Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Research findings have shown that stress tolerance is closely associated with the ability to identify, understand and
control emotions. It also has to do with an ability to cope with environmental demands, to influence stressful events and
actively do something to improve the immediate situation.
This very important component of emotional intelligence is an essential leadership quality, and leaders who are adept in
coping with stress are a true asset to any team and organization. When things get rough, they tend to take control of the
situation and weather the storm.
This ability to actively cope and adjust effectively under pressure and in challenging, demanding and stressful situations
is very important for leadership but for successful leadership. It entails concentrating on the immediate situation and
paying attention to detail in order to continue to function effectively and get the job done. This is critical to the leader’s
ability to withstand complex, trying and stressful conditions, in order to effectively function while remaining calm and
composed. In light of the fact that organizational life and management tend to generate a great deal of stress and pressure,
successful leaders must demonstrate adeptness in this characteristic in order to survive and hopefully thrive.
Anxiety often results when this component is not functioning adequately. People who score significantly low on the EQ-
i™ Stress Tolerance scale may demonstrate symptoms related to stress and anxiety such as tension, irritability,
apprehension, a tendency to worry, poor concentration, difficulty in making decision and even somatic complaints.
9. Impulse Control:
This important EI factor is defined as our ability to effectively and constructively control emotions. More precisely,
impulse control is the ability to resist or delay an impulse or temptation to act; and it assumes a capacity for accepting our
aggressive impulses as well as controlling hostile and potentially irresponsible behavior. It is the ability to maintain
composure and effectively control one’s emotions in challenging and demanding situations. In essence, impulse control
is having emotions work for you and not against you.
After emotional self-awareness (being aware of one’s emotions), empathy (being aware of others’ emotions) and
assertiveness (expressing one’s feelings), impulse control (controlling emotions) represents the fourth foundation stone
of emotional intelligence. As such, this is a key component of most definitions and measures of this construct.
Research findings have shown that impulse control is closely associated, first and foremost, with understanding emotions.
In order function effectively, evidently, it appears that one must understand as well as control emotions.
Impulse control surfaces as an important element in the ability to lead, negotiate and execute conflict resolution. Problems
in impulse control are typically quite visible as well as destructive. They are often manifested by low frustration tolerance,
impulsiveness, anger control problems, abusiveness, loss of self-control and explosive and unpredictable behavior. This
factor surfaces as a key contributor to “derailment” in leadership. Although Bill Clinton is thought to be highly emotionally
intelligent in a number of fundamental areas, he was seriously lacking in this specific aspect of EI which contributed to
the beginning of impeaching proceedings against him.
10. Reality-Testing:
This EI factor governs our ability to objectively validate our feelings and thinking with external reality. This includes
assessing the correspondence between what is internally experienced and what externally exists. Testing the degree of
correspondence between what we experience and what actually exists involves a search for objective evidence to confirm
feelings, perceptions and thoughts. Reality testing, essentially, involves “tuning in” to the immediate situation, attempting
to keep things in correct perspective and experiencing things as they really are without excessive fantasizing or
daydreaming about them. The emphasis is on pragmatism, objectivity and the accuracy of our perception as well as on
authenticating our ideas and thoughts. An important aspect of this EI factor is the degree of perceptual clarity evident
when trying to assess and cope with situations; and it involves the ability to focus when examining ways of coping with
situations that arise. As such, reality testing comprises elements of and is based on perception, affect (emotions) and
cognition. Reality testing is also associated with a lack of withdrawal from the outside world, a tuning in to the immediate
situation as well as lucidity and clarity in perception and thought processes. In simple terms, reality testing is the ability to
accurately and realistically “size-up” the immediate situation.
Reality testing is closely associated with “situational awareness” in that involves being intensely aware of our
surroundings, which includes effectively clarifying and closing potential gaps between our internal perceptions and what
actually exists in the outside world. Effectiveness within this frame of reference depends on first recognizing and
understanding the essentials of the immediate situation as well as quickly assessing the seriousness and potential risk
factors involved, and then attempting to forecast the situation in the near term. Situational awareness (reality testing)
depends on accurately identifying and understanding emotions, which suggests that this factor plays an important role in
the cognitive processing of emotions (a point that has not yet been fully addressed in the emotional intelligence literature).
This EI factor acts as “the rudder” in keeping the cognitive processing of emotions on track. It is associated with a lack of
withdrawal from the outside world and a tuning into the immediate situation as well as lucidity and clarity in perception
and in thought processes.
Problems in reality testing can be catastrophic for organizational existence as they often are for individuals. Severe
psychiatric disturbances, such as psychosis, are fueled by extreme deficiencies in this factorial component of emotional
intelligence.
11. Flexibility:
This factor is defined as our ability to adapt and adjust our feelings, thinking and behavior to new situations and
conditions. This component of emotional-social intelligence refers to our overall ability to adapt to unfamiliar,
unpredictable and dynamic circumstances. Flexible people are agile, synergistic and capable of reacting to change without
rigidity. These people are able to change their minds when evidence suggests that they are mistaken. They are generally
open to and tolerant of different ideas, orientations, ways and practices. They do not experience difficulty beginning new
things or making adjustments in general. They are typically resilient and can easily take on new tasks.
Based on research findings, flexibility is closely associated with the ability to adjust to different social environments. As
such, it is an extremely important EI factor for individuals as well as organizations and a major contributor to organizational
survival. In order to survive in a dynamic market economy, organizations must be flexible and ready to rapidly and
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adequately meet change. Flexibility is considered to be one of the most important managerial competencies by the US
Office of Personnel Management. In addition to managerial competencies in general, this factor plays an important part
in conflict resolution, negotiation, mergers and acquisitions.
This factor is important in leadership, because it drives the ability to multitask and resiliently adapt in order to address a
rapidly changing environment, realities and new challenges. Multitasking depends on paying attention to and keeping
track of the essential details in the leader’s immediate surroundings, in order to pivot and turn when need be. All of this
determines how effective the leader will be in responding to altered situations and unexpected conditions. This
characteristic is important for being resourceful, taking the initiative for immediate action, improvisation, resiliency and
adaptability in the face of unpredictable and demanding scenarios.
Lack of flexibility can lead, in some cases, to catastrophic consequences for the organization as a whole. People who
score low on the EQ-i™ Flexibility scale are likely to exhibit rigidity in their thinking and behavior; and they tend to resist
change in general and in themselves in particular. Rigidity in leadership, and within organizations in general, represents
a serious threat to corporate survival.
12. Problem-Solving:
This EI factor governs our ability to effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature. Problem-
solving together with reality-testing and flexibility for the essential elements of adaptability – they are what drive the
Darwinian theory of survival and adaptability. This important EI factor entails the ability to identify and define problems as
well as to generate and implement potentially effective solutions. It is multi-phasic in nature and includes the ability to go
through the following process: (i) sensing a problem and feeling confident as well as motivated to deal with it; (ii) defining
and formulating the problem as clearly as possible, which necessitates gathering relevant information; (iii) generating as
many solutions as possible; and (iv) implementing one of the solutions after weighing the pros and cons of each possible
solution and choosing the best course of action. People who are adept at problem solving are often conscientious,
disciplined, methodical and systematic in persevering and approaching challenging situations. Task-oriented behavior
also appears to be part of problem-solving together being committed to actively coping with problematic situations in order
to improve them. This skill is also associated with a desire to do our best and to confront problems, rather than avoiding
them. While a methodical approach appears to be important in this process, flexibility and spontaneity are also important
especially as they relate to generating potential solutions (“brainstorming”). Problem-solving entails paying attention to
detail in what is often a very complicated situation, quickly and effectively filtering information as well as prioritizing a
desired course of action that needs to be anchored in good judgment. This process is closely associated with pattern
recognition, which helps one remember what works best in specific situations and the feasibility of applying this approach
again. Memory, therefore, plays a key role in learning from past experiences in order to enhance future performance
through a type of multitasking during the problem-solving process and making the most effective decisions which entails
risk analysis and management in addition to decision-making per se. As such, problem-solving is a complex cognitive
process.
Research findings have suggested that it is important to understand emotions in order to solve problems (or possibly to
solve problems with emotional content). Problem solving is considered to be one of the most important managerial
competencies by the US Office of Personnel Management. Together with reality-testing and flexibility, problem-solving
plays a very important part in the ability to negotiate and resolve conflicts. Strength in this area is a true asset, both
individually and organizationally. This skill is especially critical for effective strategic planning; it is essential in anticipating
and dealing with potentially complex problems on a large scale. This is especially necessary for individuals working alone,
or with minimal supervision, who typically have to deal with situations as they arise without the benefit of group decision-
making.
13. Self-Actualization:
This factor is defined as our ability to set personal goals and the drive to achieve them in order to actualize our
potential. Fundamentally, self-actualization pertains to the ability to actualize our inner potential. It is manifested by
becoming involved in pursuits that can lead to a meaningful, rich and full life. Striving to actualize our potential involves
developing meaningful and enjoyable activities. This can be manifested by a lifelong effort and an enthusiastic
commitment to long-term goals. Self-actualization is an ongoing process of striving toward maximum development of our
competencies, skills and talents. This is associated with persistently trying to do our best and trying to improve ourselves.
It is not merely performance but performing at the highest level. Additionally, excitement about our interests energizes
and motivates us to continue these interests. It is self-motivating and contributes to being fully engaged in those activities
we enjoy doing. It is one of the key “conative” factors considered by David Wechsler to play an important role in facilitating
“intelligent behavior” as he referred to it. It generates emotional energy, which helps motivate us to do our best.
The self-actualization factor comprises a general achievement drive, as well as a sense of direction in life and a desire to
work toward personal goals. It is also infectious in that it tends to have a positive effect on those around us such as in a
team setting. Self-actualization is also associated with and frequently leads to feelings of self-satisfaction.
Together with optimism and happiness, self-actualization generates the self-motivation and energy to drive other aspects
of emotional-social intelligence. This is the fuel trio behind emotional-social intelligence.
Research findings suggest that certain aspects of this factor are related to being committed to and involved with activities
that actively attempt to improve the individual. Intelligent managers and smart companies need to nurture self-
actualization, because it is important for the organization as well as for the individual. Not only should individuals be
allowed to pursue their goals at work as much as is possible, but they should be encouraged to direct some of that energy
to setting and accomplishing organizational goals as well.
Low levels of self-actualization are associated with frustration, despair and even depression. This creates difficulty in
doing things that we want to do and can do. People who receive low scores on the EQ-i™ Self-Actualization scale may
not know what they want to achieve, because they are confused about themselves in general and what they want to do
in life; or they may know what they want to accomplish in life but are unable to realize their potential for various reasons.
Curtailment of personal pursuits, moreover, is one of the key symptoms of depression.
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14. Optimism:
This EI factor is defined as our ability to maintain a positive and hopeful attitude toward life even in the face of
adversity. It is represents a positive an uplifting approach to daily living and a very important motivating factor in whatever
we do.
There is a strong connection between optimism and the ability to cope with problems. Optimism also plays an important
role in self-motivation and is a very important factor in coping with stress and achieving goals, which represents a valuable
and desirable leadership attribute. Optimistic individuals typically feel sure of themselves in most situations, believe they
can stay on top of rough situations, hope for the best and are generally motivated to continue even when things get difficult
while pessimists typically give up easier. They usually expect things will turn out right in the end, believe in their ability to
handle most upsetting problems, and typically do not feel they will fail when they begin something new. Optimists
experience many of the same life events as pessimists, but one of the fundamental differences is that optimists weather
these situations better and recover quicker from defeat by learning from their mistakes.
Although optimism associated with emotional intelligence, it is most likely a facilitator rather than an integral part of it.
David Wechsler also considered optimism, together with drive and positive mood, to be “conative factors” that he thought
facilitated intelligent behavior. These factors were also considered to be motivational in nature rather than part of
intelligence itself.
Optimism is an important leadership quality, because it is often associated with embracing some vision or mission that
mobilizes our determination to meet goals designed to maximize individual and organizational potential. This contributes
to being positive and passionate about what we do and fully energized and engaged. The “inspirational leader” is one
who generates energy that impacts the immediate environment and inspires others. Additionally, one’s level of spiritual
development (conducting one’s life in a meaningful and purposeful way) has a direct impact on one’s self-motivation; and
this also includes the drive component of self-actualization and the motivational component of happiness.
Based on one study, there is a strong relationship between optimism and the ability to benefit from coaching, counseling,
psychotherapy and other forms of intervention. This is logical in that optimism is thought to play an important role in these
types of intervention, because people who are pessimistic tend to be passive rather than actively committed to doing
something to improve their general condition. Optimism has also correlated high with a scale of general commitment.
These findings support what has been earlier suggested about estimating an individual’s potential from benefiting from
coaching and other forms intervention by assessing his or her general cognitive capacity, emotional self-awareness and
motivation (which is based on optimism).
The opposite of optimism is pessimism, despair and hopelessness, which are common symptoms of depression.
15. Happiness / Well-Being:
This factor is defined as our ability to feel content with ourselves, others and life in general. This is, essentially, the
ability to feel satisfied with our life, enjoy others and have fun. In this context, happiness combines self-satisfaction,
general contentment and the ability to enjoy life. Happiness involves the ability to enjoy various aspects of our life and life
in general. Happy people often feel good and at ease in both work and leisure; they are able to “let their hair down” and
enjoy the simple opportunities for having fun. This factor is associated with a general feeling of cheerfulness and
enthusiasm.
While some theorists and researchers do not feel that happiness is part of the emotional-social intelligence construct, the
ability to generate and maintain positive mood is important for self-motivation and serves to energize other EI factors
(together with optimism and the drive component of self-actualization).
Happiness provides two basic functions in the realm of human performance. The first is motivational, and the second
is barometric. The former helps enhance performance by motivating and energizing us, while the latter tells us how well
we have performed and can lead to a general sense of well-being. Together with self-actualization and optimism,
happiness generates the self-motivation and energy to drive other aspects of emotional-social intelligence. Once again,
this is the trio that fuels emotional-social intelligence.
The inability to experience happiness and difficulties in generating positive affect in general are often indicative of
dissatisfaction, discontent and depressive tendencies.
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Salovey and Mayer Model
Perceiving Emotions: This branch focuses in on detecting and deciphering emotions in oneself and
others. Salovey and Mayer consider this the most basic part of emotional intelligence. If a person can
decipher emotions in herself and others, it makes the subsequent parts of emotional intelligence
possible. Right below is a list of abilities that one can develop at this branch. The earliest developing
ability is identifying emotions in oneself, and the last developing ability is telling the difference between
real and fake emotions.
Using Emotions (also called “Emotional Facilitation of Thinking” or “Facilitating Thought”): This branch
hones in on the ability to use emotions to facilitate cognitive tasks (thinking, problem solving, spatial
reasoning, etc.). For example, an emotionally intelligent student can use her mood to complete a
tedious deductive reasoning assignment in a short amount of time. 3 The student knows that being sad
helps people conduct careful, methodical work. She can then think of sad thoughts to force a sad mood
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and quickly and efficiently finish her task. Immediately below is the list of four early to late developing
abilities.
Understanding Emotions: This branch consists of the ability to recognize emotional language as well
as recognize slight variations between emotions such as depression and grief. It also includes the
knowledge of how emotions change over time such as shock turning into grief. Right below are the
earlier to later developing abilities at this branch.
Managing Emotions: This branch consists of the ability to regulate emotions in ourselves and others.
In one of Salovey’s papers,3 there’s an example of a politician increasing his anger during a speech in
order to rouse indignation in the audience. So, this emotionally intelligent politician is harnessing his
emotions, whether positive or negative, to achieve his goals. Below are the specific abilities developed
at this branch.
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The Genos model revolves around 7 skills that provide for improvements in behavior, decision making and ultimately
performance. These skills are important at work, as emotions are an inherent part of workplace activities at all levels. One
way to better understand is by evaluating what low and high represents for each skill. Developed by Dr Ben Palmer in
collaboration with some other academic colleagues, it helps to specifically understand the role of EI in the workplace. It
has been used for the following purposes to:
Audit organizational culture and impact strategic culture change
Identify and develop high potential future leaders
Enhance leadership effectiveness
Improve sales and selling skills in the consultative model
Teach customer service skills
Prepare work teams for organizational change
Boost workplace creativity and innovation
Foster high performing collaboration
Low High
Self Awareness Disconnected Present
Awareness of Others Insensitive Empathetic
Expression Guarded Authentic
Decision Making Limited Expansive
Self Management Temper-mental Resilient
Management Indifferent Empowering
Self Control Reactive Centered
The real benefits to understanding emotional intelligence are that you can consciously make changes to improve each of
these skills. These are not personality traits; rather they are behaviorally based and with some desire, hard work and
good coaching can improve organizational effectiveness in monumental ways.
Genos Model of Emotional Intelligence
Emotions influence our decisions, behaviour and performance both in productive and unproductive ways. Think of a time
when you experienced an emotion – say for example, joy. Perhaps you had a great weekend, or accomplished a difficult
task at work. How did this emotion impact your mood, your energy levels, and the conversations you had with friends or
co-workers? Now think of a different example – say, for example, anger. Perhaps a co-worker said something that ‘rubbed
you up the wrong way’ or you thought that a friend betrayed a confidence. How did this emotion impact your mood and
your behaviours? Perhaps you sent an angry e-mail, or said something in the heat of the moment that you regretted later.
Emotional Self-Awareness
Self-Awareness is about being aware of the way you feel and the impact your feelings can have on decisions, behaviour
and performance. People who are emotionally self-aware are conscious of the role their feelings can play in these areas,
and are better equipped to manage this influence effectively. When we are emotionally self-aware we are present with
the role feelings are playing in our decisions, behaviour and performance. When we are not, we are
often disconnected from this influence.
Emotional Awareness of Others
Awareness of others is about perceiving, understanding and acknowledging the way others feel. This skill helps us
identify the things that make people feel valued, listened to, cared for, consulted, and understood. It also helps us
demonstrate empathy, anticipate responses or reactions, and adjust our behaviour so that it fits well with others. When
we demonstrate this skill effectively we come across as being empathetic. People who do not demonstrate this skill can
come across as being insensitive to the way others feel.
Authenticity
Authenticity is about openly and effectively expressing oneself, honouring commitments and encouraging this behaviour
in others. It involves honestly expressing specific feelings at work, such as happiness and frustration, providing feedback
to colleagues about the way you feel, and sharing emotions at the right time, to the right degree and, to the right people.
People high in authenticity are often described as genuine whereas people low in this skill are often described
as untrustworthy.
Emotional Reasoning
Emotional reasoning is about using the information in feelings (from oneself and others) when decision-making. It
involves considering your own and others’ feelings when making decisions, combining the information in feelings with
facts and technical information, and communicating this decision-making process to others. Feelings and emotions
contain important information. For example, the level of commitment colleagues demonstrate often provides insight into
whether a decision is going to be supported; the emotional appeal of products and services often provides insight into
selling and marketing messages. When this type of emotional information is combined with facts and technical information,
people make expansive, creative and well thought-out decisions. Conversely, people who do not use emotional
information and focus on facts or technical information only tend to be limited in their decision-making.
Emotional Self-Management
Self-Management is about managing one’s own mood and emotions, time and behaviour, and continuously improving
oneself. The modern workplace is generally one of high demands and pressure, and this can create negative emotions
and outcomes. Our mood can be very infectious and can therefore be a powerful force in the workplace; productively or
unproductively. This skill helps people be resilient and manage high work demands and stress rather than
being temperamental at work. People who are proficient in managing their own emotions are optimistic and look to find
the opportunities and possibilities that exist even in the face of adversity.
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Positive Influence
Positive influence is about positively influencing the way others feel through problem solving, feedback, recognising and
supporting others work. It involves creating a positive working environment for others, helping others find effective ways
of responding to upsetting events and effectively helping people resolve issues that are affecting their performance. This
skill helps people create a productive environment for others. Positive Influence equips you with the capacity to encourage
colleagues to cooperate and work effectively together. People who can positively influence others’ moods, feelings and
emotions are empowering to work with and easily motivate those around them.
Genos EI-Identify and develop emotional intelligence skills.
Identify and develop the emotional intelligence skills crucial to success in leadership, sales, teamwork and customer
service. Genos EI is a leading EI tool designed to assess self-awareness, understanding others, personal resilience and
influencing ability. It is one of only a handful of internationally recognised emotional intelligence tools and measures
specific workplace behaviours.
These skills can be used to develop the productive states emotionally intelligent individuals experience to become present,
authentic, empathic, expansive, resilient, empowering and centred – and to minimise unproductive states to be less
disconnected, insensitive, guarded, limited, temperamental, indifferent and reactive. The Genos Emotional Intelligence
Inventory or Genos EI, is a 70-item multirater assessment. It was designed specifically for use in the workplace as a
learning and development aid for human resource (HR) professionals and occupational psychologists involved in the
identification, selection and development of employees. Genos EI does not measure emotional intelligence (EI) per-se’;
rather, it measures how often people demonstrate 70 emotionally intelligent workplace behaviors that represent the
effective demonstration of emotional intelligence in the workplace.
Practical applications
Genos EI is used to identify people who will make great leaders and exceptional sales and service professionals. In this
context it is recommended for internal talent benchmarking or identification, and is often used to facilitate internal and
external hiring decisions. It’s greatest value is as a framework to assess and develop critical soft skills in leadership, sales,
teamwork and customer service. These skills include self-awareness, understanding others, personal resilience, and
influencing ability.
Combined with coaching and learning programs to increase how frequently people demonstrate emotionally intelligent
behaviour, Genos EI has been shown to deliver significant returns in employee engagement, leadership effectiveness,
customer satisfaction and sales revenue.
Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory is a robust and psychometrically reliable and valid assessment of what it purports
to measure; that is, how often individuals are perceived to demonstrate emotionally intelligent workplace behaviour. The
Genos inventories are not perfect and like others never will be. Research with the inventory continues and this manual
will need to be updated overtime. Indeed we have taken steps to further encourage independent research with the
inventory and continue our own in the area. I hope you find this manual to be a valuable resource in your use of the Genos
inventory and hope you find using the inventory a valuable and meaningful experience. Genos Emotional Intelligence
Inventory is a robust and psychometrically reliable and valid assessment of what it purports to measure; that is, how often
individuals are perceived to demonstrate emotionally intelligent workplace behaviour.
Factor name Description
1. Emotional Self-Awareness The skill of perceiving and understanding your own emotions
2. Emotional Expression The skill of effectively expressing your own emotions
3. Emotional Awareness of Others The skill of perceiving and understanding others’ emotions
4. Emotional Reasoning The skill of using emotional information in decision-making
5. Emotional Self-Management The skill of managing your own emotions
6. Emotional Management of Others The skill of positively influencing the emotions of others
7. Emotional Self-Control The skill of effectively controlling your own strong emotions
Emotional knowledge may be culturally and sub-culturally specific. Furthermore, scores on ability based measures of EI
in the workplace do not necessarily equate to performance outcomes that may ultimately be more important in employee
development. Put another way, some individuals may have a high level of emotional knowledge but not have the capability
or necessary experience in applying that knowledge in everyday life. For example, a manager’s knowledge and theory on
how to motivate subordinates may not actually result in that same manager having the competency or skill to do so
effectively. To illustrate this point further, assessment centre research completed by Tatton (2005), found a clear
disconnect between individuals’ emotional knowledge and how they applied that knowledge in role-play based
simulations. In this research, Tatton identified five distinct categories for the demonstration of emotional knowledge,
namely:
1. The Emotionally Intelligent, individuals with high levels of emotional knowledge and who demonstrated effective use
of that knowledge in the role play.
2. The Emotionally Intuitive, individuals with low levels of emotional knowledge yet applied that knowledge effectively
in the role play (e.g., demonstrated sensitivity to interpersonal cues and positive interpersonal behaviours).
3. The Emotionally Negligent, individuals with high levels of emotional knowledge yet could not apply that knowledge
effectively in the role play (e.g.,missed others’ emotional cues). Interestingly, Tatton reported that upon reviewing their
performance the ‘‘emotionally negligent’’ individual was able to discuss what he or she should have done or what would
have been a better approach in the role play.
4. The Emotionally Manipulative, individuals with high levels of emotional knowledge who chose to use this knowledge
in a more nefarious intent during the role play (e.g., lowering others’ self-esteem to enhance their own position or
dismissing others’ feelings so as not to validate them).
5. The Emotionally Unintelligent, individuals with low levels of emotional knowledge and who failed to demonstrate
effective use of that knowledge in the role play (e.g., missed others’ emotional cues, etc).
On the Efficiency of Emotional Intelligence Training in Adulthood
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Moïra Mikolajczak
March 2015 – Although we all experience emotions, we markedly differ in the extent to which we identify, express,
understand, regulate and use our own and others’ emotions. The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has been proposed
to account for this idea (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Past debates on the status of EI have given birth to a tripartite model of
EI (Mikolajczak, Petrides, Coumans, & Luminet, 2009).
Briefly, this model posits three levels of EI: knowledge, abilities and traits. The knowledge level refers to what people
know about emotions and emotionally intelligent behaviors (e.g. Do I know which emotional expressions are constructive
in a given social situation?). The ability level refers to the ability to apply this knowledge in a real-world situation (e.g., Am
I able to express my emotions constructively in a given social situation?). The focus here is not on what people know but
on what they can do: Even though many people know that they should not shout when angry, many are simply unable to
contain themselves. The trait level refers to emotion-related dispositions, namely, the propensity to behave in a certain
way in emotional situations (Do I typically express my emotions in a constructive manner in social situations?). The focus
here is not on what people know or on what they are able to do, but on what they typically do over extensive periods of
time in social situations. For instance, some individuals might be able to express their emotion constructively if explicitly
asked to do so (so they have the ability), but they do not manage to manifest this ability reliably and spontaneously over
time. These three levels of EC are loosely connected – declarative knowledge does not always translate into ability, which,
in turn, does not always translate into usual behavior – and should therefore be assessed using different instruments.
Knowledge and abilities are essentially assessed using intelligence-like tests such as the MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2002), the STEU (Situational Test of Emotional Understanding ;
MacCann & Roberts, 2008) or the GERT (Geneva Emotion Recognition Test, Schleger, Grandjean & Scherer, 2013),
while usual emotional behavior is assessed using personality-like questionnaires such as the TEIQUE (Trait Emotional
Intelligence Questionnaire; Petrides, 2009), the EQ-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On, 2004) or, more recently, the
PEC (Profile of Emotional Competence ; Brasseur, Grégoire, Bourdu & Mikolajczak, 2013).
The Importance of Trait EI
The literature indicates that the trait level of EI, on which we will focus in this paper, has a significant impact on four of the
most important domains of life: well-being, health, relationships and work performance. We remain neutral here on
whether measures of EI which are not trait-based have a comparable impact in any of these domains.
For instance, people with greater trait EI have enhanced well-being and mental health (for a recent meta-analysis, see
Martins, Ramalho & Morin, 2010). They also have better physical health, as evidenced in a recent nationally
representative study conducted by our team in collaboration with the largest mutual benefit society in Belgium (Mikolajczak
et al., in press). Socially speaking, they seem to have more satisfying social and marital relationships (e.g. Schutte et al.,
2001; see Malouff, Schutte, & Thorsteinsson, 2014 for a meta-analysis). Finally, a recent meta-analysis (O’Boyle et al.,
2011) shed light on the debate on EI and job performance: although not all studies found a significant relationship, the
aggregate effect confirms that people with higher trait EI do achieve superior job performance.
It is noteworthy that despite early fears that trait EI would not predict additional variance in the above-mentioned outcomes
beyond the big five personality factors and intelligence, the vast majority of studies actually refute this fear (see Andrei,
Siegling, Baldaro & Petrides, under review, and O’Boyle et al., 2011 for meta-analyses confirming the incremental validity
of trait EI regarding health and job performance, respectively).
Improving Trait EI: Data and Recommendations
Because of its importance for people’s well-being and success, researchers and practitioners alike have wondered what,
if anything, can be done to improve trait EI in adults. The question is not trivial as traits are harder to change than
knowledge or abilities, especially in adulthood. However, the fact that personality traits can change in response to life
experiences shows that traits are somewhat malleable (Roberts, Caspi & Moffitt, 2003; Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). The
current note examines the possibility of improving trait EI in adults. It provides brief answers to the following four
questions: (1) Is it still possible to improve trait EI in adulthood? (2) How? (3) What are the benefits ―in terms of well-
being, health, social relationships and work success – of such EI improvement and do such benefits last? (4) Will trait EI
training work for everyone?
To What Extent Can Trait EI Be Improved In Adulthood?
This question has given rise to a number of studies, mainly in the fields of psychology, management, medicine and
education. As these words are being written, 46 studies have been conducted to check whether trait EI scores improve
after EI training (for review, see Kotsou, Mikolajczak, Grégoire, Heeren & Leys, in preparation). 90% of them conclude in
the affirmative. However, a closer look at the studies reveals that most of them were published in low-impact factor journals
(median Impact Factor < 1), which is not surprising as the vast majority of them suffer from crucial limitations, the most
important being that 46% of the studies do not include a control group. Among the studies that did, only 36% assigned
participants to groups randomly and only 8% of the studies (i.e., 2 out of 46) included an active control group (i.e., a
training group with the same format but another content; the only way of excluding the fact that improvements are due
merely to the group effect). Moreover, 63% of the studies measured training effects immediately after the training, with
no follow-up to assess the sustainability of the changes.
Finally, 75% of the studies did not use a theory- and/or evidence-based training. A theory-based training is a training that
is designed according to a theoretical model of emotional intelligence (e.g., if the model comprises 5 dimensions, the
training should cover all of them; if the model assumes a hierarchical order in the EI dimensions, the training should be
built accordingly). An evidence-based training is a training in which the individual strategies taught to participants to
improve EI (e.g., strategies to express their emotions in a constructive manner, strategies to regulate their emotions, etc)
have been previously shown to be effective in well-designed scientific research.
That being said, a few studies did not suffer from the above-mentioned limitations (i.e. Karahan & Yalcin, 2009; Kotsou
et al., 2011; Nelis et al. 2009, Nelis et al. 2011; Sharif & al., 2013; Slaski & Cartwright, 2003; Vesely, Saklofske &
Nordstokke, 2014; Yalcin, Karahan, Ozcelik, & Igde, 2008). And they suggest that it is possible to improve trait EI in
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adults. The mean improvement of EI in these studies, as measured by the TEIQue or the EQ-I, was 12.4%. This increase
was confirmed, although to a much lesser extent (+6.6%), by spouses and friends.
How can trait EI be improved in adults?
A look on the content of effective EI trainings suggests that improving trait EI requires working on at least two of the
following EI dimensions: identification of emotions, expression of emotions and regulation of emotions. Among the well-
designed studies cited above, the majority focused on five dimensions: identification, understanding, use, expression and
regulation of emotions (see Table 1 for an explanation of these dimensions). We reproduce below the content of one of
those trainings (Kotsou et al., 2011).
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