African Journal of Aquatic Science

ISSN: 1608-5914 (Print) 1727-9364 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/taas20

Macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water

quality in the Mkondoa River, Tanzania, in an
agricultural area

MJ Shimba & FE Jonah

To cite this article: MJ Shimba & FE Jonah (2016): Macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water
quality in the Mkondoa River, Tanzania, in an agricultural area, African Journal of Aquatic
Science, DOI: 10.2989/16085914.2016.1230536

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2016.1230536

Published online: 07 Nov 2016.

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 African Journal of Aquatic Science 2016: 1–9 Copyright © NISC (Pty) Ltd
Printed in South Africa — All rights reserved AFRICAN JOURNAL OF
AQUATIC SCIENCE
This is the final version of the article that is published ISSN 1608-5914 EISSN 1727-9364
ahead of the print and online issue http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2016.1230536

Macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water quality in the Mkondoa River,

Tanzania, in an agricultural area
MJ Shimba1* and FE Jonah2

1
Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Dodoma, Tanzania
2 Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
* Corresponding author, e-mail: shimbamoses@yahoo.com

The suitability of using macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of stream water quality was tested in the Mkondoa
River in an agricultural area at Kilosa, using the rapid bioassessment protocol. The family biotic index (FBI) showed
marked variation in water quality along the stream from values ranging from 4.1 to 5.0 in the upstream reaches,
indicating good water quality, 5.3 to 5.5 in the mid-reaches and 6.0 to 6.5 in the lower reaches. The water quality
index (WQI) indicated that water quality was fair (77 ± 0.98) in the upstream reach of the Mkondoa, marginal (55 ±
0.86) in the midstream reach and poor (33 ± 0.45) in the downstream reach. There were significant relationships
between biological oxygen demand and dissolved oxygen and the occurrence of specific taxa, mainly Chironomus
and Caenis. Significant changes in macroinvertebrate abundance were mostly related to changes in water quality.
As in other parts of the world, macroinvertebrate communities proved to be good biological indicators of water
quality and they should be used as bioindicators in long-term monitoring of this river.

Keywords: bioassessment, biomonitoring, family biotic index, Kilosa district

Introduction

Aquatic macroinvertebrates are used to assess aquatic
ecosystem condition, because of their great diversity
of form and habits (Hauer and Lamberti 1996). Benthic
invertebrates are useful effect-based indicators for
assessing stream condition and for detecting changes
in biological condition over time to support environ-
mental management decisions (Borisko et al. 2007).
Macroinvertebrates integrate and reflect environmental
conditions at a site and being sedentary response to
changes occurring over time (Borisko et al. 2007).
Biotic indices are tools for assessing quality based on
the different response of organisms to environmental
changes (Borisko et al. 2007). Many biotic indices have
been developed for different regions, such as the Trent
Biotic Index (TBI) (Woodiwis 1964) and the Biological
Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) (Armitage et al. 1983;
Dickens and Graham 2002) for the UK, the Belgian Biotic
Index (BBI) (De Pauw and Vanhooren 1983; Gabriels et al.
2005) for Belgian rivers, the South African Scoring System
(SASS) for southern Africa (Dickens and Graham 2002), the
Zambian Invertebrate Scoring System (ZISS) for Zambia
(Lowe et al. 2013), the Namibian Scoring System (NASS)
for Namibia (Palmer and Taylor 2004), the Okavango
Assessment System (OKAS) used in Okavango Delta,
Botswana (Dallas 2009) and the Tanzanian River Scoring
System (TARISS) for Tanzanian rivers (Kaaya et al. 2015).
Many of these indices have to be adapted when they are
used in different regions from where they were developed.
Macroinvertebrates have been extensively used as bioindi-
cators in Kenya (Masese et al. 2009; Kilonzo et al. 2014)
and are included in its national and technical standards of
water quality monitoring (Raburu et al. 2009). In Tanzania,
however, the use of macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of
stream water quality is still very limited (Elias et al. 2014;
Kaaya et al. 2015) and here water quality is mainly done by
analysing physico-chemical parameters and using the faecal
coliform test, as described in the national environmental
standards compendium by Tanzania Bureau of Standards
(TBS) (TBS 2015). Tanzanian environmental laws, acts,
regulatory processes and bodies do not emphasise the
use of aquatic macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water
quality to evaluate the quality of aquatic ecosystems (Kaaya
et al. 2015). This may be because of the lack of a well-known
and established biomonitoring system and biotic index
within the country (Elias et al. 2014). Nevertheless, a very
few studies have started using the Tanzania River Scoring
System (TARISS) (Elias et al. 2014; Kaaya et al. 2015).
Because of ongoing agricultural practices along the
Mkondoa River, a better understanding of this river’s macroin-
vertebrate diversity could lead to management of this specific
stream. This study therefore investigated the use of macroin-
vertebrates as bioindicators of river water quality and identi-
fied their response to effluents from farms along an area in
Tanzania where agricultural projects are expanding rapidly.
Materials and methods
Study site
The Mkondoa River runs through the Kilosa Estate,
6.8333° S, 36.9833° E, situated in the Kilosa district,

African Journal of Aquatic Science is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Taylor & Francis
2 Shimba and Jonah

Morogoro region (Figure 1). Mixed crops of coconut, Uganda

banana, vegetables and maize cover most of the area. Kenya
The estate employs modern farming techniques using Rwanda

mechanical equipment, synthetic fertilisers, herbicides Burundi

and insecticides to ensure optimal yields. The estate is AFRICA Tanzania

currently testing seeds and farming methods to prove the

Congo, DRC
Tanzania
viability of the project and to select the best methods for MOROGORO
REGION
the estate to ensure optimal production when the farm is
fully operational. These farm units, although supporting the
development of the area, contribute to the pollution of the
environment because of their effluents. The Mkondoa River

wi
Zambia

Mala
drains the length of the Kilosa Estate and hence the impact Mozambique

of various activities in the watershed is expected in the 37° E 37°2′30″ E

area. The most upstream sampling station (SS1), located in
a forested area where human impacts were minimal, was 0 1 2 km

consequently selected as a reference site; the description of

other sampling stations (SS2–SS5) is provided in Table 1.

Sampling design
Triplicate samples of physical water parameters and
Kilosa Town
macroinvertebrate assemblages were collected on a 6°50′ S
monthly basis at each station for four months from February
SS1 SS3
to May 2015, covering part of the dry season (February to
SS2 SS5
March) and part of the wet season (April to May). a R.
do
Mkon
Water quality assessment
SS4
Samples were collected simultaneously from the same
sections that were sampled for macroinvertebrates and
water was analysed with respect to physical properties.
Water quality parameters, including conductivity, pH, biolog-
ical oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved oxygen (DO) and 6°52′30″ S
Sampling point Settlements
temperature were recorded in situ. Temperature (°C), BOD
River Estate
(mg l−1) and DO (mg l−1) were measured using a handheld
Road Forest
salinometer (Model: YSI # 85/10 FT, USA), whereas pH
was measured using a handheld pH/mV meter (Model: SX
711). A Mettler Toledo MC 226 conductivity meter was used Figure 1: Map of the Mkondoa River, Kilosa, showing locations of
to measure conductivity (µS cm−1). sampling sites

Macroinvertebrate sampling
The rapid bioassessment protocol developed by the United
States Environment Protection Agency (Plafkin et al. 1989)
was followed for estimating the family biotic index (FBI)
(Hilsenhoff 1988) by assigning specific tolerance values
for different families of macroinvertebrates in stream water.
This rating system indicates sensitivity to organic pollution,
such as wastewater or agricultural run-off, as opposed to
heavy metals or pesticide impact (Hielsenhoff 1988; Bode
et al. 1991). The FBI is used only in rapid assessments.
A 100 m-long stretch of river was defined as a unit for
sampling macroinvertebrates. Benthic invertebrates
were collected using a standard hand net (0.3 m deep
with 500-µm mesh size) attached to a metal frame (area
0.625 m2) and handle (1.48 m long). The net was used
to collect macroinvertebrates from mud, stones and
macrophytes in water, as well as those swimming in the
water column. Each hand-netting round took one minute.
To avoid bias resulting from spatial variations or patchi-
ness, three random samples were collected from each
of the microhabitats by establishing a transect at each
sampling reach, with five equally spaced points from which
a sampling point was selected using random numbers. This
procedure was replicated three times for each microhabitat,
making nine samples per reach and samples were pooled
to make one composite sample per habitat per station.
Samples were emptied into a white tray where large objects
were removed by forceps and the samples were filtered into
a plankton net.
Mesohabitats, which are distinct areas within a stream
that provide habitat heterogeneity and increase invertebrate
diversity, were identified as either stream banks where
roots were present, vegetation or submerged objects;
substrate areas of glides, riffles and pools; or accumulated
organic material in glides and riffles. Riffles and pools were
sampled separately to account for habitat variations. The
sampled materials were emptied into specimen containers
and preserved in 70% alcohol for laboratory analysis at the
University of Dar es Salaam. Macroinvertebrate samples
were sorted and identified to family level using general
invertebrate textbooks and identification manuals (Gerber
and Gabriel 2002; Day et al. 2003).
The FBI was calculated using a modified Hilsenhoff’s
formula (Hilsenhoff 1988), whereas the water quality index
was calculated according to the Canadian Council of
African Journal of Aquatic Science 2016: 1–9 3

Table 1: Descriptions of sampling stations on the Mkondoa River, Tanzania

Station no. Site description and land use in its immediate catchment area
SS1 Reference site. The most upstream site, located in a forested area; minimal human impacts
SS2 An area between the upstream and midstream reaches. Cattle grazing along the river banks; cattle water drinking
points
SS3 and SS4 Midstream reaches. Riverbanks devoid of forest cover. Areas of mechanised agriculture, intensive farming for beans,
maize and vegetables; application of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides
SS5 Downstream reach. Eroded, devoid of vegetation; additional human impacts include washing, waste-dumping

Table 2: Mean (± SE) physical characteristics and median pH at the five study stations (SS1–SS5) on the Mkondoa River in February–May 2015

Station parameter SS1 SS2 SS3 SS4 SS5

pH 7.28 7.57 7.85 9.00 9.02
Temperature (°C) 26.8 ± 0.22 27.8 ± 2.80 27.8 ± 0.70 30.8 ± 0.42 29.8 ± 0.01
BOD (mg l−1) 2.83 ± 0.50 3.05 ± 0.78 4.332 ± 0.65 5.856 ± 0.75 7.980 ± 0.57
DO (mg l−1) 7.023 ± 0.76 5.762 ± 0.58 3.587 ± 0.89 2.340 ± 0.87 1.284 ± 0.44
Conductivity (µS cm−1) 147.0 ± 0.97 454.0 ± 0.89 590.0 ± 0.78 638.0 ± 1.84 680.0 ± 0.49

Ministries of the Environment water quality index (CCME
WQI) method (CCME 2001).
The macroinvertebrate assemblage composition was
determined for each sampling station and sampling
occasion using number of taxa (S), total number of individ-
uals and abundance of each taxon. The Shannon–Wiener
diversity index (H′), as described by Magurran (1988), was
used to assess diversity as follows:
H′ = Σ[(n ∕ N) × ln(n ∕ N)]
where n = number of individuals of a taxon and N = total
number of individuals in the sample. An associated evenness
J′ = H′/H′max (Pielou 1975) was also calculated, where H′max
is the maximum possible value of H′. As an extra measure
of evenness, the percentage of total numbers accounted
for by the five most abundant taxa at each station, was
also used (Barbour et al. 1999). To assess compositional
differences among sites, the percentage of intolerant taxa,
Ephemeroptera + Plecoptera + Trichoptera (EPT), which
is widely used as an indicator of disturbance to stream
communities (Lenat and Crawford 1994), was also calculated.
Statistical analysis
Physical parameters, except for pH, were expressed as
means ± SE for each sampling station; pH was expressed
as median. All macroinvertebrate abundance data were
log 10(x + 1) transformed to meet the statistical criteria
for normality. One-way analysis of variance was used to
test for differences between stations for each parameter.
Multiple comparisons of means were done post hoc using
Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) (Zar 2001) to distin-
guish the stations and sampling occasions that differed
significantly from one another. A non-parametric Wilcoxon
signed rank statistic test was used to test the null hypoth-
esis of no significant difference in total taxa between the
study sites. Relationships between environmental variables
with diversity indices and macroinvertebrates were
determined by a Pearson rank correlation test. Analysis of
variance (two-way ANOVA) was used to test for significant
differences between seasons in both diversity indices and
environmental variables.
Results
Physical parameters
Conductivity and temperature, showed significant variation
in both space and time (p < 0.05), whereas DO and BOD
showed significant variation only with respect to time
(p < 0.05). The pH values varied significantly (p < 0.05)
temporally, but not spatially (Table 2).
Conductivity increased downstream, with midstream and
downstream reaches registering the highest values. Highly
significant differences (p < 0.001) were observed between
reaches, with the upstream reach differing from the others.
There was a general decline in conductivity over time. The
lowest temperature was recorded at Station SS1 and this
differed significantly (p < 0.05) from the rest of the stations.
The highest temperature was recorded during February
and the lowest in April 2015. The highest pH value was
recorded in May and the lowest in February 2015. The
lowest DO was also recorded during February and this
differed from the rest of the sampling occasions (p < 0.05).
In terms of BOD, Station SS1 gave the lowest value and
this differed from the rest of the stations (SS2–SS5) (p <
0.05). With respect to time, the highest BOD was recorded
on the last sampling occasion (May); this value was signifi­
cantly different from those measured during all other
sampling occasions (p < 0.05).
Macroinvertebrate assemblages
Altogether, 5 460 macroinvertebrate specimens were
collected, comprising 29 taxa belonging to 9 orders and
27 families (see Appendix). There were significant differ-
ences (p < 0.05) among seasons in the diversity indices,
as evidenced by the ANOVA. Diptera was the commonest
order in the study area, occurring at all stations. Other orders
that were sampled at all stations included Ephemeroptera,
Coleoptera, Oligochaeta, Trichoptera, Hemiptera,
Gastropoda and Odonata. There were significant
4 Shimba and Jonah

differences in abundance between the stations and the

Mean abundance per sample
sampling periods (p < 0.001). Station SS1 had the highest 350 Number of genera
mean abundance per sample (320.7 ± 73.9), whereas
Station SS5 had the lowest (115.5 ± 29.4) (Figure 2). 300
A general downstream decline in mean abundance per
250
sample was observed.
With respect to temporal variation in abundance, February 200
and March had lower mean abundances compared to April
and May (Figure 3). The number of genera encountered 150
was lowest on the first sampling occasion (February), then 100
rose during March and April and declined in May (Figure 3).
During the dry period (February and March) low numbers 50
of pollution-sensitive EPT were collected, whereas the
numbers of pollution-tolerant taxa, such as Oligochaeta, SS1 SS2 SS3 SS4 SS5
Gastropoda and Diptera were very high. As the rains started SAMPLING STATION
and increased, a succession was evident: abundances of
EPT, Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Odonata taxa increased, Figure 2: Spatial variation in mean (±SE) abundance and number
whereas the abundances of Oligochaeta, Gastropoda and of macroinvertebrate genera among Mkondoa River sampling
Diptera declined. stations during February to May 2015
The Shannon–Wiener diversity index was highest at
Station SS1, followed by Station SS2, whereas Station SS5
had the lowest value. The evenness index was highest at
Station SS3 and lowest at Station SS5. The abundance 350 Mean abundance
of the five most dominant taxa was highest at Station SS1 Number of genera
300
with 98.6%, whereas it was lowest at Station SS5 with
85.2%. There were significant differences in abundance 250
of EPT spatially (p < 0.05) but not temporally. Of the total
abundance of macroinvertebrate individuals collected 200
at Station SS1, 55.02% belonged to the EPT, whereas a 150
general decline was observed downstream (Table 3).
The FBI showed marked variation in water quality along 100
the stream from values ranging from 3.9 to 5.0 in the
50
upstream reaches, indicating good water quality, 5.3 to 5.8
in the mid-reaches and 6.0 to 6.8 in the lower reaches. The
Wilcoxon signed rank test, used to test the null hypothesis February March April May
Dry Wet
that no statistically significant difference exists in total taxa SEASON
between the sites, revealed that the middle reaches were not
significantly different from both the other reaches (p = 0.067), Figure 3: Temporal variation in mean (±SE) abundance and
whereas the downstream reach was significantly different number of macroinvertebrate genera in the Mkondoa River among
(p ≤ 0.011) from the upstream reach. Based on WQI assess- sampling occasions during February to May 2015
ment, it was found that water quality was fair in the upstream
reach of the Mkondoa, marginal in the midstream reach and
poor in the downstream reach (Table 4). Caenis sp. exhibited a negative relationship with conduct­
The water quality parameters and water quality index of ivity and BOD, whereas Baetis sp. showed a positive
the sampling sites are listed in Tables 2 and 4, respectively. relationship with BOD.

Relationship between physical parameters, macro- Discussion

invertebrate abundance and community attributes
Spearman’s rank correlation was performed to assess the
relation between physical parameters and macroinver-
tebrate community attributes (Table 5). Abundance was
negatively correlated with most of the physical parameters
considered, except for pH. Macroinvertebrate abundance
was lowest during the February dry period. It increased
progressively with the onset of the rainy season, but started
to decline during peak flows in May. During this period the
river was characterised by large quantities of suspended
matter and high sediment loads.
There was significant negative correlation between
conductivity and diversity. Chironomus sp. was negatively
correlated with BOD and positively correlated with DO.
Physical variables
The spatial differences in mean BOD along the river
continuum could be explained by the ongoing human
influence, including mechanised agriculture. The water in
the upstream reaches of the river was clear. Sedimentation
and accumulation of waste further downstream resulted in
higher BOD values, reaching their highest levels at Station
SS5. The water quality decreased with distance downstream,
with the middle reaches exhibiting intermediate values. The
lowest BOD values, obtained at Station SS1, could be attrib-
uted to low sedimentation as a result of minimal human
impacts. An increase in BOD during the rainy season might
have been caused by increased run-off, which transports
African Journal of Aquatic Science 2016: 1–9 5

Table 3: Community attributes of macroinvertebrate communities at the Mkondoa River study stations (SS1–SS5) in February–May 2015

Community attribute SS1 SS2 SS3 SS4 SS5

Number of genera 35 36 37 40 34
Diversity index (H′) (± SE) 2.78 ± 0.2 2.55 ± 0.1 2.44 ± 0.12 2.24 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.25
Evenness index (J′) (± SE) 0.67 ± 0.05 0.66 ± 0.05 0.98 ± 0.45 0.78 ± 0.06 0.41 ± 0.03
% 5 most dominant taxa 98.65 90.78 93.87 92.95 85.2
% EPT 55.02 43.53 35.12 27.24 22.19

Table 4: Family biotic index (FBI) and water quality index (WQI) values, and Wilcoxon signed rank test significance, and their interpretation

FBI WQI
Wilcoxon signed
Stream reach Impact
Mean ± SD Water quality status rank of taxa Mean ± SD Water quality status
Upstream 4.1 ± 0.98 Very good – – 77 ± 0.98 Fair
Midstream 5.5 ± 0.75 Fair p = 0.067 No 55 ± 0.86 Marginal
Downstream 6.5 ± 0.45 Fairly poor p ≤ 0.011 Yes 33 ± 0.45 Poor

Table 5: Spearman’s rank correlation between physical parameters and selected taxa and community structure attributes

Parameter Temperature (°C) pH BOD (mg l−1) DO (mg l−1) Conductivity (µS cm−1)
Diversity index (H′) −0.14 0.28 0.12 0.09 −0.52*
Evenness index (J′) 0.09 0.17 0.25 0.16 0.06
Abundance −0.49* 0.38* −0.59* −0.43* −0.29
Chironomus sp. 0.24 −0.12 −0.21 −0.50* −0.13
Caenis sp. 0.03 −0.05 −0.40* 0.21 −0.42*
Baetis sp. −0.02 −0.05 −0.04 0.02 0.52*
* Significant correlation at p = 0.05

organic matter and sediments from the catchment into the
river (Morris et al. 2003; Masese et al. 2009).
Temperature, being one of the most important ecological
factors, is closely related to latitude, altitude and season.
Water temperature showed both spatial and temporal
variation. The significantly lower temperature recorded at
Station SS1 is a consequence of good cover by riparian
vegetation at that station. Vegetation cover limits solar
radiation reaching the water, thus contributing to minimal
fluctuations of temperature (Masese et al. 2009).
The water chemistry differed temporally with respect
to most parameters. BOD, DO, pH and temperature,
which were negatively correlated with macroinvertebrate
abundance, showed significant variation between the dry and
rainy seasons. These findings can be attributed to seasonal
effects of non-point sources of pollution, which are mobilised
during the rainy season through runoff and leaching,
especially from agricultural areas (Kaaya et al. 2015).
Spatio-temporal variations in macroinvertebrate
assemblages
According to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), human
influences change macroinvertebrate community structure
in watercourses, because species are adapted to certain
environmental conditions. Modifying species distribution
and abundance can change ecological processes in the
ecosystems (Sharma and Rawat 2009). Macroinvertebrate
abundance, for example differed significantly among river
sections, i.e. in the upper, middle and lower reaches.
Increased disturbance can lead to more severe drift events,
thus reducing the local pool of potential colonists (Matthaei
et al. 1997).
The abundance of taxa was observed to vary from station
to station, with a progressive decrease in the abundance of
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera from Station
SS1 to SS5. The use of fertilisers and pesticides increases
the amount of nutrients entering the water and this lead to a
reduction in dissolved oxygen (Mason 1992; Yakub 1998),
causing a decrease in faunal abundance. The correlation
between the macroinvertebrates and the physical parame-
ters also confirmed this assertion. The occurrence of
Chironomus at all the stations sampled is perceived to be
normal (Samson 1982; Emere and Narisu 2007). However,
their abundance at Station SS5 could be linked to their high
tolerance of anoxic conditions. Strong negative correla-
tion values between Chironomus and dissolved oxygen
indicated an affinity for anoxic conditions, probably because
they possess haemoglobin (Tyokumbur et al. 2002). This
property is advantageous to their proliferation and colonisa-
tion of this station, effectively outcompeting other taxa.
Diptera and Ephemeroptera dominated the study area,
accounting for more than 50% of all taxa by numbers.
Such observations have been recorded in similar tropical
rivers in some parts of Tanzania. For instance, Elias et al.
(2014) and Kaaya et al. (2015) found the benthic communi-
ties of Pangani Basin streams to be dominated by Baetis
sp. (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) and Simulium sp. (Diptera:
Simuliidae).
6 Shimba and Jonah
Despite the overall dominance of Baetidae and Simuliidae,
marked changes in mean abundance of various taxa
were observed downstream. The upstream station (SS1)
was dominated by taxa associated with pristine waters
and by pollution-sensitive macroinvertebrates, such
as Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera, which
declined downstream. At the midstream and downstream
stations (SS3–SS5) pollution-sensitive taxa were replaced
by Chironomus sp., Simulium sp., Baetis sp., Elmidae and
Oligochaeta. The high numbers of these taxa can be attrib-
uted to organic pollution as a result of enrichment and
sedimentation caused by agricultural activities and excretion
by livestock in the riparian areas (Buss et al. 2002).
A high diversity of macroinvertebrates was found at
Station SS1 located furthest upstream in a forested area
with minimal human impacts. This station had well-protected
banks with vegetation cover that offered a wider habitat
diversity to aquatic biota. This explains the high abundance
and taxon richness at this station as compared to other
stations downstream. Krull (1970), Elias et al. (2014) and
Kaaya et al. (2015) noted that riparian vegetation communi-
ties with higher plant surface area tended to support large
invertebrate populations. Many macroinvertebrates are
dependent on the litter deposited as vegetation dies
and sinks to the bottom (Nelson et al. 1990). It has been
recorded that streams in forested riparian corridors are
about two and half times wider than streams whose riparian
zones have been deforested and have less benthic surface
area in the form of inorganic (sand, gravel, cobble) and
organic (tree roots, leaf litter, wood, etc.) substrates for
macroinvertebrate colonisation (Kilonzo et al. 2014).
Apart from human impacts, natural stress, such as floods,
may also influence macroinvertebrate assemblage distri-
bution in the tropics. In this study, temporal differences in
taxon richness and abundance were recorded between the
dry and rainy seasons. Low taxon richness was recorded
during the dry period and at the onset of the rains and a
significant reduction in abundance was recorded during
the peak of rainy season. This was consistent with the
findings of Elias et al. (2014) and Kaaya et al. (2015) in
tropical streams in the Pangani Basin, where macroinverte-
brate abundance was highest at the onset of the rains and
declined progressively as the rainfall increased.
However, during the peak of the dry season the biota in
these systems was exposed to a suite of adverse environ-
mental conditions. Dry conditions frequently lead to intoler-
able thermal stress and/or low dissolved oxygen levels for
macroinvertebrates (Griswold et al. 1982; Collier 1995;
Velasco and Millán 1998). This could explain the temporal
and spatial variation in taxon richness, composition and
abundance of macroinvertebrates in the study area.
There was a decrease in taxon richness with distance
downstream. Stations at the upper reaches of the river had
higher numbers of genera, the lower stations having fewer
genera. The high diversity at Station SS1 can be attrib-
uted to good habitat quality and high water quality in the
upper reaches of the Mkondoa River. The riparian forests
at Station SS1 were hypothesised to have a positive effect
on the food quality and quantity for macroinvertebrates
directly through inputs of particulate food (leaf litter, soils,
wood, etc.) and indirectly by affecting the structure and
productivity of the microbial (algae, bacteria) food web
through shading and modifying the levels of dissolved
organic carbon and nutrients (Masese et al. 2009). Canopy
cover at this station helped maintain low water tempera-
tures and provided diverse habitats for a variety of macroin-
vertebrates, leading to increased diversity. However, the
downstream decrease in diversity can be linked to the
agricultural practices in the downstream subcatchment
areas (Elias et al. 2014; Kaaya et al. 2015).
The EPT taxa have been regarded as indicators of good
water quality for a long time (Raburu et al. 2009). Despite
the difficulty of linking ecological parameters, such as
pollution, dissolved oxygen, pH to whole orders of insects in
terrestrial systems, this approach is widely accepted for lotic
freshwater systems. Some families, such as the Caenidae
(Ephemeroptera) or Hydropsychidae (Trichoptera),
are known to be more tolerant to pollution, but the vast
majority need high water-quality standards and therefore
EPT richness and abundance can be used as an overall
indicator of water quality.
This study showed that EPT abundance was higher
in upstream reaches, which had minimal anthropogenic
influence compared to downstream reaches that were
dominated by agricultural practices. This concurs with the
findings of other studies (Raburu 2003; Masese et al. 2009)
in which low relative abundances of EPT were observed
in degraded areas. However, in the current study the
representation of Plecoptera was low compared to that of
Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera. Only one Plecopteran
taxon and a total of 15 individuals were collected in the
whole study area, limiting their usefulness as indicators of
water quality in the current study.
Conclusions
In the Mkondoa River the macroinvertebrate fauna distribu-
tion/assemblage structure was mainly determined by water
pollution caused by anthropogenic practices, in particular
agriculture, which directly affected water quality.
The study demonstrated that macroinvertebrates could be
used as indicators of water quality in rivers that run through
agricultural lands. Their responses to impacts in rivers
differ; the majority of taxa are not tolerant to increasing
contamination and changes in river structure, but some
taxa seem to have adapted to these changes and become
dominant in highly disturbed sites. As expected, EPT taxa
appeared to be associated with good water quality, which
highlights the importance of conserving freshwater habitats.
The use of macroinvertebrates as bioindicators confirms
their importance as a valuable monitoring tool in assessing
freshwater ecosystems, highlighting their easy-to-use
nature when surveying and assessing stream water quality.
Therefore, it is important that the government watershed
management authorities develop and institute bioassess-
ment techniques in an effort to quantify and track the quality
of aquatic habitats. Biomonitoring using macroinvertebrates
is therefore a suitable option that should be considered
to meet the needs of the Kilosa watershed management,
Furthermore, the taxa used in the current study could help
improve the evaluation of water quality in various streams in
agricultural lands in various parts of Tanzania.
African Journal of Aquatic Science 2016: 1–9
Acknowledgements — We thank the Department of Fisheries and
Aquatic Sciences, University of Dar es Salaam, for allowing us to
conduct the water quality assessment test and specimen identi-
fication at their laboratory. We wish to thank Mr Ismail Abdallah,
University of Dar es Salaam technician and the Kunduchi Marine
Station who assisted us in the field and laboratory work. This study
was self-sponsored and the authors declare that there is no conflict
of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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Manuscript received 12 December 2015, revised 10 June 2016, accepted 26 August 2016
Associate Editor: C Thirion
African Journal of Aquatic Science 2016: 1–9 9

Appendix: Macroinvertebrate taxa collected at five sampling stations (SS1–SS5) in the Mkondoa River in February–May 2015; * denotes present

Taxon SS1 SS2 SS3 SS4 SS5

Ephemeroptera
Baetidae
Baetis sp. * * * * *
Caenidae
Caenis sp. * * * * *
Oligoneuridae
Lachlania sp. * – – – –
Ephemeridae
Ephemera sp. – * – – –
Plecoptera
Nemouridae
Nemoura sp. * * – – –
Trichoptera
Phryganeidae
Lepidostoma sp. – * – – –
Hydropsychidae
Hydropsyche sp. * * * * *
Polycentropodidae * * * * *
Odonata
Gomphidae
Gomphus sp. * * * – –
Aeshna sp. – * * * *
Coenagrionidae
Enallagma sp. * * * * *
Corduliidae – – * * *
Libellulidae * – * – *
Hemiptera
Corixidae
Corisella sp. * – * * *
Corixa sp. – – * * –
Veliidae
Microvelia sp. – – – * –
Belostomatidae
Belostoma sp. * * * * *
Naucoridae
Ilyocoris sp. – – – * *
Nepidae
Nepa sp. – – * – –
Diptera
Chironomidae
Ablabesmyia sp. – – * * –
Chironomus sp. * * * * *
Ceratopogonidae
Bezzia sp. – – * * –
Curicoides sp. – * – – –
Simulidae
Simulium sp. * * * * *
Tipulidae
Antocha sp. * * * – –
Coleoptera
Elmidae
Elmis sp. * * * * *
Oulimnius sp. * * * * *
Dytiscidae
Eretes sp. – – – – *
Gyrinidae
Gyrinus sp. – – * – *
Oligochaeta
Lumbricidae
Lumbricus sp. * * * * *
Gastropoda
Limnaeidae
Limnaea sp. – – * * *
Sphaeriidae
Pisidium sp. * * * * *