high, the dominant factor is the
transmission time, not the propagation
time.
The propagation time can be ignored.

37
Concept of bandwidth-delay product

The bandwidth-delay product defines the

number of bits that can fill the link.

We can think about the link between two

points as a pipe.
The cross section of the pipe represents
the bandwidth, and the length of the pipe
represents the delay.
We can say the volume of the pipe defines
the bandwidth-delay product. 38
Filling the link with bits in case 1

39
 Analog versus Digital

• Digital
¯ Is less error prone
¯ Distortion of the signal between
the source and destination is
eliminated
• Analog
¯ Little control over the signal
distortion
¯ Old technology
 Analog versus Digital

In digital communication, it is often possible

to reconstruct the original signal even after it
has been effected by noise
voltag voltag
e e

tim
e tim
e

voltag analogue voltag digital

e signal e signal

tim tim
e e

analogue signal + digital signal +

noise noise

When noise The original

effects an digital signal
analogue can be
signal, it is hard deduced
to deduce the despite the
original signal. noise.
 Benefits of Digital
Transmission
• Reliability
¯ Can regenerate slightly
damaged signals
¯ There are only two states.
Change to closest
¯ E.g., if two states are voltages
+10v (1) and -10v (0) and the
signal is +8v, the signal is a 1

Original ReceivedRegenerated
 Benefits of Digital
Transmission
• Error detection and
correction
¯ Can correct errors in
transmission

- Add a few bytes of error-

checking information
- Can ask for retransmission
if an error is detected
 Benefits of Digital
Transmission
• Encryption
¯ Encrypt (scramble) messages so
that someone intercepting them
cannot read them
 Benefits of Digital
Transmission
• Compression
¯ Compress message before
transmission
¯ Decompress at other end
¯ Compressed message places
lighter load on transmission
line, so less expensive to send
¯ Not always used
10101001 1010
Original Compressed
Signal Signal
 Transmission medium and physical
layer

• 1)Transmission media are actually

located below the physical layer and
directly controlled by the physical layer.
• 2)Computer and other
telecommunication devices use signals
to represent data.
• 3)These signals are transmitted from
one device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy, which is
propagated through transmission
media.
 Classes of Transmission
Media

• 1)Guided media, which are those

that provide a conduit from one
device to another.
• 2)Signal travelling along any of
these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of
the medium.
 Media Selection
Criteria
• Cost
¯ For actual media and
connecting devices such as NICs
hubs etc
• Installation
¯ Difficulty to work with media
¯ Special tools, training
 Media Selection
Criteria
• Capacity
¯ The amount of information that
can be transmitted in a giving
period of time
¯ Measured as
- Bits per second bps (preferred)
- Baud (discrete signals per
second)
- Bandwidth (range of
frequencies)
 Media Selection
Criteria
• Node Capacity
¯ Number of network devices that
can be connected to the media
• Attenuation
¯ Weakening of the signal over
distance
 Media Selection
Criteria
• Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI)
¯ Distortion of signal caused by
outside electromagnetic fields
¯ Caused by large motors,
proximity to power sources
• Other noise sources
¯ White (Gaussian) noise
¯ Impulse noise
¯ Crosstalk
¯ Echo
 Twisted-Pair Cable

• 1)One of the wires is used to carry signals

to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference. The receiver uses
the difference between the two levels.
• 2)In addition to the signal sent by the
sender on one of the wires, interference
(noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires
and create unwanted signals.
• 3)The receiver at the end, however,
operates only on the difference between
these unwanted signals. This means that if
the two wires are affected by noise or
crosstalk equally, the receiver is immune
(the difference is zero).
• 4)The number of twists per unit of length
(e.g., inch) determines the quality of the
cable; more twists mean better quality.
 UTP and STP

• 1)STP cable has a metal foil or

braided-mesh covering that encases
each pair of insulated conductors.
• 2)Although metal casing improves
the quality of cable by preventing
the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more
expensive.
 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Catego Bandw Data Digital/Analo

Use
ry idth Rate g
very < 100 Teleph
1 Analog
low kbps one
<2 T-1
2 2 Mbps Analog/digital
MHz lines
16 10
3 Digital LANs
MHz Mbps
20 20
4 Digital LANs
MHz Mbps
100 100
5 Digital LANs
MHz Mbps
6 200 200
Digital LANs
(draft) MHz Mbps
7 600 600
Digital LANs
(draft) MHz Mbps
 UTP connector

• 1)RJ45 (Registered Jack) is the

most common UTP connector.
• 2)RJ45 is a keyed connector,
meaning the connector can be
inserted in only one way.
 Coaxial cable
• 1)Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of
higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair
cable, in part because the two media are
constructed quite differently.
• 2)Coax has a central core conductor of
solid or stranded wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is,
in turn, encased in an outer conductor of
metal foil, braid, or a combination of the
two.
• 3)The outer metallic wrapping serves both
as a shield against noise and as a second
conductor, which completes the circuit.
• 4)This outer conductor is also enclosed in
an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover.
• Each Radio Government (RG)
number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications, including
the wire gauge of the inner
conductor, the thickness and type
of the inner insulator, the
construction of the shield, and the
size and type of the outer casing.

Categories of coaxial cables

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75  Cable TV

RG-58 50  Thin Ethernet

Thick
RG-11 50 
Ethernet
 BNC connectors

• 1)Bayone-Neill-Concelman
Connectors
• 2)Three popular types are BNC
connector, BNC T connector, BNC
Terminator.
• 3)BNC Connector is used to connect
the end of the cable to a device,
such as a TV set. The BNC T
connector is used in Ethernet
networks to branch out a cable for
connection to a computer or other
devices.
 Bending of light ray
• Fiber-optic cable is made of glass
or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light.

• A glass or plastic core is

surrounded by a cladding of less
dense glass or plastic. The
difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the
core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.
 Propagation modes

• Multimode is so named because

multiple beams from a light source
move through the core in different
paths.
• Multimode step-index fiber
¯ Density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges
¯ Beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding.
¯ At the interface, there is an abrupt change to a
lower density that alters the angle of the
beam ’ s motion. The term step index refers to
the suddenness of this change.
 Modes

• Multimode graded-index Fiber

¯ The word index here refers to the index of
refraction that is related to density.
• Single mode Fiber
¯ Single mode uses step-index fiber and a
highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close
to the horizontal.
Modes
 Fiber types

Claddin
Core
Type g Mode
µm
µm
Multimode,
50/125 50 125
graded-index
62.5/1 Multimode,
62.5 125
25 graded-index
100/12 Multimode,
100 125
5 graded-index

7/125 7 125 Single-mode

 Fiber construction

• 1)Outer jacket is made of either PVC or

Teflon.
• 2)Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to
strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong
material used in the fabrication of
bulletproof vests.
• 3)Below the Kevlar is another plastic
coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at
the center of the cable, and it consists of
cladding and core.
 Fiber-optic cable connectors

• Three different types of connectors

¯ Subscriber channel (SC) connector is used in
cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system.
¯ Straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting
cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet
locking system and is more reliable than SC.
¯ MT-RJ is a new connector with the same size as
RJ-45
• Fiber optic has several advantages over
metallic cable
¯ Higher bandwidth, less signal attenuation,
immunity to electromagnetic interference,
resistance to corrosive materials, light weight,
more immune to tapping.
¯ Disadvantages: Installation/maintenance [need
expertise], Unidirectional [propagation of light is
unidirectional], Cost.
Characteristics of
Cable Media
 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless
communication

• Unguided Media: Wireless

¯ Signals can travel via ground propagation,
sky propagation, line-of-sight propagation.
 Bands

Propaga
Band Range Application
tion
Long-range radio
VLF 3–30 KHz Ground
navigation
Radio beacons and
LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators
300 KHz–3
MF Sky AM radio
MHz
Citizens band (CB),
HF 3–30 MHz Sky ship/aircraft
communication
Sky and
VHF TV,
VHF 30–300 MHz line-of-
FM radio
sight
300 MHz–3 Line-of- UHF TV, cellular phones,
UHF
GHz sight paging, satellite

Line-of-
SHF 3–30 GHz Satellite communication
sight

Line-
EH 30–300 Long-range radio
of-
F GHz navigation
sight
Wireless transmission
waves
 Omnidirectional antennas

• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves

ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and
1 GHz and those between 1 and 300 GHz
are called Microwaves.
• Radio waves
¯ Omnidirectional; Propagate to long distances
¯ Can penetrate walls and so no boundary.
• Radio waves are used for multicast
communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems
 Unidirectional antennas

• Microwaves are unidirectional.

• Very high frequency microwave cannot penetrate
walls.
• Parabolic dish antenna
¯ Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of
sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the
lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
• Horn antenna
¯ Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem
(resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series
of narrow parallel beams by the curved head.
¯ Received transmissions are collected by the scooped
shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic
dish, and are deflected down into the stem.
• Microwaves are used for unicast communication such
as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless
LANs
 Multiplexing

• 1)several lines (one for

each device) enter a
multiplexer (mux) at the
host side
• 2)the host side mux
combines all incoming
signals
• 3)combined signals are
transmitted to a mux on
the receiving side
 Types of
Multiplexers
• Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM)
• Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM)
• Statistical Time Division
Multiplexing (STDM)
 Frequency Division
Multiplexing
• The frequency spectrum is divided up among the
logical channels - each user hangs on to a
particular frequency. The radio spectrum (and a
radio) are examples of the media and the
mechanism for extracting information from the
medium.
Frequency division
multiplexed circuit
Frequency Division Multiplexing

n One problem with FDM is that it cannot

utilise the full capacity of the cable.

n It is important that the frequency bands

do not overlap. Indeed, there must be a
considerable gap between the frequency
bands in order to ensure that signals
from one band do not affect signals in
another band.

n FDM is usually used to carry analogue

signals although modulated digital
signals can also be sent using this
technique.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• The same as FDM, but applied to fibers. There's

great potential for fibers since the bandwidth is
so huge (25,000 GHz).

• Fibers with different energy bands are passed

through a diffraction grating prism
• Combined on the long distance link
• Split at the destination
• High reliability, very high capacity
 Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM)

n Like FDM, time division multiplexing (TDM)

saves money by allowing more than one
telephone call to use a cable at the same time.

Multiplexer Demultiplexer

Terminal#1 Device#1

Terminal#2 #3 #2 #1 Device#2
#3 #2 #1

Terminal#3 Device#3

n Instead of dividing the cable into frequency

bands, TDM splits cable usage into time slots.
Each channel is given a regular time slot in
which to send a PCM signal.
Time Division
Multiplexing
 Switching

• Switching send data

across different routes
• Three types of switching
¯ Circuit switching
¯ Message switching
¯ Packet switching
 Switching
• Circuit Switching: A connection
(electrical, optical, radio) is established
from the caller phone to the callee
phone. This happens BEFORE any data
is sent.

• Message Switching: The connection is

determined only when there is actual
data (a message) ready to be sent. The
whole message is re-collected at each
switch and then forwarded on to the
next switch. This method is called
store-and-forward. This method may tie
up routers for long periods of time - not
good for interactive traffic.

• Packet Switching: Divides the message

up into blocks (packets). Therefore
packets use the transmission lines for
only a short time period - allows for
interactive traffic.
 Circuit Switching

• 1)Connects the sender and

receiver by a single
physical path for the
duration of the session
• 2)PSTN uses circuit
switching
• 3)Before transmission a
dedicated circuit must be
established
 Circuit Switching

• Advantages
¯ guaranteed data rate
¯ once connected no channel
access delay
• Disadvantages
¯ inefficient use of the
transmission media (idle time)
¯ long connection delays (first
time)
 Message Switching

• Each message is treated

as an independent unit
¯ has its own source and
destination address
• Each is transmitted from
device to device
• Each intermediate device
stores the message until
the next device is ready
¯ store and forward
 Message Switching

• 1)Route messages along

varying paths for more
efficiency
• 2)Switching devices are
often PCs with special
software
 Message Switching

• Advantages
¯ efficient traffic management
¯ reduces network congestion
¯ efficient use of network media
¯ messages can be sent when
receiver down
• Disadvantages
¯ delay of storing and forwarding
¯ costly intermediate storage
 Packet Switching

• 1)Packet switching breaks

messages into packets
• 2)Packets travel different
routes (independent
routing)
• 3)Each packet has its own
header information
• 4)Packets small enough to
be stored in RAM thus
quicker than message
switching
 Packet Switching
• Advantages
¯ improves the use of bandwidth
over circuit switching
¯ can adjust routes to reflect
network conditions
¯ shorter transmission delays
than message switching (stored
in RAM)
¯ less disk space
¯ smaller packets to retransmit
 Packet Switching

• Disadvantages
¯ More RAM
¯ More complex protocols
¯ more processing power for
switching device
¯ Greater number of packets
greater chance for packet loss
or damage
 Packet Switching

• Two methods of packet

switching
¯ Datagram packet switching
¯ Virtual circuit packet switching
 Datagram Packet
Switching

• 1)Message divided into a

stream of packets
• 2)Each packet has it’s own
control instructions
• 3)Switching devices route
each packet independently
 Datagram Packet
Switching
• 1)Switching devices can
route packets around busy
network links
• 2)Require sequence
numbers to reassemble
• 3)Small packet size
facilitates retransmission
due to errors
 Virtual Circuit Packet
Switching
• Similar to circuit switching
• Before transmission of the
sending and receiving
device agree on:
¯ maximum message size
¯ network path
¯ establish a logical connection
(virtual circuit)
• All packets travel on the
same virtual path
CIRCUIT SWITCHED versus PACKET
SWITCHED NETWORKS
(a) circuit switching
(b) message switching
(c) packet switching