Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

1997, Vol. 65, No. 5, 848-857 OOZZ-006XY97/$3.00

Psychopathy and Sexual Assault:

Static Risk Factors, Emotional Precursors, and Rapist Subtypes

Shelley L. Brown Adelle E. Forth

Queen's University Carleton University

This study compared psychopathic and nonpsychopathic rapists on static risk factors and on emotional
and motivational precursors. Sixty incarcerated rapists were assessed for psychopathy with the Psy-
chopathy Checklist—Revised (R. D. Hare, 1991), and they were classified according to the Massa-
chusetts Treatment Center: Revised Rapist Typology, Version 3 (R. A. Knight & R. A. Prentky,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

1990b). Psychopathy was positively associated with past nonsexual offenses and negatively associated
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with age onset for criminal offending, number of sexual victims, and the intensity of negative
emotions experienced before sexual offending. However, psychopathy was not related to sexual
offense history, age of onset for sexual offending, or victim harm. Last, psychopaths were most
likely to be classified as opportunistic and pervasively angry rapists. The findings indicate that
psychopathy should be considered when developing intervention strategies for rapists.

During the past few decades, there has been an increasing
awareness that sexual assault is a multidetermined behavior
committed by a heterogeneous group of offenders (Barbaree &
Serin, 1993; Knight & Prentky, 1990a; Prentky & Knight, 1991;
Quinsey, 1984). Rapists differ not only in terms of familial and
environmental experiences and psychiatric and psychological
profiles, but also in terms of general criminal involvement and
the nature of their sexual crimes (Marshall & Pithers, 1994;
Prentky & Knight, 1991).
The role of psychopathy as a possible discriminating feature
among rapists has received considerable attention (Cohen, Seg-
horn, & Calmas, 1969; Fitch, 1962; Gebhard, Gagnon, Pom-
eroy, & Christenson, 1965; Guttmacher & Weihofen, 1952;
Kopp, 1962; Rada, 1978; Seghorn & Cohen, 1980). Psychopa-
thy is viewed by many as a serious personality disorder that
manifests itself early in life and, in most cases, persists through-
out the life span. Psychopathy is associated with a constellation
Shelley L. Brown, Department of Psychology, Queen's University,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada; Adelle E. Forth, Department of Psychology,
Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Portions of this research were presented at the 1995 Annual Meeting of
the Canadian Psychological Association, Charlottetown, Prince Edward
Island, and at the 1995 Carleton University Interdisciplinary Criminal
Justice Conference, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
The research presented in this article was partially supported by the
Ontario Region of Correctional Services Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Can-
ada; the Faculty of Social Sciences, Research Grants, Carleton Univer-
sity; and the Psychology and Law Division of the American Psychologi-
cal Association. We are very grateful for extensive help and assistance
provided by Ida Dickie and numerous correctional psychologists. We
also like to thank Martin Lalumiere and Hugo Fbss for comments on
an earlier version of this article. The points of view expressed in this
article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of
the Correctional Service of Canada.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Shelley
L. Brown, Department of Psychology, Queen's University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6.
of affective, interpersonal, and behavioral characteristics such
as a profound lack of remorse or guilt and a callous disregard
for the feelings, rights, and welfare of others (Cleckley, 1976;
Hare, 1991). Individuals with this disorder are typically de-
scribed as impulsive, selfish, deceitful, sensation seeking, and
irresponsible. Hare's Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-
R; Hare, 1991), which consists of 20 items that measure both
personality and behavioral characteristics of the disorder, has
been used extensively to assess psychopathy in forensic popula-
tions. Factor analysis of the PCL-R has yielded two distinct
and stable factors (Hare et al., 1990). The first factor, known as
the personality dimension, measures interpersonal and affective
traits such as superficiality, manipulativeness, pathological lying,
lack of empathy or remorse, and grandiose sense of self-worth.
The second factor, known as the behavioral dimension, describes
a chronically unstable, antisocial, and socially deviant lifestyle.
Although correlated with one another, both factors exhibit a
differential pattern of correlation with other clinical, personality,
and experimental variables (Hare, 1991; Harpur, Hare, & Haks-
tian, 1989; Hemphill, Hart, & Hare, 1994; Kosson, Smith, &
Newman, 1990).
Recent studies using the original version of the Psychopathy
Checklist (PCL; Hare, 1980) and the PCL-R have revealed
that psychopaths start committing crime at an earlier age than
nonpsychopaths, are three times more likely to fail on condi-
tional release, commit a disproportionate amount of violent
crime, are more likely to use a weapon during an offense, and
are more likely to engage in institutional violence than nonpsy-
chopaths are (Forth, Hart, & Hare, 1990; Hare & McPherson,
1984; Hart, Kropp, & Hare, 1988; Serin, 1991; Serin, Peters, &
Barbaree, 1990; Wong, 1984).
Mental health professionals have sought to capture the hetero-
geneity of sexual offenders through the construction of typolo-
gies. The majority of these typologies have identified a distinct
class of rapist with a preestablished pattern of diverse antisocial
and criminal offending who commits highly impulsive sexual
assaults characterized by instrumental aggression and lack of

848
 PSYCHOPATHY AND SEXUAL ASSAULT 849

empathic concern for the victims (Gebhard et al., 1965; Gutt-
macher & Weihofen, 1952; Kopp, 1962; Rada, 1978). Thus, a
clinically derived subtype of rapist conceptually congruent to
the psychopath has been identified.
During the 1980s, the Massachusetts Treatment Center devel-
oped a typology for rapists. The resulting classification system,
the Revised Rapist Typology, Version 3 (Massachusetts Treat-
ment Center: Rapist Typology 3; MTC:R3; Knight & Prentky,
1990b) consists of nine discrete rapist subtypes differentiated
on the basis of the meaning of aggression used in the offense
(instrumental vs. expressive), the nature of the motivation for
the sexual offense (sexual, opportunistic, or anger), and the
degree of lifestyle impulsivity-criminality (Knight & Prentky,
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the four collapsed subtypes, the mean PCL-R score was highest
for opportunistic rapists and lowest for the sexual, nonsadistic
rapists. The generalizability of these findings to another Cana-
dian sample remains untested.
Dysphoric emotions such as anger, frustration, depression,
loneliness, and rejection have been associated with violent of-
fending in general (Zamble & Quinsey, in press) and sexual
aggression in particular (Groth & Birnbaum, 1979; Pithers,
Marques, Gibat, & Marlatt, 1983). The Queen's Bench Founda-
tion (1976, cited in Laws, 1989) reported that 77% of the rapists
in their study reported such feelings before committing sexual
attacks. Pithers, Kashima, Cumming, Beal, and Buell (1988)
reported that approximately 94% of a sample of 64 rapists re-

1990a; Knight, Prentky, & Cerce, 1994; Prentky & Knight, ported feeling anger accompanied by interpersonal conflict be-
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1986). Instrumental aggression includes actions that are limited
to that which is necessary to attain victim compliance, whereas
expressive aggression entails unprovoked physical or verbal ag-
gression in excess of that necessary to gain victim compliance
(Knight & Prentky, 1990b). A detailed description of the sub-
types is provided in Table 1.
Recently, data have begun to accumulate regarding the rela-
tionship between sexual aggression and psychopathy, as mea-
sured by the PCL-R (Hare, 1991). These studies have demon-
strated that rapists, on average, are significantly more psycho-
pathic than those who offend against children or adolescents
(Forth & Kroner. 1995; Knight, Prentky, & Fleming, 1995; Se-
rin, Malcolm, Khanna, & Barbaree, 1994) and that the PCL-
R is related to deviant sexual arousal (Rice, Harris, & Quinsey,
1990; Serin et al., 1994). The PCL-R has been an important
predictor of sexual recidivism among offenders released from
a maximum security psychiatric facility (Quinsey, Lalumiere,
Rice, & Harris, 1995; Rice et al., 1990), although a recent
meta-analysis by Hanson and Bussiere (in press) revealed that
psychopathy played a minor role in the prediction of sexual
recidivism.
To date, only one other study has applied the MTC:R3 and
the PCL-R to a Canadian sample of 60 incarcerated rapists
(Barbaree, Seto, Serin, Amos, & Preston, 1994). Although no
significant differences were found in total PCL-R scores among
fore relapse. Whether dysphoric emotions are equally important
precursors to sexual assault among psychopathic and nonpsy-
chopathic rapists has yet to be investigated.
Cleckley (1976) argued that violent and aggressive acts com-
mitted by psychopaths are often motivated by proto-emotions
such as tension or frustration rather than stronger emotions such
as fear or anger. Williamson, Hare, and Wong (1987) examined
police reports concerning the violent offenses of a random sam-
ple of 55 psychopaths and 46 nonpsychopaths. The violence of
nonpsychopaths seemed to be motivated primarily by strong
emotional arousal, whereas revenge or retribution were what
motivated psychopaths to commit acts of violence. As well, not
only did psychopaths and nonpsychopaths cause similar amounts
of victim injury but psychopaths were much more likely to
offend against strangers rather than close friends or family mem-
bers. Cornell et al. (1996) also examined instrumental (i.e.,
goal-directed) versus reactive (i.e., emotional, impulsive) vio-
lence in two samples of adult male offenders. Instrumentally
oriented violent offenders had significantly higher PCL-R
scores than offenders who engaged solely in reactive violence.
Unfortunately, these studies only examined the relationship be-
tween psychopathy and violent crime in general. They did not
specifically compare the victim characteristics and motivations
of psychopaths and nonpsychopaths with regard to one particu-
lar form of violence, sexual aggression.

Table 1
Defining Features for Each Individual MTC:R3 Subtype

MTC:R3 subtype Aggression Motive Lifestyle impulsivity-Criminality

Opportunistic Instrumental Impulsive exploitation; Evidence of adult unsocialized behavior (i.e.,

unpremeditated; nonsexual vandalism, fighting)
Pervasively angry Expressive General anger; unpremeditated; Evidence of adolescent and adult unsocialized behavior
nonsexual
Sexual
Nonsadistic Instrumental Sexual; premeditated None or mild evidence of adolescent and adult
unsocialized behavior
Sadistic-muted Instrumental Sexual; victim's fear or violent fantasy Not used in the classification
aids sexual arousal; premeditated
Sadistic-overt Expressive Sexual; main goal is to inflict pain and Evidence of adolescent and adult unsocialized behavior
fear on victim; premeditated
Vindictive Expressive Anger directed solely at women; goal None or mild evidence of adolescent and adult
is to humiliate and degrade unsocialized behavior

Note. The opportunistic, sexual-nonsadistic, and vindictive subtypes are divided into those who are high or low in social competence. Social competence
encompasses marital status and financial independence. MTGR3 = Massachusetts Treatment Center: Revised Rapist Typology, Version 3.
 850 BROWN AND FORTH
The present research had three purposes: first, to investigate
the relationship between psychopathy, as measured by the PCL-
R, and the various subtypes of the MTC:R3; second, to deter-
mine whether dysphoric emotions are equally important precur-
sors to sexual aggression among psychopathic and nonpsycho-
pathic rapists; third, to investigate the relation between psychop-
athy and victim characteristics and criminal history variables.
On the basis of previous theorizing and empirical evidence, it
was predicted that psychopathy would be more strongly associ-
ated with the opportunistic subtype of the MTC:R3 than with
the nonsadistic, sexually motivated subtypes of the MTC:R3.
The second prediction was that sexual assault committed by
psychopaths would not be precipitated by highly emotional
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states such as anger or depression. The third prediction was that
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psychopaths would tend to offend against strangers more often
than nonpsychopaths; however, the degree of injury inflicted on
the victim would not differ between the two groups. Further-
more, psychopaths would have more extensive criminal histories
than nonpsychopaths and also would have started committing
crimes at a significantly earlier age than nonpsychopaths. Last,
the relationship between the criminal history variables and
psychopathy would be stronger for PCL-R Factor 2 than for
Factor 1.
Method
Participants
One hundred four potential participants were approached and asked
to participate in a study examining the personal, situational, and motiva-
tional factors associated with sexual aggression against women. Initial
consent interviews were conducted with 84 offenders incarcerated from
2 medium-security institutions and 20 offenders incarcerated from a
maximum-security institution. Of those asked to participate, 55% (n =
46) from the medium-security institutions agreed and 70% (n = 14)
from the maximum-security institution agreed. Thus, the overall consent
rate was 58%, resulting in a final sample size of 60. The most common
reasons given by the 44 offenders who declined participation were as
follows: 20.50% (n = 9} had their cases under appeal and were in-
structed by their lawyer not to discuss the details of their case with
anyone; 22.70% (n = 10) claimed innocence and were, therefore, not
interested in discussing their alleged sexual offense (or offenses);
18.20% (n = 8) failed to provide any reason and simply stated that
they did not wish to participate; the remaining 39.60% (n = 17) claimed
that the subject matter was too personal, that they had participated in
too many studies, and that they were worried about confidentiality.
At the time of the study, the mean age of the sample was 33.40 (SD
= 8.13) ranging between 20 and 52 years of age. Eighty-seven percent
of the sample were White (n = 52), 8% were Black (« = 5), 3% (n
- 2) were Native American, and 2% (n = 1) were East Indian. The
index offense for 95% of the sample (n — 57) was sexual in nature,
whereas 5% (n = 3) were serving time for at least 1 nonsexual offense
but had been convicted in the past for at least 1 sexual offense. All
individuals in the sample had sexually assaulted or attempted to sexually
assault a female 16 years of age or older. All participants had been
convicted for such crimes as rape, attempted rape, sexual assault, aggra-
vated sexual assault, sexual assault causing bodily harm, and murder or
attempted murder.1
The mean number of years that had transpired between the actual date
of the most recent sexual offense and the date of the interview was
approximately 6.3 years (SD = 4.9). Also worth noting is that 56.7% (n
= 34) of the sample had received or were receiving treatment designed
specifically for sex offenders at the time of the study, whereas 43.3% (n
= 26) had not received sex offender treatment. There were no significant
differences between the percentages of psychopaths and nonpsychopaths
who had received or were receiving treatment.
Materials
Institutional file review. The following variables were coded from
available file information: offender's age at time of sex offense, marital
status (single or married/common law), age onset for sexual and non-
sexual offending, number of prior sexual and nonsexual offenses
(charges and convictions), degree of victim injury (rated on a 7-point
scale ranging from 0 [none] to 7 [causing death with postdeaih mutila-
tion]; (Quinsey &. Chaplin, 1982), number of victims2, and offender-
victim relationship (spouse-girlfriend, casual acquaintance, and
stranger). Incomplete file information was replaced with information
obtained during the semistructured interview. In the event of conflicting
data, the information source deemed most credible was used.
PCL-R assessments. We assessed all offenders for psychopathy us-
ing the PCL-R. The PCL-R consists of 20 items that measure the
personality, interpersonal, and behavioral dimensions considered funda-
mental to the construct of psychopathy. Each item is scored on a 3-point
scale; 0 = the symptom definitely does not apply to the individual, 1 =
the item applies only in some circumstances, and 2 = the item definitely
applies. As a result, total scores can range between 0 and 40, with
higher scores representing higher degrees of psychopathy. Factor 1 (the
personality dimension) scores were obtained by summing the scores on
Items 1, 2, 4-8, and 16; and Factor 2 (the behavioral dimension) scores
were obtained by summing Items 3, 9, 10, 12-15, 18, and 19. For the
purposes of categorical scoring, Hare (1991) suggests that a cutoff of 30
be used to discriminate psychopathic from nonpsychopathic individuals.
Thus, for group analyses, we dichotomized psychopathy scores by plac-
ing individuals who received a score of 30 or more in the psychopathy
group and individuals who received a score of 29 or less in the nonpsy-
chopathy group. The PCL-R is scored on the basis of a semistructured
interview and collateral information obtained from such sources as offi-
cial records and psychological assessments. The reliability and validity
of the PCL-R has been discussed in detail elsewhere (Hare, 1991).
1
To determine whether the study sample was representative of the
Canadian federal sex offender population, we compared the characteris-
tics of the present sample with those obtained during a sex offender
case file review conducted by Correctional Service Canada (Motiuk &
Porporino, 1993). Sophisticated sampling techniques were taken to en-
sure that the sample of 173 was representative of offenders who sexually
assaulted female victims over the age of 15. Although the samples did
not differ substantially in terms of age, ethnic background, or offender-
victim relationship, observed differences did emerge in terms of sexual
offense history, sentence length, victim injury, and number of victims.
In comparison to the case file review sample, the study sample had a
higher proportion of repeat sex offenders (60.0% vs. 40%) who were
three times more likely to be serving life or indefinite sentences (23.3%
vs. 7.6%). Although 23.7% of the study sample had two or more victims
in the most recent sex offense, only 12.2% of the case file review sample
had two or more victims in the most recent sex offense. In terms of
victim injury, only 1 individual (0.6%) from the case file review had
committed a sexual assault that resulted in death, whereas 5 individuals
(8.4%) from the study sample had murdered their respective victims.
2
Number of victims refers to the number of different victims the
offender had been convicted of victimizing in the index offense. As
well, three individuals who had offended against seven, eight, and nine
different victims were identified as univariate outliers. As a result, victim
number was collapsed into a categorical variable with three levels: one
victim, two victims, and three or more victims.
 PSYCHOPATHY AND SEXUAL ASSAULT
Motivations for sexual offending. Additional information concerning
the emotional precursors associated with the sexual offense was obtained
during a semistructured interview. This interview, modeled after recent
research by Zamble and Quinsey (in press), asked offenders to discuss
the sexual offense in detail and to describe the sequence of emotions,
thoughts, and events that occurred in the 24-hr period immediately before
the offense.
MTC.-R3 assessments. Information obtained from the PCL-R inter-
view, the sexual offending motivations interview, and institutional files
was used to classify offenders according to the MTC:R3. The MTC:R3
is a three-tier classification system designed to discriminate rapists in
terms of the meaning of aggression used in the offense (instrumental
vs. expressive), the nature of the motivation for the sexual offense
(sexual vs. exploitative or anger), and the degree of lifestyle impulsivity.
This system consists of nine subtypes derived from cluster analysis.
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Dichotomous decisions such as low-high or present-absent are made
in each behavioral domain. A total score for each domain is calculated
by summing across the domain, and a decision flowchart is then used
to determine the primary subtype (Knight & Prentky, 1990b). A more
detailed description of the various subtypes and discussion of the devel-
opment and empirical support for the MTC:R3 has been provided else-
where (Knight & Prentky, 1990a).
Procedure
Participants were assured that participation was strictly voluntary and
that all information obtained during the study would be kept confidential.
Participants were not given financial compensation for their participa-
tion. After the offender had consented to participate in the study and the
researcher had reviewed his institutional files, the PCL-R interview was
administered followed by the sexual offending motivations interview.
The interviewing process lasted approximately 90-180 min. PCL-R
ratings were available in institutional files for 10 participants.
Interrater reliability estimates for the PCL-R ratings conducted by
multiple raters were available for a subsample of 17 offenders.' Interrater
reliability on the MTC:R3 and all variables coded from the institutional
files were obtained on a random subsample of 20 cases. The second
rater had not been informed of the purpose of the study.
Results
Given the current debate surrounding the continuous or cate-
gorical nature of psychopathy, we decided to analyze the results
both dimensionally and discretely when appropriate (Harris,
Rice, & Quinsey, 1994; Lilienfeld 1994; Serin, 1990).
Reliability
The reliability of the PCL-R was assessed in terms of in-
terrater reliability and internal consistency. For a subsample of
17 offenders, both single and averaged intraclass correlation
coefficients (ICCs) revealed high interrater reliability for total
PCL-R scores (single ICC = 0.91, averaged ICC = 0.94), as
well as for Factor 1 (single ICC = 0.87, averaged ICC = 0.93)
and Factor 2 (single ICC = 0.82; averaged ICC = 0.92) scores.
With respect to internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha coeffi-
cients based on the entire sample (n = 60) were acceptable for
total PCL-R scores (0.81) and Factor 1 scores (0.81) but were
somewhat lower than expected for Factor 2 scores (0.56).
Overall, the percent agreement for the nine individual sub-
types of the MTC:R3 was 74%. When the nine types were
collapsed into five subtypes (opportunistic, nonsadistic-sexual,
851
sadistic-sexual, anger, and vindictive) for statistical purposes,
the percent agreement increased to 83% (K = 0.62).
The seven continuous static variables had acceptable interrater
reliability estimates, with single ICC ratings ranging between
.83 and .99 (M = 0.96) and averaged ICC ratings ranging be-
tween 0.91 to 0.99 (M = 0.97). Similarly, for the categorical
variables, kappa coefficients were acceptable for marital status
(1.00) and offender-victim relationship (0.90). Moreover, for
the 14 individual emotions reported by offenders 24 hr before
the sexual offense, kappa coefficients ranged between 0.50 and
1.00 (M = 0.82).
PCL-R Distribution
PCL-R total scores ranged between 10 and 37 (M = 24.9,
SD -6.1). Factor 1 scores ranged between 1 and 16 (M = 8.6,
SD = 4.0), and Factor 2 scores ranged between 4 and 17 (M
= 12.1, SD = 2.9). Thirty-five percent (n = 21) of the sample
received a PCL-R total score of 30 or higher, whereas 65% (n
= 39) of the sample received a PCL-R total score of 29 or
lower.
Static Variables
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANO\A) was
performed on the following dependent variables: offender age
at time of sex offense, number of prior sexual offenses, number
of prior nonsexual offenses, age onset for sexual offenses, age
onset for nonsexual offenses, marital status (0 = married, 1 =
single), number of victims, victim injury, and offender-victim
relationship (0 = spouse or girlfriend, 1 = casual acquaintance,
2 = stranger). The number of prior charges and convictions
were both used in the calculation of past number of offenses.
Furthermore, given that the number of prior nonsexual offenses
is directly related to Item 20 of the PCL-R (criminal versatil-
ity), this item was omitted from any analysis involving this
variable.
Wilks's lambda criterion indicated that the combined depen-
dent variables (DVs) were significantly affected by level of
psychopathy, F(9, 57) = 3.2, p < .01, r)2 = .34. Separate
univariate analyses of the static variables revealed that the two
groups differed significantly on the number of prior nonsexual
offenses and victim number.4 Psychopaths committed almost
twice as many offenses as the nonpsychopaths; however, they
were less likely to have had multiple sexual victims in the index
offense. Significant findings failed to emerge for the remaining
static variables. See Table 2 for a detailed breakdown of the
analyses.
We conducted three separate multiple correlation analyses
between the static variables and PCL-R total (multiple R =
3
The multiple raters consisted of one research psychologist, various
correctional psychologists, and sex offender treatment staff, all trained
in the use of the PCL-R.
4
Arguably, Item 12 of the PCL-R (early behavioral problems) could
spuriously innate the correlation between nonsexual offense history and
psychopathy; however, a post hoc analysis revealed that this was not the
case, as the results remained virtually unchanged after Item 12 had been
dropped from the analysis.
 852 BROWN AND FORTH

Table 2
Static Variables: Comparison Between Psychopathic (P) and Nonpsychopathic (NP) Rapists

Total P NP
Variable (N = 60) (n = 21) (n = 39) For x2 dfi N

Mean (and SD)

Age at time of sex offense 27.0 (6.9) 27.7 (6.9) 26.7(7.1) F = .28 1,58
No. of prior sexual offenses 2.5 (3.4) 2.4 (2.7) 2.6 (3.8) F = .05 1,58
No. of prior nonsexual offenses 16.5 (13.6) 23.7 (14.0) 12.7(11.9) F = 10.3**
Age onset for nonsexual offenses" 18.5 (4.1) 17.5 (2.2) 19.1 (4.8) F = 2.02 1, 58
Age onset for sexual offenses 22.5 (5.9) 22.3 (4.8) 22.6 (6.5) F = .03 1,56
Victim injury 3.1 (1.7) 2.7 (1.6) 3.3 (1.8) F = 1.58 1,58
No. of victims 1.4 (0.70) 1.1 (0.36) 1.5 (0.82) F = 4.4* 1,58
% (and nf
Single at time of offense 73.3 (44) 61.9(13) 79.5 (31) x2• = 2.16 1 60
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Offender-victim relationship
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Spouse-girlfriend 26.7 (16) 14.3 (3) 33.3 (13) x1 = 2.66 2 60

Casual acquaintance 26.7 (16) 28.6 (6) 25.6 (10)
Stranger 26.7 (28) 57.1 (12) 41.0 (16)

3
Given that 2 individuals had no prior criminal record, analysis for this variable was based on 58 cases.
" Subsamples of the ns listed above.
*p<.05. **p<.01.

.71, p < .001), Factor 1 (multiple R = .61, p < .01), and Treatment had a substantial effect on whether an offender
Factor 2 (multiple R = .59, p < .01) scores. Individual Pearson reported experiencing negative emotions before committing the
product-moment correlations were also calculated between the sexual offenses. For example, 73.5% of the treated group re-
static variables and PCL-R total, Factor 1, and Factor 2 scores. ported experiencing negative emotions 24 hr before the sexual
As can be seen in Table 3, a significant positive relationship offense, whereas only 34.6% of the untreated group did, F(l,
existed between number of prior nonsexual offenses and PCL- 59) = 9.1, p < .003. Although treatment influenced the fre-
R total, Factor 1, and Factor 2 scores. Age onset for nonsexual quency of reported negative emotions for the entire sample, it
offenses was also significantly related to Factor 2 of the PCL- did not affect the pattern of results for the psychopathic and
R. In addition, a significant negative finding emerged between nonpsychopathic groups differentially.
number of victims and PCL-R total and Factor 1 scores. With regard to the nature of emotions reported, offenders
experienced 15 different types of emotional states before com-
Negative Emotions mitting the sexual offenses. For statistical purposes, the 15 origi-
nal emotions were collapsed into eight meaningful categories:
Overall, 57.0% of the sample reported experiencing at least
anger, depression, alienation, general frustration, sexual frustra-
one negative emotion during the 24-hr period preceding the
tion, stress, neutral emotions, and positive emotions. Depression
offense. There were no significant differences between psycho-
and moodiness were combined to form the depression category,
paths and nonpsychopaths (42.9% vs. 64.1%, respectively).
and anxiety and general stress formed the stress category. Simi-
larly, feelings of boredom and tiredness composed the neutral
category, and any positive emotions (happiness, joy, excitement)
Table 3
formed the positive category. Reported feelings of hopelessness,
Pearson r Correlations Between the PCL-R Total and Factor
loneliness, inadequacy, guilt, and rejection formed the alienation
Scores With Static Variables
category. As can be seen in Table 4, nonpsychopaths were sig-
Variable PCL-R total Factor 1 Factor 2 nificantly more likely to feel alienated and stressed, whereas
psychopaths were more likely to report positive emotions. Inter-
Age at time of offense .13 .20 -.12
estingly, significant differences did not emerge for depression
No. of prior sexual offenses -.04 .06 -.06
No. of prior nonsexual offenses 5i*»* .36** .40*** and anger. Similar trends emerged when analyses were repeated
Age onset for nonsexual offense" -.17 -.01 -.37** separately for the treated and untreated offenders.
Age onset for sexual offense .06 .07 -.12 To analyze the results continuously, we created a negative
Single at time of offense -.20 -.27* -.00
emotional intensity scale (NEIS) for the emotions experienced
Victim injury -.24 -.23 -.13 '
No. of victims -.27* -.27* -.22 24 hr before the offense. During the semistructured interview,
Relationship .09 .07 .12 offenders were asked to report if they experienced any strong
emotional feelings before committing the sexual offenses. They
Nate. PCL-R = Psychopathy Checklist—Revised.
were then asked to indicate the degree and overall effect of each
* Given that 2 individuals had no record of prior criminal activity, analy-
sis for this variable was based on 58 cases. negative emotion reported. On the basis of this information, an
* p < . 0 5 . **p < .01. ***p<.001. objectively rated NEIS score was assigned for each individual.
 PSYCHOPATHY AND SEXUAL ASSAULT 853

Table 4 pervasively angry subtype remained unchanged. A chi-square

Distribution of Negative Emotional States Present Within 24 analysis revealed significant differences between the psycho-
Hr of Offense: Comparison Between Psychopathic (P) and paths and nonpsychopaths in terms of the five subtypes, x 2 (4,
Nonpsychopathic (NP) Rapists N = 60) = 12.73, p < .01 ).* Psychopaths were twice as likely as
nonpsychopaths to be classified as opportunistic and pervasively
% (and n>'
angry rapists. Moreover, three times as many nonpsychopaths
as psychopaths were identified as nonsadistic sexually motivated
Emotion Total P NP x1
rapists, whereas none of the psychopaths were identified as vin-
Anger 33.3 (20) 23.8 (5) 38.5 (15) ns dictive rapists. Interestingly, 6 of the 7 sadistic rapists were not
Depression-moodiness 20.0 (12) 14.3 (3) 23.1 (9) ns psychopaths (see Table 5).
Alienation 26.7 (16) 9.5 (2) 35.9 (14) 4.9*
0.0 (0)
A one-way analysis of variance (ANO\4\) revealed that mean
Sexual frustration 8.3 (5) 12.8 (5)
General frustration 8.3 (5) 4.8 (1) 10.3 (4) PCL-R total scores significantly differed across the five sub-
Anxiety -stress 20.0 (12) 4.8 (1) 28.2 (11) 4.7* types, F(4,59) = 4.8, p < .002. After we applied the Bonferroni
Neutral 36.7 (22) 38.1 (8) 35.9 (14) ns
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

correction, a planned comparison between the opportunistic and

Positive 25.0 (15) 38.1 (8) 17.9 (7) 2.9*
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

nonsadistic-sexual subtypes revealed that the mean PCL-R total

Note. Because of low cell counts, chi-square analyses were not per-
formed for sexual or general frustration, ns = not significant.
• Subsample of total (N = 60), P (n = 21), and NP (n = 39) participants.
*p < .05.
Scores on the NEIS ranged from 0 to 6, with higher scores
reflecting higher degrees of negative emotion. Generally, individ-
uals who reported no negative emotions, mild negative emotions
(i.e., "I was feeling a little upset . . . "), or only positive
emotions would score on the lower end of the scale (i.e., 0, 1,
or 2), whereas individuals who reported only moderately intense
negative emotions would score in the middle of the scale. Those
individuals who reported only negative emotions that were quite
severe in terms of intensity would score at the higher end of
the scale. These individuals typically reported feelings such as
uncontrollable rage or intense hopelessness or despair to such
an extent that it interfered with the individual's daily function-
ing. Scores for the NEIS ranged from 0 to 6, with a mean of
3.7 (SD = 2.2). The NEIS (single ICC = .72, averaged ICC
= .86) demonstrated acceptable interrater reliability.
Not surprisingly, the NEIS was significantly correlated with
treatment, (r = .31, p < .02). Hence, the effects of sex offender
treatment were controlled for when examining the relationship
between psychopathy and the NEIS. After we partialed out the
effects of treatment, there was a moderate relationship between
NEIS scores and PCL-R total scores (r = -39,p < .002) and
Factor 1 scores (/• = — .41,p < .001). However, the relationship
between the NEIS and Factor 2 scores was nonsignificant ( r =
-.23). Similar trends emerged when analyses were repeated
separately for treated and untreated offenders.
score for the opportunistic subtype was significantly higher than
the mean PCL-R total score for the nonsadistic-sexual type (p
< .05). Additional post hoc comparisons (Tukey a) revealed
that the mean PCL-R total score for the opportunistic type was
also significantly higher than the mean PCL-R total score for
the vindictive type (p < .01). However, this should be interpre-
ted cautiously, given that the vindictive type comprised only 6
individuals.
A second one-way ANOVA indicated that mean Factor 1
scores were also significantly different across the five subtypes
(see Table 6), F(4, 59) = 3.4, p < .02. Post hoc comparisons
(Tukey a) revealed that mean Factor 1 scores for the opportunis-
tic type were significantly higher than mean Factor 1 scores for
the vindictive type (p < .01).
We conducted the final one-way ANOVA to determine
whether there were significant differences among the subtypes
in terms of mean Factor 2 scores. Once again, significant differ-
ences emerged across the subtypes for mean Factor 2 scores,
F(4, 59) = 2.8, p < .03. However, post hoc comparisons be-
tween the opportunistic type and the nonsadistic-sexual and vin-
dictive subtypes failed to yield significant results. Table 6 con-
tains the mean PCL total, Factor 1 and Factor 2 scores.
Discussion
Psychopathic rapists may be differentiated from their nonpsy-
chopathic counterparts in terms of number of victims and the
extent of previous nonsexual criminal involvement. However, it
seems that both groups are quite similar in terms of prior sexual
offending, age onset for sexual offending, victim injury, and
offender-victim relationship. The present research provides

MTC.-R3 Findings
For statistical purposes, the original nine subtypes were col-
lapsed into five subtypes: opportunistic, sexual-sadistic, sexual-
nonsadistic, pervasively angry, and vindictive. The opportunistic
type comprised both the low social competence (LSC; n =
11) and high social competence (HSC; n = 11) opportunistic
subtypes, the sexual-nonsadistic type comprised the LSC (n =
8) and the HSC nonsadistic sexual types (n - 5), and the
sexual-sadistic type comprised the muted (n = 3) and overt
sadistic types (n = 5).' The vindictive subtype consisted of the
HSC (n = 3) and LSC vindictive types (n = 3). The original
5
Bartlett's test of sphericity indicated significant correlations among
the DVs. When this occurs, a MANOVA is typically followed up with
Roy-Bargman step-down F tests to determine the unique contribution
made by the DVs. However, this procedure requires the prioritization
of DVs. Given that there was no theoretical or practical means for
prioritizing the DVs, we decided to conduct individual univariate analy-
ses. However, when the DVs were prioritized in order of univariate
significance, Roy-Bargman step-down analysis yielded identical results.
6
Similar results emerged when the analysis was replicated combining
sadistic and nonsadistic sexual rapists. This was conducted to circumvent
the low cell frequencies. Similar trends emerged when the analyses were
conducted separately for treated and untreated offenders.
 854 BROWN AND FORTH
Table 5
Percent Distribution of Collapsed MTC:R3 Subtypes:
Comparison Between Psychopathic (P) and
Nonpsychopathic (NP) Rapists
% (and n)"
Collapsed subtype Total P NP
Opportunistic 36.7 (22) 52.4(11) 25.6 (10)
Pervasively angry 18.3(11) 28.6 (6) 15.4 (6)
Sexual-nonsadistic 23.3 (14) 9.5 (2) 30.8 (12)
Sexual-sadistic
11.7(7) 4.8 (1) 15.4 (6)
Vindictive 10.0 (6) 0.0 (0) 15.4 (6)
Note. MTC:R3 = Massachusetts Treatment Center: Revised Rapist Ty-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
pology, Version 3.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
" Subsamples of total (N = 60), P (n = 21), and NP (n = 39) participants.
preliminary, albeit weak, evidence that emotional precursors
may influence psychopathic and nonpsychopathic rapists differ-
entially. Moreover, psychopaths do not necessarily constitute a
distinct class of rapists; rather, they are more likely to belong to
one of two types: opportunistic or pervasively angry. In contrast,
nonpsychopathic rapists are more likely to be classified as non-
sadistic-sexual or vindictive.
Overall, the observed relationships between psychopathy and
static criminal history factors were consistent with previous
research (Hare & Jutai, 1983; Hare & McPherson, 1984; Hart
et a!., 1988; Wong, 1984). As hypothesized, psychopaths evi-
denced more extensive criminal histories commencing at an
earlier age than that of their nonpsychopathic counterparts. As
predicted, the relationship was substantially stronger for Factor
2 than for Factor 1 but more so for age onset than for number
of prior nonsexual offenses. Interestingly, psychopathy was not
associated with the number of past sexual offenses or age onset
of sexual offending. This finding is consistent with previous
findings reported by Hare and McPherson (1984).
The hypothesis that psychopathic rapists would be more likely
to offend against strangers was not supported. This is inconsis-
tent with previous work demonstrating that psychopaths are
significantly more likely to target strangers in the context of
violent crime (Williamson et al., 1987; Wright & Wong, 1988).
It is possible that, unlike violent crime in general, in the context
of sexual aggression, psychopaths are simply no more likely to
target strangers than nonpsychopaths. As hypothesized, psycho-
pathic rapists inflicted similar amounts of victim injury as their
nonpsychopathic counterparts. Consistent with past research
(i.e., Williamson etal., 1987; Wright & Wong, 1988) this finding
supports the view that psychopathy should not be used as the
sole indicator in the assessment and prediction of future victim
harm.
Contrary to popular belief, the study found that psychopathic
rapists were less likely to have multiple sexual victims in the
index offense. This finding is consistent with the view that sexual
crimes committed by psychopaths simply represent an extension
to an already diverse pattern of criminal offending. If psycho-
paths are best classified as criminal Versailles rather than sexual
offense specialists, it seems logical that they should be no more
likely to reoffend sexually as they are to rob a bank or forge a
check. Hence, it should come as no surprise that psychopathic
rapists are less likely to be convicted of multiple sexual crimes.
However, it is important to note that this reasoning does not
preclude the existence of psychopathic rapists who also evidence
sexual deviance preferences that eventually culminate in serial
rape.
The hypothesis that psychopathic rapists would be more likely
to experience feelings of tension and frustration rather than
intense emotions such as depression or anger before the sexual
offense was not supported. However, the psychopathic rapists
seldom reported feelings of loneliness, rejection, guilt, or inade-
quacy. Similarly, a consistent negative relationship did emerge
between psychopathy and negative emotional intensity. Although
both groups report experiencing similar types of negative emo-
tions, it may be the intensity of the negative emotion that differ-
entiates the two. This reasoning is consistent with the belief that
psychopaths are capable of experiencing emotions; however,
these emotions are generally short lived and void of depth
(Cleckley, 1976). An alternative explanation is plausible in the
context of Mealey's (1995) theoretical framework. Mealey
(1995) postulates that primary psychopaths are capable of expe-
riencing primary emotions such as anger, fear, and disgust but
are incapable of experiencing secondary social emotions such
as shame, guilt, or love. Thus, it is not surprising that both
groups were equally likely to report anger, a primary emotion,
but psychopaths were less likely to report alienation, a possible
secondary social emotion. Whether psychopathic and nonpsy-
chopathic rapists differ in terms of negative emotional intensity
or in the actual type of emotional experience (i.e., primary vs.
secondary emotions) requires further investigation.
The hypothesis that psychopathic rapists would be motivated
more often by opportunity than by nonsadistic-sexual factors
was supported by the MTC:R3 findings. Also noteworthy, is
that all of the vindictive rapists and most of the sadistic rapists
(6 of 7) were not classified as psychopaths. Furthermore, there
was also some evidence suggesting that psychopathic rapists
were more likely to be identified as pervasively angry rapists.
Overall, these findings are consistent with the Barbaree et al.
(1994) Canadian study. However, Barbaree et al. (1994) only
identified 1 pervasively angry rapist and 14 vindictive rapists in
a sample of 60 offenders. Whether this discrepancy is due to
sampling variance or a coding bias requires further investigation.
Knight has observed that the majority of opportunistic, perva-
sively angry, and sadistic rapists identified by MTC:R3 are, to
some degree, psychopathic (R. Knight, personal communica-
Table 6
Means (and Standard Deviations) for PCL-R Total and
Factors MTC.-R3 Collapsed Rapist Subtypes
Rapist subtype n PCL-R total Factor 1 Factor 2
Opportunistic 22 28.1 (4.6) 10.5 (3.2) 12.2 (2.9)
Pervasively angry 11 25.6 (6.7) 8.6(4.6) 13.3 (2.2)
Sexual-sadistic 7 24.6 (7.0) 9.0 (3.6) 12.0 (3.7)
Sexual-nonsadistic 14 20.8 (6.4) 7.0 (3.9) 10.6 (3.6)
Vindictive 6 19.5 (6.1) 5.2 (3.1) 10.3 (2.3)
Note. PCL-R = Psychopathy Checklist—Revised; MTC:R3 = Mas-
sachusetts Treatment Center: Revised Rapist Typology, Version 3.
 PSYCHOPATHY AND SEXUAL ASSAULT
tion, April, 19, 1994). However, the present results seem to
contradict this statement with regard to sadistic rapists. The
problem with ascertaining an accurate picture of the relationship
between psychopathy and sadistic rape concerns the low preva-
lence rate of sadistic rapists within the Canadian correctional
system. Unlike the sample of highly repetitive and serious sex
offenders for which the MTC:R3 was validated, only a small
portion of the Canadian sex offender population will likely meet
the criteria for sadism. Although, a comparison of the study
sample with a representative sample of the entire incarcerated
sexual assault population revealed that the study sample was
composed of a slightly higher percentage of more serious sex
offenders who were more likely to be serving life or indefinite
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
sentences, were more likely to have prior sexual assault convic-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
tions, were more likely to have multiple victims in the index
offense, and were more likely to have murdered their victims.
Despite this, conclusions must remain speculative, until future
research investigates the prevalence of psychopathy within
larger samples of sadistic rapists. In the interim, it seems reason-
able to conclude that sadistic rapists are just as likely to be
psychopathic as they are to be nonpsychopathic. Thus, the ab-
sence of psychopathy does not preclude dangerousness.
The study was limited in terms of sample size, sample repre-
sentativeness, treatment confounds, and use of a retrospective
design. It was noted earlier that the study sample was composed
of a slightly higher percentage of more serious sex offenders
than the general Canadian sex offender population in terms of
sentence length, sexual offense history, number of victims, and
victim injury. Thus, the representativeness of the study sample
to the population at large is questionable. Similarly, the retro-
spective nature of the study coupled with possible treatment
confounds makes interpretation difficult. Although psychopaths
are no more likely than nonpsychopaths to exhibit general mem-
ory deficits (Hart, Forth, & Hare, 1990) preliminary laboratory
evidence suggests that a specific, differential recall bias may
exist so that nonpsychopaths are more likely than psychopaths
to remember detailed information presented in an emotional
rather than nonemotional context (Christiansen et al., 1996). If
true, it is possible that the present findings pertaining to negative
emotions may be due to a differential recall bias rather than to
real differences between the psychopathic and nonpsychopathic
rapists. Furthermore, statistical controls could not fully amelio-
rate all possible differences between the treated and untreated
sex offenders that may have differentially influenced the nature
of the self-reported negative emotions data. In light of these
limitations, the study should be interpreted judiciously until
future studies replicate the present findings in larger, more repre-
sentative samples using prospective designs. Although prospec-
tive research that systematically reassesses the presence or ab-
sence of dynamic antecedents appears to be an almost Herculean
task, recent research in the field of substance abuse relapse
provides cause for optimism (Hodgins, el-Guebaly, & Arm-
strong, 1995).
Despite the limitations noted above, the findings have poten-
tial implications for the enhancement of risk management strate-
gies and the optimization of treatment delivery. It can be inferred
from the present findings that certain risk factors in the predic-
tion of sexual recidivism may differ for psychopathic and non-
psychopathic rapists as well as for different subtypes of the
855
MTCR3. Hypothetically, the reoccurrence of deviant sexual
fantasies coupled with interpersonal stress and feelings of inade-
quacy, loneliness, and rejection would be highly predictive of
sexual recidivism in a sample of sexually motivated rapists.
However, such factors should be less powerful in predicting
sexual recidivism among a sample of highly opportunistic or
psychopathic rapists. This notion is not new and has been ex-
pressed by others such as Quinsey and Walker (1992).
In accordance with the need and responsivity principles (An-
drews, 1989) treatment regimes must tailor programs so that
the specific needs of offenders are met. To meet this objective
for sexual assaulters, it may be necessary to consider the role
of psychopathy and typologies such as the MTOR3 in the design
and implementation of treatment strategies. For instance, it is
quite plausible that psychopathic rapists would derive greater
benefit from treatment strategies aimed at reducing impulsive
lifestyles and controlling poor behavioral controls rather than
those that focus on the identification of negative emotions and
offense cycles. Similarly, it seems reasonable to hypothesize
that certain MTC:R3 subtypes (i.e., sexually motivated rapists)
would be suited for specialized sex offender treatment programs,
whereas other subtypes (i.e., opportunistic, pervasively angry)
may benefit from a more generalized treatment program tar-
geting criminal behavior in general. Clearly, the search for suit-
able treatment programs that not only address the heterogeneity
of sexual assaulters but also are cost-effective will, no doubt,
prove challenging.
In conclusion, it appears that addressing the heterogeneity
of sexual assaulters is mandatory when delineating effective
strategies for the management and treatment of sexual aggres-
sors. Whether psychopathy, criminal history variables, and ty-
pologies such as the MTC:R3 can sufficiently address the hetero-
geneity of sexual aggressors remains an empirical question.
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Received April 9, 1996
Revision received December 2, 19%
Accepted April 8, 1997 •

Sternberg Appointed Editor of Contemporary Psychology

(APA Review of Books), 1999-2004

The Publications and Communications (P&C) Board of the American Psychological

Association announces the appointment of Robert J. Sternberg, Yale University, as editor
of Contemporary Psychology (APA Review of Books) for a 6-year term beginning in 1999.

Contemporary Psychology has been in existence for 42 years and, for most of the time, has
been operating under the same coverage model. The model is a good one, as the current
issues edited by John H. Harvey reflect, and the journal has long met the needs of individuals
and libraries. The pace of change has increased during the past few years, however, and the
P&C Board recently decided that it was time for a new model, one that would reflect the 21st
century reader's needs for information about books.

Sternberg, at the request of the P&C Board, will be embarking on a program to make the
journal even more timely and interesting during his editor-elect year in 1998. Some of the
changes envisioned include fewer but longer and more thoughtful reviews of books, reviews
only of "new" books (with a few noteworthy exceptions), comparative textbook reviews at
strategic times of the year, and changes in publication frequency and pricing. Sternberg
welcomes suggestions for improving the journal and serving reader needs.

E-mail: robert.stemberg@yale.edu

Please note that all reviews are written by invitation. Publishers should note that books
should not be sent to Sternberg. Publishers should continue to send two copies of books to
be considered for review plus any notices of publication to

PsyclNFO Services Department, APA

Ann: Contemporary Psychology Processing
750 First Street, NE
Washington, DC 20002-4242

As the editorial term of John H. Harvey comes to a close, the P&C Board wishes to express
its appreciation for his hard work and dedication as well as that of his staff at the University
of Iowa.