CHAPTER 3 Part 2 PDF

Chapter 3
Angle Modulation – Part 2
BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

Faculty of Electrical Engineering 1
3.7 : FM/PM Modulators
 a phase modulator is a circuit in which the carrier instantaneous phase is
proportional to the modulating signal.
 a frequency modulator is a circuit in which the carrier instantaneous phase is
proportional to the integral of the modulating signal.
PM modulator :  (t )  v(t )
FM modulator :  (t )   v(t )
 considering the FM modulator, if the modulating signal is v(t) is differentiate

before being applied to the FM modulator, the instantaneous phase is now
proportional to the modulating signal (i.e. PM modulator).
dv(t )
Differentiator + FM modulator =  (t ) 
 dt   (t )  v(t ) = PM modulator
BEKC 2453 – Communication Systems
Faculty of Electrical Engineering Chapter 3: Angle Modulation 2
3.7 : FM/PM Modulators
 Meanwhile, if the modulating signal is integrated before being applied to the
PM modulator, the instantaneous phase is now proportional to the integral of
the modulating signal (i.e. FM modulator).
Integrator + PM modulator =  (t )   v(t ) = FM modulator

3.7.1 : Direct FM Modulators
 with direct FM, the
instantaneous frequency
deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude
of the modulating signal.
 schematic diagram of a simple
direct FM generator :

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Chapter 4 : Angle Modulation 3
3.7.1 : Direct FM Modulators
 the tank circuit (L and Cm) is the frequency determining section for a standard LC
oscillator.
 Cm is a capacitor microphone that converts the acoustical energy into a mechanical
energy, which is used to vary the distance between the plates of Cm and
consequently change its capacitance.
 as Cm is varied, the resonant frequency is varied. For example, the oscillator output
frequency varies directly with the external sound forces (i.e. direct FM).
3.7.1.1 : Varactor (Voltage Variable Capacitor) diode modulator
 Direct FM generator using varactor diode to deviate the frequency of a crystal
oscillator :
 R1 and R2 develop a DC voltage that reverse bias the varactor diode VD1 and
determine the resonant frequency of the oscillator.
 external modulating signal voltage added or subtracted from the DC bias, which
changes the capacitance of the diode and consequently changes the frequency of the
oscillation.
3.7.1.1 : Varactor diode modulator
 positive alternations of the modulating signal increase the reverse bias of VD1,
which decrease its capacitance and increase the frequency of the oscillation.
 negative alternations of the modulating signal decrease the reverse bias of VD1,
which increase its capacitance and decrease the frequency of the oscillation.
 simple to use, stable and reliable but limited peak frequency deviation thus limited
use to the low index applications.
3.7.1.2 : VCO(Voltage Controlled Oscillator) FM Modulator
 the use of varactor diode to transform changes in modulating signal amplitude
to changes in frequency :
 the center frequency for the oscillator :

1
fc 
2 LC (25)
where fc = carrier rest frequency (Hz)
L = inductance of the primary winding of T1 (h)
C = varactor diode capacitance (farad)

3.7.1.2 : VCO FM Modulator
 when a modulating signal is applied, the frequency is
1
f  (26)
2 L(C  C )
where f = new frequency
ΔC = change in varactor diode capacitance due to modulating signal
 the change in frequency is f  fc  f (27)

where Δf = peak frequency deviation (hertz)

3.7.2 : Indirect FM (Direct PM) Modulator
 with indirect FM, the instantaneous phase deviation rather than instantaneous
frequency deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal.
 For example, the indirect FM is accomplished by directly changing the phase
of the carrier.
 schematic diagram of an indirect FM modulator using a varactor diode :

3.7.2 : Indirect FM (Direct PM) Modulator
 varactor diode VD1 placed in series with the inductive network (L1 and R1).
 this combined series-parallel network appears as series resonant circuit to the output
frequency from the crystal oscillator.
 the modulating signal is applied to VD1, which changes its capacitance and
subsequently the phase angle of the impedance seen by the carrier also varies,
which results in a corresponding phase shift in the carrier.
 advantage of using indirect FM modulator is it is more stable than the direct
modulator.
 However, it has more distortion in the modulated waveform compared to direct FM.
3.8 : Frequency Up-conversion
 after the modulation, the frequency of the modulated-wave is up-converted to
the desired frequency of transmission.
 2 basic methods of frequency up-conversion :
 heterodyning process
 frequency multiplication
3.8.1 : Heterodyne Method

3.8.1 : Heterodyne Method
 2 inputs to the balanced modulator :

angle-modulated carrier and its side
frequencies, an also the
unmodulated RF carrier signal.
 the 2 inputs mix nonlinearly in the
balanced modulator producing the
sum and difference frequencies at its
output.
 the BPF (bandpass filter) is tuned to
the sum frequency with a passband
wide enough to pass carrier plus the  the frequency deviation, rate of
upper and lower side frequencies change, modulation index, phase
while the difference frequencies are deviation and bandwidth are
blocked. unaffected by the heterodyne process.
fc(out)  fc(in)  fRF

3.8.2 : Multiplication method
 with multiplication method, the frequency of the modulated carrier is multiplied by

a factor of N in the frequency multiplier.
 frequency deviation, phase deviation and modulation index are also multiplied.
 However, the rate of the deviation is unaffected (i.e. the separation between
adjacent side frequencies remains unchanged).
 as frequency deviation and modulation index are multiplied, the number of side
frequency also increases. Thus, the bandwidth also increases.
 For modulation index higher than 10, Carson’s Rule can be applied
Bout  N (2f )  NBin
3.9 : FM Transmitter
3.9.1 : Direct FM Transmitter
 Block diagram for
a commercial broadcast-band
transmitter :
 also known as Crosby direct FM transmitter (includes an automatic frequency

control –AFC loop)
 the carrier frequency is basically the center frequency of the master oscillator fc =
5.1 MHz, which is multiplied by 18 to produce a final transmission carrier
frequency ft = 91.8 MHz.
 the frequency and phase deviations at the output of the modulator are also
multiplied by 18.
To achieve maximum deviation allowed for FM stations at antenna (75 kHz), the
deviation at the output of the modulator is
75 kHz 75000
f    4166 .7 Hz
N 18
4166 .7
The modulation index at the output of the modulator, m 
fm
For maximum modulating signal frequency allowed for FM (15 kHz)

4166 .7
m  0.2778
15000

3.9.1.1 : AFC Loop
(automatic freq control) 30.6Mhz
14.3 x 2Mhz
 for medium and high index FM systems, the oscillator cannot be a crystal type
because the frequency at which the crystal oscillates cannot be significantly
deviated.
 as a result, the stability of the oscillator in the direct FM is low.
 to overcome this problem, AFC loop is used.
 with AFC, the carrier signal is mixed in a nonlinear device with the signal from a
crystal reference oscillator (the output is down-converted in frequency).
 the output is then fed back to the input of a frequency discriminator. It is a
frequency-selective device whose output voltage is proportional to the difference
between the input frequency and its resonant frequency.
3.9.1.1 : AFC Loop
 if there is a master oscillator frequency drift (resulting in a change of carrier center
frequency), the discriminator responds by producing a DC correction voltage.
 this voltage is added to the modulating signal to automatically adjust the master
oscillator’s center frequency.

3.9.2 : Indirect FM Transmitter
 Indirect FM transmitters produce an output
waveform in which the phase deviation is
directly proportional to the modulating
signal.
 Consequently, the carrier oscillator is not
directly deviated – crystal can be used
without use of AFC loop.
 Block diagram for wideband Armstrong
indirect FM transmitter :
 low frequency sub-carrier fc is phase
shifted 90˚ and fed to a balanced
modulator. It is mixed with the
modulating signal fm.
 the output from the balanced modulator
is DSBSC wave that is combined with
the original carrier in a combining
network to produce a low-index, phase-
modulated waveform.

 Proof : m(t )  Vc cosct  m cos(mt )
By using trigonometric function : cos (A+B) =cos A cos B – sin A sin B
m(t )  Vccos(ct ) cos(m cos(mt ))  sin( ct ) sin( m cos(mt ))

For a small modulation index,
cos(m cos(ct ))  cos(0)  1
sin( m cos(mt ))  m cos(mt )
Thus,
m(t )  Vc cos(ct )  Vcm sin( ct ) cos(mt )
where Vccos(ωct) = original carrier

Vcsin(ωct ) = phase-shifted carrier
cos(ωmt ) = modulating signal

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Chapter3: Angle Modulation 21
 Ex :
Consider a 200 kHz carrier being phase-modulated with a 15 kHz modulating signal
producing modulation index of 0.00096.
 the frequency deviation at the output of the combining network :
Δf = mfm = 0.00096 x 15000 = 14.4 Hz
 in order to achieve the required 75 kHz deviation for the FM broadcast at the
antenna, the frequency must be multiplied by approximately 5208 (75kHz/14.4Hz).
However, this would produce a transmission carrier at the antenna of
ft = 5208 x 200 kHz = 1041.6 MHz
This value is beyond the limits for the commercial FM broadcast band (30 ~
300MHz).

 Ex : (continue)
 Let the output waveform of the network is multiplied by 72, producing the
following signal,
f1 = 72 x 200 kHz = 14.4 MHz
m = 72 x 0.00096 = 0.06912 rad
Δf = 72 x 14.4 Hz = 1036.8 Hz
 this signal is then mixed with a 13.15 MHz crystal-controlled frequency f0 to
produce a difference signal f2 with the following characteristics :
f2 = 14.4Mhz – 13.15Mhz = 1.25 MHz (down-converted)
m = 0.06912 rad (unchanged)
Δf = 1036.8 Hz (unchanged)
 the output of the mixer is once again multiplied by 72 to produce the transmit signal
with the following characteristics :
ft = 72 x 1.25 MHz = 90 MHz
m = 72 x 0.06912 rad = 4.98 rad
Δf = 72 x 1036.8 Hz = 74.65 kHz
Faculty of Electrical Engineering Chapter3: Angle Modulation 23
 with Armstrong transmitter, the phase of the carrier is directly modulated in the
combining network producing indirect frequency modulation.
 the magnitude of peak phase deviation (i.e. the modulation index) is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal but independent of its
frequency (m = KVm).
 the modulation index remains constant for all modulating signal frequencies of
given amplitude.

3.10 : FM Receiver
 Block diagram for a double conversion superheterodyne FM receiver :
 the pre-selector, RF amplifier, first and second mixers, and IF amplifier sections of
an FM receiver perform same functions as the AM receiver.
 Automatic Gain Control (AGC) is used to prevent mixer saturation when strong RF
signals are received.
 the peak detector used in AM receiver is replaced by a limiter, frequency
discriminator and de-emphasis network.
3.10 : FM Receiver
 Limiter is used to remove amplitude variations caused by noise (which is one of

AM’s drawback).
 frequency discriminator (demodulator) extracts the information from the
modulated wave.
 de-emphasis network contributes to the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio.
 the first IF is a relatively high frequency (often 10.7 MHz) for good image
frequency rejection.
 the second IF is a relatively low frequency (often 455 kHz) that allows the IF
amplifiers to have high gain.
3.11 : FM Demodulator
 FM demodulator is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an
output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input.
 the overall transfer function for the FM demodulator is nonlinear but when
operating over its linear range,
V
Kd  (28)
f
 the output from the FM demodulator is

vout(t )  Kdf (29)
where vout(t) = demodulated output signal (volts)

Kd = demodulator transfer function (volts per hertz)
Δf = difference between input frequency and the centre frequency of
demodulator (hertz)

3.11 : FM Demodulator
 the most common circuits used for FM signal demodulation are slope detector,
balanced slope detector and PLL demodulator.
 the slope detector and balanced slope detector are categorized as tuned-circuit
frequency discriminator.
 Ex : For an FM demodulator circuit with a transfer function of Kd = 0.2V/kHz
and an FM input signal with 20 kHz of peak frequency deviation, determine
the peak output voltage.


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Chapter 3

Angle Modulation – Part 2

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

 considering the FM modulator, if the modulating signal is v(t) is differentiate

Integrator + PM modulator =  (t )   v(t ) = FM modulator

BEKC 2453 – Communication Systems

 the center frequency for the oscillator :

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

 when a modulating signal is applied, the frequency is

 the change in frequency is f  fc  f (27)

BEKC 2453 – Communication Systems

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

 2 inputs to the balanced modulator :

fc(out)  fc(in)  fRF

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

 with multiplication method, the frequency of the modulated carrier is multiplied by

 also known as Crosby direct FM transmitter (includes an automatic frequency

For maximum modulating signal frequency allowed for FM (15 kHz)

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

By using trigonometric function : cos (A+B) =cos A cos B – sin A sin B

m(t )  Vccos(ct ) cos(m cos(mt ))  sin( ct ) sin( m cos(mt ))

where Vccos(ωct) = original carrier

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

Δf = mfm = 0.00096 x 15000 = 14.4 Hz

ft = 5208 x 200 kHz = 1041.6 MHz

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

 Limiter is used to remove amplitude variations caused by noise (which is one of

 the output from the FM demodulator is

where vout(t) = demodulated output signal (volts)

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

BEKC 2453 Communication Systems

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