Proposition Defined

Bases for Propositional Logic (http://www.the-philosopher.co.uk/lawsofthought.htm)

• Law of Identity or “Logical Identity”
• Law of Excluded Middle
• Law of Non-Contradiction

What is a Proposition? (http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09-1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf)

• It is a declarative sentence that is either false or true (NOT both)
p
False (F) or 0
True (T) or 1

Propositional Game (http://www.csee.umbc.edu/~artola/slides/Logic.ppt)

• Elephants are bigger than mice.
• 520 < 111
• y>5
• Today is January 1 and 99 < 5.
• Please do not fall asleep.
• If elephants were red, they could hide in cherry trees.
• x < y if and only if y > x.

Logical Connectives

Compound Proposition (http://www2.lv.psu.edu/ojj/courses/discrete-math/topics/01logic.html)

• It is a new proposition constructed by combining one (1) or more existing propositions

• Negation ( or!)
Venn Diagram:

Truth Table:
p p
False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1
True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0
http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09-
1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf

http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
Connective_6.7.2012.pdf

• Logical Conjunction ()

Truth Table: Venn Diagram:
P q p q
False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0
False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0
True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0
True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09-
http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf
Connective_6.7.2012.pdf
 • Logical Disjunction ()
Truth Table: Venn Diagram:
p q p q
False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0
False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1
True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09- http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf Connective_6.7.2012.pdf

• Implication ( or →)
Truth Table: Venn Diagram:
p q p→q
False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1
False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0
True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09- http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf Connective_6.7.2012.pdf

o Related Implications That Can Be Formed From p→q

(http://www.sfponline.org/uploads/300/Inverse%20Converse%20&%20Contrapositive.doc)
▪ Converse –p→q becomes q→p
▪ Contrapositive – p→q becomes q→p
▪ Inverse – p→q becomes p→q

• Bi-conditional ( or )
Truth Table: Venn Diagram:
p q pq
False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1
False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0
True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0
True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09- http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf Connective_6.7.2012.pdf

• XOR or exclusive OR ()

Truth Table: Venn Diagram:
p q pq
False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0 False (F) or 0
False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1
True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0 True (T) or 1
True (T) or 1 True (T) or 1 False (F) or 0
http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09- http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf Connective_6.7.2012.pdf
 • Practice Exercise
o Express each of the proposition in an English sentence as negation of p, conjunction, disjunction, implication
and bi-conditional (http://math.jhu.edu/~jpaschke/Extra%20Handouts/Working_with_Logic.pdf)
▪ p: It is raining
▪ q: I am indoors

• Precedence of Logical Operators (http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-

Connective_6.7.2012.pdf)
Precedence level Operator
1 Negation ( or!)
2 Logical Conjunction ()
3 Logical Disjunction ()
4 Implication ( or →)
5 Bi-conditional ( or )

• Precedence of Logical Operators (O'Donnell, J., Hall, C. & Page, R., 2007)
o p  q
o  p
o pqr
o pqrs
o pqruv
o pq→pq
o p→q→r→s

Tautology, Contradiction, Contingency, Logical Equivalence

• Tautology – It is any statement that is TRUE regardless of the truth values of the constituent parts
(http://www.uow.edu.au/~bmaloney/wuct121/LogicTeacher.pdf)
Venn Diagram:

http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-Connective_6.7.2012.pdf

• Example (http://people.math.gatech.edu/~ecroot/2406_2012/basic_logic.pdf)
o Show by the use of the truth table (truth matrix) that the statement p  p is a tautology

• Practice Exercise (Waner, S. & Costenoble, S. (1996))

o Show by the use of the truth table (truth matrix) that the statement (pq)  [(p)  ( q)] is a tautology

• Contradiction – It is any statement that is FALSE regardless of the truth values of the constituent parts
(http://www.uow.edu.au/~bmaloney/wuct121/LogicTeacher.pdf)
Venn Diagram:

http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-Connective_6.7.2012.pdf
• Example (http://people.math.gatech.edu/~ecroot/2406_2012/basic_logic.pdf)
o Show by the use of the truth table (truth matrix) that the statement p  p is a contradiction

• Practice Exercise (Waner, S. & Costenoble, S. (1996))

o Show by the use of the truth table (truth matrix) that the statement (pq)  [( p)( q)] is a contradiction

• Contingency – It is any statement that is NEITHER a tautology NOR a contradiction

(http://www.uow.edu.au/~bmaloney/wuct121/LogicTeacher.pdf)

• Example
o Show by the use of the truth table (truth matrix) that the statement p →  p is a contingency (Cabero, J., Lopez, R.,
Salamat, L. & Sta. Maria, A. (2010))

• Logical Equivalence
o These are two (2) different compound propositions that have EXACTLY the SAME/IDENTICAL truth value in
every model (Orenstein, A. & Kotatko, P. (2000).)
Negation/ Logical Logical
Laws Implication/ Conjunction Disjunction
Exportation (AND) Form (OR) Form
Identity pT ≡ p pF ≡ p
Commutative pq ≡ qp pq ≡ qp
p(qr) ≡ p(qr) ≡
Associative
(pq)r (pq)r
p(qr) ≡ p(qr) ≡
Distributive (pq)  (pq) 
(pr) (pr)
Complement/
p  p ≡ F p  p ≡ T
Negation
Idempotency p𝖠p≡p p𝗏p≡p
Zero (0) and one
pF ≡ F pT ≡ T
(1)/Domination
Involution
p ≡ p
/Double Negation
 (p 𝖠 q) ≡  (p 𝗏 q) ≡
De Morgan's
p 𝗏 q p 𝖠 q
Absorption or p 𝖠 (p 𝗏 q) ≡ p 𝗏 (p 𝖠 q) ≡
Redundancy p p
p→q≡
Implication
p𝗏q
Exportation (aka (p 𝖠 q) → r ≡
Currying) p → (q → r)
Table 1 Replacement Rules (http://www.cs.arizona.edu/people/mccann/handouts/equivalences.pdf)
 • Example
o Show by the use of the truth table (truth matrix) that the two (2) compound propositions p ≡  p are logically
equivalent (Cabero, J., Lopez, R., Salamat, L. & Sta. Maria, A. (2010))
o Show by the use of replacement rules that the two (2) compound propositions  (p 𝗏 (p 𝖠 q) ≡  p 𝖠 q are
logically equivalent (http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~bkokluce/Abstract%20Mathematics/Logical%20Equivalence.pdf)

• Practice Exercise (Cabero, J., Lopez, R., Salamat, L. & Sta. Maria, A. (2010))
o Show by the use of replacement rules that the two (2) compound propositions below are logically equivalent
▪ p→q≡q→p
▪ ( p 𝖠 q) 𝖠 (q → p) ≡ F

References:

Cabero, J., Lopez, R., Salamat, L. & Sta. Maria, A. (2010). Discrete Mathematics 1. Quad Alpha Centrum Bldg., 125 Pioneer Street, Mandaluyong
City: National Book Store.
Converse, Inverse, & Contrapositive (n. d.) Retrieved from
http://www.sfponline.org/uploads/300/Inverse%20Converse%20&%20Contrapositive.doc
CSc 245 — Introduction to Discrete Structures (McCann) The Page O’ Logical Equivalences (“POLE”) (2014) Retrieved from
http://www.cs.arizona.edu/people/mccann/handouts/equivalences.pdf
Discrete Mathematics 1-1. Logic (2009) Retrieved from http://cglab.snu.ac.kr/lectures/09-1/discrete_math/dm09_slide1-1.pdf
Orenstein, A. & Kotatko, P. (2000). Knowledge, Language and Logic: Questions for Quine. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Logic (2003) Retrieved from http://www.csee.umbc.edu/~artola/slides/Logic.ppt
Logical Connective (n. d.) Retrieved from http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MA111_Wikipedia_Logical-
Connective_6.7.2012.pdf
Math 114(2/3) Discrete Mathematics 2. Logical Equivalence (2003) Retrieved from
http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~bkokluce/Abstract%20Mathematics/Logical%20Equivalence.pdf
O'Donnell, J., Hall, C. & Page, R. (2007), Discrete Mathematics Using a Computer, Springer, p. 120, ISBN 9781846285981.
Paschke, J. (2015). Working with Logic Retrieved from http://math.jhu.edu/~jpaschke/Extra%20Handouts/Working_with_Logic.pdf
Propositional Equivalences (n. d.) Retrieved from http://people.math.gatech.edu/~ecroot/2406_2012/basic_logic.pdf
Propositional Logic (2014) Retrieved from http://www2.lv.psu.edu/ojj/courses/discrete-math/topics/01logic.html
The Laws of Thought (n. d.) Retrieved from http://www.the-philosopher.co.uk/lawsofthought.htm
Waner, S. & Costenoble, S. (1996), Introduction to Logic (2001) Retrieved from http://www.zweigmedia.com/RealWorld/logic/logic2.html
WUCT Discrete Mathematics Logic (n. d.) Retrieved from http://www.uow.edu.au/~bmaloney/wuct121/LogicTeacher.pdf