JUSTICE BASHEER AHMED SAYEED COLLEGE FOR

WOMEN ( AFTERNOON SHIFT )

( AUTONOMOUS )
TEYNAMPET , CHENNAI - 18

INTERNSHIP REPORT

2021 - 2022

Submitted in fulfilment of requirement for the award of degree

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MICROBIOLOGY

BY

JOTHIKA. B
Reg.no. 2113441077011
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO CONTENTS PG.NO
1. INTRODUCTION 03

1.1 General introduction

1.2 Importance of medicinal plants and animals

1.3 Benefits of herbal medicines

2 TEST OF SAMPLES 06

2.1 E.Coli test

2.2 Salmonella test

2.3 Pseudomonas test

2.4 Staphylococcus test

3 INSTRUMENTS 13

3.1 Laminar air flow

3.2 Hot air oven

3.3 Autoclave

3.4 Incubator

3.5 PH meter

3.6 Humidity chamber

3.7 Muffle furnace

3.8 UV cabinet

3.9 Refractometer

3.10 Stirrer

3.11 Colony counter

3.12 Analytical balance

3.13 Water Bath

 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction

During my time at Annai Aravindh Herbal Company, I discovered

that making herbal medicine is a lot more complex than I'd learned in college. In
the classroom, we talked a lot about the properties of medicinal plants and animals.
But at Annai Aravindh Herbal Company, I saw firsthand how these ingredients are
transformed into the medicines we use.
I learned about the steps to pick the right plants and how to process them without
losing their medicinal qualities. I was also shown the equipment used in
production, and how each stage, from grinding to packaging, is crucial to make sure
the medicine is both safe and effective. This experience taught me that there's a vast
world behind each herbal pill or syrup, and it's a blend of tradition, science, and
careful craftsmanship.
This hands-on knowledge, which I couldn’t have gained just from books, has made
me appreciate the effort and precision that goes into creating herbal medicines.
My time at Annai Aravindh Herbal Company taught me a lot about how herbal
medicine is made. I now know the real work that goes into it. This will surely help
me in my job in the future. I'm glad I had this experience because it has prepared me
better for my career.

1.2 Importance of medicinal plants and animals

Medicinal plants and animals have been integral to human

health and well-being for thousands of years. They form the backbone of
traditional medicine systems across the globe and have been the primary source of
therapeutic agents. The rich bioactive compounds found in plants, such as
alkaloids, flavonoids, and essential oils, have led to the discovery of numerous
modern medicines, including aspirin, quinine, and morphine.
Moreover, as the global burden of diseases continues to rise, the importance of these
natural resources is further magnified. They offer an invaluable reservoir of
potential new drugs and treatments. Sustainable and ethical utilization of these
resources, combined with conservation efforts, is crucial not only to preserve the
rich biodiversity of our planet but also to ensure a healthier future for humanity.
By studying and understanding the medicinal properties of plants and animals, we
can tap into nature's vast pharmacy, harnessing its power to combat a myriad of
health challenges.

1.3 Benefits of herbal medicines

Herbal medicines, derived from nature's flora, have been a

cornerstone in healthcare systems for millennia. Their wide acceptance and
continued use can be attributed to several key benefits:

1. Natural Origins : Unlike many synthetic drugs, herbal medicines are sourced
from plants. This means they are often viewed as more natural and holistic, aligning
with the body's innate healing mechanisms.

2. Fewer Side Effects : Due to their organic nature, herbal remedies typically have
fewer side effects when used appropriately and as directed. They tend to work in
harmony with the body, supporting and enhancing its natural functions.

3. Cost-Effective : Herbal treatments can be more affordable than conventional

pharmaceuticals. This is particularly advantageous for populations in low-income
regions where access to modern medicine might be limited or expensive.

4. Holistic Approach : Herbal medicines often address the root cause of an ailment
rather than just alleviating symptoms. They can harmonize physical, emotional, and
spiritual well-being, fostering overall health.
5. Biodiversity and Sustainability : Herbal medicine promotes the conservation of
biodiversity. As demand for certain plants increases, there's a growing emphasis on
sustainable farming and harvesting practices.

6. Versatility : Many herbs possess a range of therapeutic properties. For instance,

turmeric is not only anti-inflammatory but also has antioxidant qualities, making it
beneficial for a variety of health conditions.

7. Cultural and Traditional Significance : Herbal medicine is deeply embedded in

many cultures. Using herbs for healing connects individuals to their ancestral roots,
traditions, and holistic philosophies.

In conclusion, the appeal of herbal medicines lies in their natural essence, holistic
healing approach, and the symbiotic relationship they foster between humans and
the environment. While they should be used judiciously and in consultation with
healthcare professionals, their benefits offer a compelling alternative or
complement to modern medicine.
 2. TEST OF SAMPLES
2.1 E.COLI TEST

AIM :
To check the presence of E.coli organism in the given sample

MATERIALS REQUIRED :
MacConkey agar, nutrient broth, petri plate, test tube, distilled
water

COMPOSITION OF AGAR :
Nutrient agar : 1L
Yeast extract : 2g
Peptone : 5g
Sodium chloride (NACL) : 5g
Agar : 15g

COMPOSITION OF MACCONKEY AGAR :

Peptone : 17 g
Polypeptone : 3 g
Lactose : 10 g
Bile salts : 1.5 g
Sodium chloride : 5 g
Agar : 13.5 g
Neutral red : 0.03 g
Crystal violet : 0.001 g
Distilled water : 1 L
Final pH : 7.1

CALCULATIONS :
1 sample = 509 NB
1*50 = 50*13/1000 = 0.65g
PROCEDURE :
1. Take 1g of sample and inoculate in the nutrient broth
2. Incubate the broth at 37°c for 24 hrs
3. Take 1ml of sample from nutrient broth and add it to
macconkey broth
4. Incubate it at 37°c for 48 hrs
5. Take 1ml of nutrient broth and macconkey sample and add it
to the peptone broth
6. Incubate it at 37°c at 24 hrs
7. Take 1 ml of sample and add it to kovas reagent (0.5ml)

RESULT :
If it appears to be pink in colour it indicates the presence of
E.Coli
If the pink colour is not appeared it indicates the absence of
E.Coli

2.2 SALMONELLA TEST

AIM :
To check the presence of salmonella in the given sample

MATERIALS REQUIRED :
Salinity f broth, bismuth sulphate agar, petri plate, test tube,
nichrome loop
COMPOSITION OF AGAR :
SELENITE F BROTH:

Casein enzymic hydrolysate : 5gm/L

Lactose : 4gm/L
Sodium phosphate : 10gm/L
Sodium hydrogen selenite(NaHSeO3) : 4gm/L

BISMUTH SULPHATE AGAR:

Peptone : 10
Beef extract : 5
Dextrose(glucose) : 5
Disodium phosphate : 4
Ferrous sulphate : 0.3
Bismuth sulfite indicator : 8
Brilliant green : 0.025
Agar : 20
Final pH (at 25°c) 7.77±0.2

CALCULATIONS :
1. 50*19/1000 = 0.95g
2. 4*50/1000 = 0.5g
Bismuth sulphate medium:
40*52.33/1000 = 2.09g

PROCEDURE :
1. Take 1ml of sample and inoculate it in nutrient broth
2. Incubate it at 37°c for 24hrs
3. Take 1ml from the nutrient broth and add it to 10 ml of
selenite f broth
4. Incubate it at 37°c for 48hrs
5. Take a loop full of selenite F broth and streaked it on bismuth
sulphate agar for 1 day
RESULT :
If the blackish or greenish colony appear it indicates the
presence of salmonella
If no black or green colony appear it indicates the absence of
salmonell

2.3 PSEUDOMONAS TEST:

AIM :
To check the presence of pseudomonas in the given sample

MATERIALS REQUIRED :
Nutrient broth, Peudomonas agar, Petri plate, Test tube,
Nichrome loop

COMPOSITION OF AGAR :
Nutrient agar : 1L
Yeast extract : 2g
Peptone : 5g
Sodium chloride (NaCL) : 5g
Agar : 15g

PSEUDOMONAS AGAR:

Tryptone : 10.000
Gelatin peptone : 16.000
Potassium sulphate : 10.000
Magnesium chloride, anhydrous : 1.400
Agar : 11.000
Final pH (at 25°c) 7.1±0.2
CALCULATION :
38.09 IN 1000 ml of H2O and add 10 ml of glycerol boil it to
dissolve in medium and autoclave for 15 minutes and pour it in
petri plate.

PROCEDURE :
1. Take 1ml of sample and inoculate in nutrient broth.
2. Incubate it at 37°c for 24hrs.
3. Take a loop full of sample from nutrient broth and streak it on
pseudomonas agar plate.
4. Incubate it at 37°c for 24hrs.
5. Appearance of green colonies occur.

RESULT :
Presence of pseudomonas shows green color colonies
Absence of pseudomonas shows no green color colonies

2.4 STAPHYLOCOCCUS TEST:

AIM :
To check the presence of staphylococcus in the given sample

MATERIALS REQUIRED :
Mannitol salt agar, Nutrient broth, Petri plate, Test tube,
Nichrome loop
COMPOSITION OF AGAR :
NUTRIENT AGAR:

Nutrient agar : 1L
Yeast extract : 2g
Peptone : 5g
Sodium chloride (NaCL) : 5g
Agar : 15g

MANNITOL SALT AGAR:

Proteose peptone : 10.000

HM peptone B : 1.000
Sodium chloride (Nacl) : 75.000
D - Mannitol : 10.000
Phenol red : 0.025
Agar : 15.000
Final pH (at 25°c) 74±0.2

CALCULATIONS :
111.02g of mannitol salt agar is added to 1000 ml H2O and
autoclave it at 121°c for 15 min

PROCEDURE :
1. Take 1ml of sample and inoculate it in nutrient broth.
2. Incubate it at 37°c for 24 hrs.
3. Take loop full of sample from nutrient broth and streak it on
mannitol agar.
4. Incubate it at 37°c for 24 hrs.
5. Appearance of yellow colonies is noted.
RESULT :
Yellow colonies indicate the presence of staphylococcus
No yellow colonies indicates the absence of staphylococcus
 3. INSTRUMENTS
3.1 LAMINAR AIR FLOW
Laminar hood /laminar airflow is a closed device designed
to prevent contamination of biological samples.

PRINCIPLE :

Laminar airflow is made up of stainless steel avoiding

joints and corners to prevent the accumulation of bacterial spores. It
creates a sterile environment with the flow of sterile air through the high
efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter and short wave ultra violet
germicidal lamp that sterilizes the workstation.The UV light should be
switched on for 30 minutes before performing the experiment.

USES :

Laminar airflow is commonly uses to conduct processes that are

sensitive to contamination
It is important for manipulation of the sterile media in dispensing
and plate pouring technique.
PRECAUTIONS :

It is important to turn off uv light during use to prevent light

exposure to skin and eyes as these emission cause cancer
Do not talk while inside the chamber while performing the
experiment.
Wash your hands with soap or detergent.

ADVANTAGES :
Sterility : Laminar flow hoods ensure a contamination-free work
environment by constantly flowing filtered air over the work area,
preventing the entry of contaminants.
Protection : These machines protect the samples from the outside
environment and, depending on the type, may also protect the user
from the samples.
HEPA/ULPA Filters : High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) or
ultra-low penetration air (ULPA) filters used in these machines can
trap very tiny particles, including most bacteria and many viruses.

DISADVANTAGES :
Cost: Laminar flow hoods can be expensive to purchase, install, and
maintain.
Maintenance: The filters need regular replacement, and the
machines require regular cleaning and certification to ensure they
function properly.
Space: These machines are bulky and can consume significant lab
space.
Energy Consumption : They require continuous electricity to
maintain the airflow, which could lead to increased energy costs.
 3.2 HOT AIR OVEN
A hot air oven is a laboratory appliance that is used to
dry, sterilize, or heat materials.Hot air ovens are commonly used to
sterilize equipment and materials, as the high temperatures can kill
microorganisms.

PRINCIPLE :

Sterilization by dry heat is performed by conduction.

The temperature is consumed by the surface of the objects, then moves
towards the core of the object, coating by coating. The whole object will
ultimately attain the temperature needed for sterilization to take place.
Dry heat causes most of the injury by oxidizing particles. The primary
cell components are damaged and the organism dies. The temperature is
kept for about an hour to eliminate the most ambitious of the resistant
spores.

USES :
Hot air sterilization is one method of effectively killing microbes of
all kinds, especially bacteria, viruses and molds on heat-resistant
materials.
Contamination control during the incubation of cell cultures in a
CO₂ incubator is of the greatest importance.
PREVENTION :

Wear protective equipment

Use caution when opening the oven door
Do not overheat materials

ADVANTAGES :
Sterilization : Efficient at killing spores and microorganisms at high
temperatures.
No Toxic Residue : Unlike chemical methods, hot air ovens don't
leave any toxic residues on sterilized items.
Safe for Non-aqueous Materials : Good for materials that can't be
sterilized with steam because they might be damaged by moisture,
such as powders, oils, and glassware.
Low Maintenance : Minimal moving parts and no requirement for
water supply (unlike steam autoclaves) means there's less that can
break or need regular maintenance.

DISADVANTAGES :
Long Sterilization Time : Sterilization in a hot air oven usually takes
longer than methods like autoclaving.
High Temperatures : The high temperatures required (usually 160-
180°C) might degrade or damage certain materials over time.
Not Suitable for All Materials : Can't be used for materials that are
sensitive to heat or might melt.
Energy Consumption : Requires a significant amount of electricity,
especially when operating at high temperatures for extended periods.
 3.3 AUTOCLAVE
Autoclave is most preferred instrument used for
sterlization of surgical equipments and microbial lab culture and plates.It
was invented by charles chamberland an associate of louis pasteur.

PRINCIPLE :

The principle is based on moist heat. It use steam as

their sterilization agent.The high pressure increases the boiling point of
water and thus helps achieve a higher temperature for sterilization.

USES :

Autoclave is a must for every hospital and microbiology lab

environment.
Autoclave is also used for decontamination before disposal for all
medical and biological waste.

PRECAUTIONS :
Autoclaves should not be used to sterilize water-proof or water-
resistant substances like oil or powders.
The wastes and clean items should be autoclaved separately.
ADVANTAGES :
Highly Effective : Destroys all types of microorganisms, including
resistant bacterial spores
Versatile : Suitable for a range of items – media, instruments, waste,
etc.
No Residue : Leaves no toxic residues on items post-sterilization.
Quick : Achieves sterilization faster than some other methods.
Safety Indicators : Offers chemical and biological indicators for
verification.
Eco-Friendly : Uses water for steam, avoiding harmful chemicals.

DISADVANTAGES :
Material Restrictions : Some materials can't withstand pressurized
steam.
Corrosion : Can corrode certain metals over repeated uses.
Maintenance Needs : Regular maintenance and checks are necessary.
Cost : Can be expensive to purchase, operate, and maintain.
Burn Hazard : Risk of steam burns when used improperly.
Limited Efficacy: May not effectively inactivate certain agents like
prions.
 3.4 INCUBATOR
An incubator is an device that is used in laboratories
for the growth and maintenance of microorganisms and cultures.It
provides an optimum temperature, pressure,moisture for the growth of
microorganisms.

PRINCIPLE :

Temperature generally influences the microbial

growth.Incubator is a operator for the growth of microbe in a suitable
medium at proper temperature.It is based on the principles of
maintaining a proper atmosphere for the growth of microorganisms

USES :

Incubator can also be used in the stem cell research area

Incubator has a wide range of applications including cell culture ,
pharmaceutical studies, biochemical studies etc.
It is operated to allow the microbial growth

PRECAUTIONS :

The door of the incubator should be opened when necessary.

The articles should be placed properly so as not to obstruct the flow
of air.
ADVANTAGES :
Provides a controlled environment for microbial growth.
Allows for the replication of specific conditions.
Supports research in microbiology and cell biology.

DISADVANTAGES :
Limited to maintaining specific temperature ranges.
Requires periodic calibration and maintenance.
Takes up space in the laboratory.
May not be suitable for all types of cultures.
Energy consumption can be relatively high

3.5 PH METER
pH meter is a potentiometer which measures the
voltage between two electrodes placed in a solution.

PRINCIPLE :

The working principle of the pH meter relies on the ions exchange from
the sample solution to the inner solution (pH 7 buffer) of the glass
electrode via the glass membrane.A pH meter has a pH probe to conduct
the electrical signals to the pH meter, which then displays the pH value
of the solution
USES :
A pH meter is essential for assessing soil in the agricultural sector.
Monitoring pH level is essential in water treatment facilities and
RO water purifiers.
The food industry specifically uses pH meters in the context of dairy
products.
Employed in detergent manufacturing.

PRECAUTIONS :
pH electrodes are sensitive and fragile, so one should not use them as
a glass rod to stir the solution while measuring pH.
All the solutions used in measurement should be freshly prepared.

ADVANTAGES :
Provides precise measurements of acidity or alkalinity.
Essential for various chemical and biological experiments.
Quick and easy to use for pH analysis.
Enables real-time monitoring of pH changes.
Can be used in a wide range of industries, including microbiology.

DISADVANTAGES :
Requires regular calibration with standard solutions.
Sensitive to contamination, which can affect accuracy.
Electrodes may degrade over time and need replacement.
May not be suitable for extremely low or high pH levels.
Initial cost and maintenance expenses can be high.
 3.6 HUMIDITY CHAMBER

A humidity chamber is a mechanism that

creates different environments to allow manufacturers to test their
products to the harshest of conditions. It also enables them to see how
their products react to variations in humidity. Manufacturers are able to
test the various parameters of their products in the harshest of
conditions.The main components of a humidity chamber are ones that
introduce moisture and heat.

PRINCIPLE :

The devices that bring moisture and heat into a humidity chamber are
the primary components of the chamber. The introduction of water into
the chamber may be accomplished via several means, such as spraying or
bathing the chamber. The same notion holds for heat that is delivered in
the form of coils or heating elements, as well.
It is most often the case that humidity chambers are developed,
constructed, and supplied to precisely match the conditions required by
the client. Even though there are many different chambers, the
fundamental components of heat and moisture are needed to provide the
necessary humid conditions.
USES :

Humidity chambers are popular for stability testing in the chemical,

pharmaceutical, food, and packaging industries.
They model varying conditions of relative humidity within a modest
temperature range

PRECAUTIONS :
Whenever conduct the test,then you should avoid putting any
inflammable material in the chamber

ADVANTAGES :
Controls and maintains specific humidity levels.
Ideal for experiments requiring controlled moisture conditions.
Used in microbiology, seed germination, and materials testing.
Ensures reproducible research conditions.
Helps prevent sample desiccation or moisture-related issues.

DISADVANTAGES :

Can be relatively expensive to purchase and operate.

Requires regular cleaning and maintenance.
Limited to maintaining a specific humidity range.
 3.7 MUFFLE FURNACE
A muffle furnace is a laboratory instrument used
to heat materials to extremely high temperatures whilst isolating them
from fuel and the byproducts of combustion from the heat source.
Muffle furnaces allow for the isolation of a material to reduce the risks of
cross-contamination and identify specific properties.

PRINCIPLE :

Muffle furnaces work on the principle of indirect heating, where the

heating elements are placed outside the furnace chamber, and the
material to be heated is placed inside a separate chamber called a muffle.
The muffle is typically made of a ceramic material such as alumina,
which can withstand high temperatures and is resistant to chemical
corrosion.

When the muffle furnace is turned on, an electric current is passed

through the heating elements, which then heat up and radiate heat
toward the muffle. The muffle, in turn, absorbs the heat and becomes
hot, heating the material inside.
The temperature inside the muffle is controlled using a temperature
controller.
TYPES :
Box furnace
Tube furnace
Crucible furnace
Split furnace
Vacuum furnace
Multi zone furnace

USES :
Muffle furnaces offer a range of features and benefits that make
them a popular choice for high-temperature processing applications.
Here are some of the main features and benefits of a muffle furnace
to heat materials to extremely high temperatures whilst isolating
them from fuel and the byproducts of combustion from the heat
source. Muffle furnaces allow for the isolation of a material to
reduce the risks of cross-contamination and identify specific
properties.

PRECAUTIONS :
The working environment requires no flammable and explosive
materials and corrosive gasses.
The furnace door should be closed and opened slightly during use to
prevent damage to the parts.
ADVANTAGES :
Provides controlled high-temperature environments.
Used for washing, annealing, and heat treatment of samples.
Essential in microbiology for sterilization.
Suitable for materials testing and research.
Reliable and durable equipment.

DISADVANTAGES :
Limited to high-temperature applications.
Requires careful handling due to extreme heat.
Energy-intensive and can be costly to run.
May emit fumes or odors during use.
Not suitable for experiments requiring precise temperature control.

3.8 UV CABINET
A UV cabinet, also known as a UV light box or
UV transilluminator,is a specialized piece of equipment designed to
visualize and work with substances that fluoresce or absorb ultraviolet
(UV) light. It provides a controlled environment to protect researchers
from UV radiation while allowing them to observe and manipulate
samples that emit UV light.
PRINCIPLE :
The principle behind a UV cabinet is the use of UV light sources,
typically in the range of 254 to 365 nanometers, to excite fluorescent
molecules or detect substances that absorb UV light. It consists of a work
surface with a UV-transparent window and a UV lamp underneath.

USES :
Gel Electrophoresis : UV cabinets are commonly used to visualize
DNA, RNA, or protein samples separated on an agarose or
polyacrylamide gel during electrophoresis.

Nucleic Acid Analysis : Researchers use UV cabinets to detect and

quantify nucleic acids by their UV absorption or fluorescence

Gel Documentation : They are also used for capturing images of gels
for documentation

Protein Analysis : In protein research, UV cabinets help visualize

and analyze protein samples that may fluoresce or absorb UV light.

PRECAUTIONS :
Protective Gear: Always wear appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE), including UV-blocking goggles or face
shield, lab coat, and gloves. Ensure that your skin is covered to minimize
UV exposure.
ADVANTAGES :
Provides a controlled environment for UV exposure.
Used for DNA and RNA research and sterilization.
Helps prevent contamination in molecular biology work.
Protects researchers from harmful UV radiation.
Convenient for handling sensitive samples.

DISADVANTAGES :
Limited to UV applications and not suitable for other purposes.
Requires regular maintenance, including bulb replacement.
Initial cost can be relatively high.
Space-consuming in the laboratory.
Limited control over UV intensity and exposure time.

3.9 REFRACTOMETER
An Abbe refractometer is a laboratory instrument
used to measure the refractive index and, often, the dispersion of liquids
and solids. It's commonly used in fields like chemistry, pharmacy, and
food science to determine the optical properties of substances.
PRINCIPLE :

The Abbe refractometer operates on the principle of

measuring the refractive index (RI) of a substance.

PRISM AND REFRACTIVE INDEX :

The key component of the Abbe refractometer is a prism made of a

transparent material like glass. This prism has a known refractive index.
The refractive index is a measure of how much light is bent or refracted
when it enters a substance. Different substances have different refractive
indices.

SAMPLE AND ILLUMINATION :

A small sample of the substance whose refractive index you want to

measure is placed on the surface of the prism.

LIGHT SOURCE :

A light source, often a monochromatic light source (emitting light of a

single wavelength or color), is directed through the prism. This light
beam passes through the sample and is refracted as it enters and exits the
substance.

MEASUREMENT :

The refractometer provides a reading based on the angle at which the

light beam is refracted.

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION :

To ensure accuracy, some Abbe refractometers are equipped

with temperature controls or compensation, as the refractive index of a
substance can vary with temperature.
USES :

An Abbe refractometer is a laboratory instrument used to measure the

refractive index of liquids, typically transparent or translucent
substances like fluids, oils, and solutions.

Determination of Refractive Index

Quality Control in Food and Beverage Industry
Pharmaceutical Industry
Petrochemical Industry
Chemical Research
Gemology
Quality Control in Cosmetics
Environmental Analysis
Education and Teaching
Material Science
Biomedical Research

PRECAUTIONS :

Use only AAA batteries. Pay close attention to battery polarity when
inserting batteries. The entire refractometer may be cleaned with a
soft, clean cloth or paper towel, dampened with a mild liquid dish
soap and water

ADVANTAGES :

Provides rapid and accurate measurement of refractive index.

Used in various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and
chemistry.
Helps determine the concentration of solutions.
Requires minimal sample volume.
Easy to use and maintain.
DISADVANTAGES :
Limited to refractive index measurements.
May not be suitable for opaque or highly colored samples.
Calibration is necessary for accurate readings.
Sensitive to temperature variations.
Cost can vary depending on the precision required.

3.10 STIRRER
A magnetic stirrer is a laboratory device that employs
a rotating magnetic field generated by a rotating magnet or stationary
electromagnet to cause a stirrer bar immersed within a liquid to spin and
thus quickly stir or mix the solution.

PRINCIPLE :

The magnetic stirrer operates on the principles of

attraction for opposite charges and repulsion for like charges. The
stirring speed is adjustable, and it is frequently used to stir solvents of
various viscosities. A micromotor powers a magnet to create a rotating
magnetic field that rotates the stirring bar inside the vessel, enabling a
thoroughly mixed reaction to take place.
It is equipped with a temperature control system that can heat and
regulate the sample’s temperature in accordance with experiment
requirements, ensuring that the mixed liquid satisfies the experiment’s
requirements while keeping the required temperature.

USES :
It is widely used in chemistry laboratories to perform chemical
experiments and synthesis by mixing two or more components.

It is used to prepare a medium to culture microorganisms in

microbiology laboratories.

It is used to prepare samples and perform analysis in chemistry and

biology experiments.

It is employed to achieve the maximum possible extraction efficiency

from plant material by reducing organic solvent consumption.

PRECAUTIONS :
To prevent mishaps, the instrument housing needs to be correctly
grounded.
To avoid excessive vibration during operation, the medium-speed
operation can run continuously for eight hours, and the high-speed
operation can run continuously for four hours.
To prevent harm to the instrument, keep it dry and clean, forbid
solution from entering it, and turn off the power when not in use.
Turn off the power and keep items in a dry, ventilated area when not
in use for an extended time.
ADVANTAGES :
Facilitates even mixing and stirring of liquids.
Used in chemical, biological, and microbiological experiments.
Adjustable speed and mixing capabilities.
Reduces the risk of cross-contamination.
Improves reaction kinetics.

DISADVANTAGES :
Limited to liquid-phase mixing.
May require specific types of stirring bars.
Not suitable for high-viscosity fluids.
Can be noisy at high speeds.
Electronic components may require maintenance.

3.11 COLONY COUNTER

A colony counter is a device that is frequently used
to count bacterial or other microorganism colonies on a plate that
contains a gelled growth medium
PRINCIPLE :

Petri plate is placed on an electronic pressure pad with light

illumination, and each colony on the plate is marked by tapping the
plate with an auto marker probe pen. A count is registered in the digital
display by the touch’s pressure. This pressure can be altered based on the
situation.
It facilitates avoiding the error of overlooking or counting colonies
twice. The equipment also has a graticule for Wolfheugal, a
segmentation disc, and centering adapters for 50-90mm plates.
Additionally, added features include darkening background for
transparent colonies, glare-free illumination that allows for optimal
peripheral colony viewing, and an integrated averaging tool for multiple
plate counting.

USES :

Bacterial colony counting is used in microbiology labs to assess the

filter or membrane’s capacity for retention.
It is crucial for determining the efficacy of disinfectants, including
for use in testing the safety of food and drugs, as well as medical
examination assessments in medical facilities and the pharmaceutical
industry.
Measure the density of microorganisms in liquid culture by counting
each colony on an agar plate, slide mini gel, or petri dish.

PRECAUTIONS :

Colony Counter will operate under most normal

conditions, but should not be exposed to moisture or extreme variations
in temperature. Turn ON the Instrument by pressing the On/Off
Switch. Place the Petri Plate on the Glass grid. register a count, there will
be a beep and an ink dot will be marked on the Petri Dish.
ADVANTAGES :
Simplifies the counting of microbial colonies on agar plates.
Enhances accuracy and efficiency in microbiology research.
Reduces the risk of human error in counting.
Supports standardized colony counting methods.

DISADVANTAGES :

Limited to counting colonies on petri dishes.

May not work well with complex or overlapping colonies.
Initial cost and space requirements.
Requires regular calibration and cleaning.
Not applicable to non-microbiological applications.

3.12 ANALYTICAL BALANCE

The analytical balance is a precision weighing
instrument used for measuring the mass of substances with a high degree
of accuracy and precision. Its principle is based on the concept of
comparing the gravitational force acting on the measured sample to that
acting on a set of calibrated weights.
PRINCIPLE :

Gravitational Force: The analytical balance measures the force of gravity

acting on the sample placed on its pan.
Comparison: The balance contains a calibrated reference weight, often
called a counterbalance or calibration weight, on one side of the balance
beam.

USES :
Analytical balances are essential in various scientific and industrial
applications
Laboratory Research: Analytical balances are crucial in chemistry,
biology, and pharmaceutical laboratories for accurately weighing
chemicals, reagents, and samples for research and experimentation.
Quality Control: They are used in industries like food,
pharmaceuticals, and manufacturing to ensure the quality and
consistency of products by measuring precise quantities of
ingredients and materials.
Forensics: Forensic laboratories use analytical balances for precise
measurements in analyzing evidence, such as drugs, toxins, and trace
elements

PRECAUTIONS :
Keep the balance clean
Keep the doors closed when making weighing
Do calibration once
Never weigh object when they are hot
ADVANTAGES :
Offers high precision and accuracy in weighing samples.
Essential for chemical analysis and research.
Enables the measurement of small quantities.
Suitable for both solid and liquid samples.
Often equipped with calibration features.

DISADVANTAGES :
Sensitive to air currents and vibrations.
Requires careful handling and calibration.
May be expensive, especially for high precision.

3.13 WATER BATH

Water Bath is a conventional device that is used for
chemical reactions that require a controlled environment at a constant
temperature.
PRINCIPLE :

A sensor in the device transfers water temperature to a reference value

which is then amplified and a control system generates a signal for the
heating system which heats the water to the desired temperature.

USES :
Water baths are primarily used for heating samples under a
controlled temperature.
These are suitable for heating chemicals that might be flammable
under direct ignition

PRECAUTIONS :
Make sure the bath is seemingly electrically safe before its use.
Before turning on/operating controls and plugging into a mains
power outlet, make sure your hands are dry.
Make that the water level is kept at the proper level.
Avoid touching the shaker mechanism or circulation impeller with
your hands, hair, or loose clothing. If possible and appropriate, cover
your device when operating at temperatures exceeding “hand hot”
(>50°C).

ADVANTAGES :
Provides precise temperature control for samples.
Used in microbiology, chemistry, and medical applications.
Facilitates gentle and uniform heating of samples.
Supports various tube and flask sizes.
Helps maintain sample integrity during heating.
DISADVANTAGES :
Limited to temperature-specific applications.
Requires periodic maintenance and cleaning.
Energy consumption can be relatively high.
May not be suitable for high-temperature requirements.
Takes up space in the laboratory.