Conservatism:

Introduction:
 From Latin ‘Conservare’ meaning to retain.
 The desire to contain society and a resistance to/suspicion of change.
 Andrew Heyward views on conservatism:
o As a political ideology, conservatism is defined as the desire to conserve, reflected in a resistance to,
or at least a suspicion of, change.
o Conservatism supports tradition, a belief in human imperfection, and the attempt to uphold the
organic structure of society.
o Edmund Burke advocated not blind resistance to change, but rather a prudent willingness to ‘change
in order to conserve’.
o Authoritarianism- a belief that strong central authority, imposed from above, is either desirable or
necessary, and therefore demands unquestioning obedience.
o Conservatism is not tied down to large key ideas, instead simply attempting to conserve society and
allowing its ideas to change with the times.
o Conservatism developed a divide in the 70s/80s as the ‘new right’ developed, a method of governing
that combines market individualism and social authoritarianism, example of this includes Thatcher’s
government as well as Reagan’s. Traditional conservatism defends established institutions and values.
 Thomas Hobbes:
o Argued that without a strong government life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”, and that
the “terror of some power” was necessary in order for people to pay attention to the idea that they
should treat others as they wish to be treated themselves.
 Overarching points:
o The core of modern conservative ideology derives from Edmund burke and his response to the French
revolution: stressing the organic nature of social and political development, to accept the inevitability
of change but to insist that this should be in accord with a people’s historically derived culture and
institutions.
o Micheal Oakeshott stated “to be conservative… is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the
tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to
the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to the perfect. Present laughter to
utopian bliss”.
o Margaret Thatcher brought about a shift in conservative ideology and with it, electoral success.
Thatcher reacted against traditional ‘one nation’ conservatism, and its support of the post war
consensus in social and economic policy, she drew on the free market based ideologies of Friedman
and Hayek to counter socialism.

The Origins of Conservatism:

 Conservatism mainly emerged as a reaction to the enlightenment and the changes it brought with it to the
political landscape.
 Soon it became difficult for politicians and philosophers to argue against the enlightenment without appearing
regressive and intolerant.
 By 1792 however, it was clear that the revolutionary change, and ruthless imposition of "reason” and other
Enlightenment ideals could have shocking and horrific consequences.
 After the French revolution and the beheading of Louis XVI, what became known as the “Terror” took place,
thousands of citizens were persecuted and executed in the name of progress, eventually genocidal violence
became the means of securing an enlightened revolutionary regime.
 Events in France made it possible to assail liberal-Enlightenment principles without seeming reactionary.
 Politicians began to criticise “progress” without denying the spirit of the Enlightenment, and to accept reform
while rejecting revolution.
 The savagery of the French revolution paved the way for conservatism, a new sort of political ideology, one
that would respect the case for change while warning of its dangers- this was epitomised by Edmund Burke.

Pragmatism:
  Pragmatism- a flexible approach to society with decisions made on the basis of what works.
 At its core pragmatism entails a complete rejection of ideology.
 The guiding pragmatic principle is “if it isn’t broke…why fix it?”
 It considers what is in the best interests of the public, what is acceptable to the public and what will maintain
social stability and cohesion.
 Pragmatic policy takes into account shifting circumstances and recognises occasions when it is necessary to
“change to conserve”.
 Traditional and one-nation conservatism are the two stands of conservatism linked to pragmatism.
 One-nation has recently adopted the pragmatic ‘middle-way’ approach to the economy.
 Pragmatism is usually associated with Edmund Burke and Michael Oakeshott.
 Pragmatists:
o A pragmatist looks to solve problems.
o They seek a workable consensus and are guided buy the notion that “what counts is what works”.
o They do not loot to theories or fixed ideas but to the practicalities.
o Therefore, politics is based on circumstances and events rather than ideological objectives.
 Issues with pragmatism:
o Has a lack of political principle and encourages politicians to follow rather than lead public opinion.
o The contend that humans lack the intellectual ability and powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the
realities of the world.
o Conservatists tend to dismiss abstract ideas, theories and ideologies that claim to ‘explain’ or
‘improve’ human life and development such as ‘human rights’ or ‘equality’ as they can promote a
radical ordering of society.
o In practice, political behaviour or action cannot be wholly separated from ideological or theoretical
considerations.
 Has the Conservative Party acted pragmatically through history:
o Yes:
 Thatcherism:
 Non-pragmatic stance that firmly believes in the rolling back of the frontiers of the
state.
 Characterised by the privatisation, deregulation, marketisation of the welfare state, a
flexible labour market, lower taxation and the creation of a property-owning
democracy.
 Thatcherites use language with more ideological zeal than those of the one-nation
school of thought.
o No:
 John Major- Sought to create a nation “at ease with itself”.
 William Hague- Campaigned in favour of “common-sense conservatism”.
 David Cameron- His non-ideological character, and innate pragmatism allowed him to work
effectively in coalition with the liberal democrats.
 Theresa May:
 Gave lukewarm support to remain for practical reasons, hedging her bets.
 Said she would seek a “pragmatic solution” to a parliamentary impasse over the terms
on which Britain leaves the EU.
 Quoted saying politicians should be “pragmatic”.
 Declared herself suspicious of “-isms”.
 Said she would govern as a “one nation” conservative.
 Boris Johnson:
 Often changed positions on important issues.
 He also made statements both supporting and opposing the EU during his career.

Michael Oakeshott:
  “During our lives we all sail a boundless sea, with no appointed destination… [the job of government is]
keeping the ship afloat at all costs… using experience to negotiate every storm, stoicism to accept necessary
changes in direction… and not fixating on a port that may not exist”.
 Politics should be a “conversation not an argument.”
 “to be a Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried”

Conservatism is the Politics of Pragmatism Conservatism is not the Politics of Pragmatism

Socialists see conservatism as a ruling-class ideology,
changing policies and beliefs in order to preserve the privilege
of the elite.
The ‘father of conservatism’, Edmund Burke, attacked the
French Revolution as it espoused ideals that were based on a
abstract philosophy. It therefore ignored human imperfection.
Oakeshott described conservatism as more of a psychology
than an ideology. It could then be said that conservatives
would reject pragmatic change if it conflicts with their
emotions or instincts as they prefer the familiar.
Conservatism is not philosophically neutral, but makes some
assertions, such as the claim that slow change is preferable to
radical change. They also claim that tradition and experience
are superior to vision and principle.
Traditional conservatives have advocated an empirical, not a
normative, approach to politics. This should be based on
‘what is’, not ‘what should be’.
Conservatism does not reject revolutionary change on purely
pragmatic grounds. It does so from an ideological position,
espousing hierarchy, inequality and private property.

Traditional conservatism prides itself on flexibility. This has New Right conservatism draws upon the
helped conservatism to endure through several centuries of neo-liberal/libertarian doctrines of philosophers like Hayek
dramatic change. and Nozick. New Right politicians, such as Margaret
Thatcher, were self-proclaimed ‘conviction politicians’.
Oakeshott argued that conservatism is a short-term approach
to politics. Unlike liberalism and socialism, it has no long-
term objectives regarding society and the economy.

Conservative pragmatism is shown by the shown by the

different policies adopted by various conservatives at different
times, e.g. Peel and Macmillan.

Human Imperfection:
 Negative view
 Humans lack intellectual ability and powers of reasoning.
 Humans are selfish and flawed.
 Largely rooted in the catholic idea of original sin.
 Humans are driven by baser instincts.
 We seek protection for ourselves, our homes and our families so are naturally suspicious of outsiders.
 We are drawn towards competition over the acquisition of money, status and property.
 They believe that ideologies which don’t adopt a fixed view of human nature are inherently wrong.
 We cannot predict the future and should simply recognise the limits of our understanding.
 Ideologies that promise a utopian system must be open to criticism in order to expose such thinking as a
doomed exercise in self-deception.
 Criminals are to blame rather than seeing society as the responsible party.
 Humans have three aspects of imperfection:
o Moral:
 Naturally selfish and greedy.
 Antisocial or criminal behaviour is due to basic human nature.
 Questionable morals cannot be attributed to economic or social disadvantage.
o Psychological:
 People crave safety, familiarity and the security of knowing their designated place in society.
 Order provides humans with much needed security, predictability and stability.
 Liberty raises the unsettling prospect of choice, change and uncertainty.
o Intellectually:
 Humans do not possess the mental faculties to make sense of a complex modern world.
  They reject theories or ideologies that claim to explain or predict the development of human
society.
 Humans need to draw on tradition, history, and practical experience to understand their place
in the world.
 Though they are rational enough to recognise that a state of nature is not sustainable and
therefore agree to a social contract.
 A strong authoritarian state is therefore necessary.
 A tough stance on law and order is required, to deter criminal behaviour.
 Strong institutions are required to impose values on us e.g., education, nuclear family, church, police.
 As human nature cannot be transformed, foreign policy has to be based on national security rather than liberal
notions of international co-operation and harmony.
 Human nature is competitive, so any successful political system will recognise that self-interest is a more
powerful motivator than altruism.

Thomas Hobbes
 Wrote Leviathan (meaning king)
 Humans desire power and material gratification and are distrustful of others – this is humans “state of nature”-
a violent scary place where humans are in never ending conflict because of their selfish nature.
 The state of nature would be “a perpetual and restless desire for power and power that ceaseth in death”.
 Life in a state of nature would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”.

Edmund Burke:
 Rejected the idea that human nature is guided by reason.
 Dismissed the notion that mankind could plan the perfect society.
 Drew his ideas pf human nature from the original sin.
 Highlighted the “chasm between our desire and our achievement”.
 Stressed custom, habit and experience as signposts for how we should behave.
 Thought that human beings were capable of kindness, altruism and wisdom as long as their actions were
rooted in history, tradition and the teachings of the Christian church.
 Believed that human nature is naturally communal with individuals gaining comfort from the small
communities around them.

Michael Oakeshott:
 Believed that life without law would be “noisy, foolish and flawed”, not “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and
short”.
 Thought human nature was “fragile and fallible”, yet it was also “benign and benevolent”, when framed by
routine, familiarity and religious principles.
 Humans are “fallible but not terrible” and “imperfect but not immoral”.
 Believed humans were incapable of creating a “perfect” society but were still able to secure “both pleasure
and improvement through the humdrum business of everyday life.”.
 Argued that through experience, trail and error rather than abstract philosophy that wisdom is achieved.
 Believed that other ideologies’ views on how humans and society should be produced impatience, intolerance
and frustration, that the conservative view led to a greater appreciation of the pleasures that already exist.

Robert Nozick:
 Highlighted human nature’s yearning for individual freedom and its subsequent capacity for enterprise and
innovation.
 Thought humans were “freedom loving pack animals”, who need the periodic restraint of formal authority and
deeply rooted communities.

Tradition:
 Values, practices or institutions that have endured through time and in particular been passed down from one
generation to the next.
  Tradition is important to conservatives because:
o Humans are drawn to what is familiar and constant.
o They like stability and continuity which tradition affords, this hints at an initial reluctance to change.
o Tradition also has the power to unite families, communities and nations.
o Conservatives believe in the importance of learning from previous generations, traditions make us feel
safe and fit in.
o This gives us shared culture and history and so creates social cohesion.

 Tradition recognises and emphasises the accumulated wisdom of past societies and a connection across the
generations.
 Conservatives believe strongly in the virtues of tradition and hold in high esteem the accumulated wisdom of
the past.
 Institutions that bring together the wisdom of previous generations tend to provide a degree of reassurance at
the pace of social change.
 Reference to traditional practices ensures that change occurs on an evolutionary basis rather than hot-headed
revolutionary fervour.
 The conservative perspective upon tradition is closely linked to paternalism i.e., those who have traditionally
exercised rule know what is in the best interests of the people.
 In short, rule by a benevolent social elite was in the best interests of the country.
 Edmund Burke is a key theorist for traditional thought.
 Edmund Burke:
o “Society is but a contract between the dead, thee living and those yet to be born”.
o “It is with infinite caution that any man ought to venture upon pulling down edifice which has
answered in any tolerable degree for ages the common purpose of society, or on building it up again
without having the model and patterns of approved utility before his eyes”.
 Micheal Oakeshott:
o “Just as a plant’s new leaves are connected to, dependent on and explained by the plant’s roots and
branches, so a society’s present direction stems from its past development”.

Organic Society:
 Hierarchy- the conservative belief that society is naturally organized in fixed unequal tiers, where one’s social
position or status is not based on individual ability.
 Authority- the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions on behalf of other
people or society as a whole; authority comes naturally from above and rests on an accepted obligation from
below to obey.
 Conservative perspective upon society stems from their support of evolutionary change - they view society as
an organism that emerges and evolves gradually over time in order to meet the needs of its members.
 For instance, society must develop institutions and mechanisms that protect us from harm (such as the armed
forces).
 A cohesive society also requires a degree of hierarchy, and a sense of deference towards authority figures.
 A successful society is one characterised by a strong emotional attachment to our fellow people.
 Conservatives also believe that society is in a constant process of evolution.
 As a consequence, adopting a revolutionary stance is both foolish and contrary to the lessons of the past.
 Conservatives regard humans as dependent and security- seeking, it follows that people cannot exist
separately from society as a whole or from social groups, such as family or the local community.
 An anomie is a condition of instability affecting individuals and societies, produced by a breakdown in social
standards and values or by a lack of purpose or ideals.
 According to conservatives, humans must accept the duties, responsibilities and bonds that go with belonging
to society or social groups, such as being a caring parent, a considerate neighbour, or a respectful son or
daughter, for a conservative this represents true freedom – the willing acceptance of the value of social
obligations and ties.
 Atomisation- the idea that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals, it can also
describe increasing social breakdown and isolation.
 Organicism- the idea of an organic society or state, the view that society is a living organism, with all its parts
working together in harmony to ensure that the body remains healthy:
 o The internal elements of an organic state or society cannot be randomly configured, an organic society
is maintained by a delicate set of relationships between these elements, if this balance is disturbed the
society will be undermined and possibly destroyed.
o An organic society is based on natural needs and instincts such as affection, security and concern
rather than an ideological blueprint devised by political theorists, such a view of society where its
components have been moulded by natural forces beyond human control suggests that its members
should sustain this careful balance of interacting elements.
 Inequality is important to conservatives because they see individuals as varying in talents, intellect, skills and
work rate, they also believe inequality is important because different classes and groups have to perform
specific roles such as leadership and management of politics or commercial enterprises whilst others must
perform manual labour or raise children at home. Consequently, society produces natural inequalities.
 For conservatives, the hierarchical structure of organic society is reinforced by authority. Conservatism
contends that authority develops naturally or organically in much the same way as society. This form of
authority operates in a top-down manner, shapes relations between the different social groups and permeates
all social institutions. Authority therefore resides with political leaders, employers, managers, teachers,
parents and so on.
 Conservatives argue that authority performs a vital and positive function by providing humans with security,
direction and support. Authority also promotes social cohesion by giving people a clear sense of how they 'fit
in' and what they are expected to do. The leadership exercised by those in authority not only offers discipline,
but also an example to be admired, respected and accepted. Most conservatives assert that the actions of
people holding such authority are limited by the natural responsibilities that accompany their privileged
position. Employers, for example, have authority over their workers but this does not give them the right to
abuse employees.
 Edmund Burke:
o ‘Little platoons’ – society is a collection of localised communities, which provide individuals with
security etc.
o Empiricism and tradition – Society should be based on ‘what works’ rather than ‘theory’. Change
should proceed based on what does work.
o Paternalism / ‘noblesse oblige’ – those at the top have a duty and obligation to rule in the interests of
all.
o “Society is indeed a contract … not only between those who are living, but between those who are
living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born.”
o “A state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation”.

Localism:
 Conservatives acknowledge society, conservatives see it as a collection of localised communities – what burke
referred to as platoons – these communities provide individuals with security, status and inspiration while
acting as a brake upon selfish individualism.

Empiricism:
 Because of its organic nature, conservative look upon society in empirical terms, meaning society’s issues are
dealt with in a practical evidential fashion, with no clear view on how society might evolve in the years and
decades ahead. Oakeshott observed that the conservative society is one that merely aims to stay afloat in
uncertain waters rather than sail steadily ahead towards some specific destination that may later prove
illusionary.

Judeo-Christian Morality:
 Conservatism has a strong attachment to religion, particularly Old Testament Christianity, with its belief in
original sin. As a result, the conservative society has an important role for the ethical guidance of Christianity
with emphasis on marriage, self-contained families and individuals being held accountable for their own
actions.
Property:
 Property is seen as something inherited from one generation to another, thus providing a degree of stability in
a shaking imperfect world. It is seen as a tangible expression of Burke’s belief “Society is indeed a contract …
not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who
are to be born.”

Paternalism:
 Paternalism- means to act in a fatherly fashion, it refers to power or authority being exercised over others with
the intentions of conferring benefits or preventing harm.
 An approach to running the country in which members of the elite seek to govern in the best interests of the
people.
 Associated with One-nation conservatism.
 The relationship of those who govern to the governed is compared to that of father and children. Many
conservatives would view this as being positive, given that paternalistic rulers normally have the best interests
of the people at heart, just as parents care for their children.
 The role of the ruling elite is to provide for the needs of the governed, a power derived from their authority
and superiority. In such situations the rulers believe that they understand what is best for the people to a
greater extent than the people do themselves.
 For traditional conservatives, the state has a natural ruling class, which will often be hereditary and
aristocratic.
 Burke and others argued that this group was born and trained to rule the state due to their wisdom and
experience and were therefore natural rulers.
 Noblesse oblige- a duty to protect and provide guidance to those lower down in society.
 Hard paternalism- when decisions are more authoritarian, the state acts not based on consent, without trying to
guide and build consensus for change e.g., laws requiring seatbelts and banning certain drugs.
 Soft paternalism- when the state has a less top-down solution and tries to build consensus, puts more emphasis
on an individual’s awareness and consent.
 Hobbes- the idea of paternalism is inherent within Hobbes’ work Leviathan.
 Burke- believed this group was born and trained to rule the state due to their wisdom and experience and were
therefore natural rulers.
 Oakeshott- distrustful of the rationalism that was inherent within paternalism found in post-war conservatism,
as such state management ignores the limits of human reason and can lead to unintended consequences despite
the best intention.
 Rand- argued that altruism (via taxation) should not be a duty dictated by the state but rather a rational action
of an individual pursuing his or her values, individuals should be left to choose whether they wish to donate
money to charities, and paternalism should be an individual’s choice not a state obligation.
 Nozick- argued that society should have minimal state interference in the lives of individuals, he viewed
paternalistic welfare spending funded by taxation as an example of the state unfairly encroaching on
individual freedom.
 Criticisms of paternalism:
o Could restrict liberty.
o Infantilisation of society.
o John Stuart Mill opposes state paternalism on the grounds that individuals know their own good,
better than the state does, and that paternalism disrupts the development of an independent character.
 Paternalism in recent history:
o During the post-war consensus (1945-79), paternalism matched the cross-party Keynesian approach to
economic management (i.e. that the government should intervene in the economy to ensure growth
and employment).
o The economic policies adopted by both the Labour and Conservative Party were so similar that the
term Butskellism was used (Butler was a prominent one-nation Tory whereas Gaitskell was a social
democrat).
o However, the election of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 marked an abrupt end to the
paternalist approach. Thatcher was determined to overhaul the view that the ruling class knew
best. Paternalism was inconsistent with her deliberately created persona as a conviction politician.
o However, paternalism remains a key element of the Conservative Party. Under recent leaders,
the Tories have sought to present themselves as a party that looks after everyone.