Amelia Yuliana Binti Abd Wahab

Department of Political Science

Modern
AbdulHamid AbuSulayman
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed
Knowledge and Human Sciences
(AHAS KIRKHS)`
Political
Ideology
The term "ideology" combines two Greek roots, eidos for "word", and logos for "knowledge".
Ideology means "words of knowledge". To Antoine Louis Claudee Destutt de Tracy, ideology
was a study of process of forming ideas. He wanted to apply the knowledge gained from this
process to improve human life. According to L.T. Sargent, an ideology is a value system or
belief system accepted as fact or truth by some groups.
Ideologies are comprehensive

Ideologies are pervasive

Characteristics
of Ideology
Ideologies are extensive

Ideologies are intensive

 Values
Value is defined as a set of mental preferences. Every ideology

Intellectual identifies some values that are more important than others, and the
highest value provides the criteria by which all other ideas , beliefs,
and actions should be judged.

Components Vision of the Ideal Polity

Every ideology, by definition provides a vision for the future. It

of an provides a picture of what a polity would be like if it were organised

and managed in th best possible manner.

Conception of the Human Nature

ideology Every ideology contains beliefs about what makes people, societies,
and governments behave as they do.

Political Tactics
Every ideology has a strategy, a comprehensive basic plan, to
change the existing polity into the ideal polity.

Impersonalities
Every ideology prescribes or advocates using certain modes of
political action to carry out its basic strategy
 • Ideology addresses basic human psychological needs
such as safety, freedom, and community. Our social

Functions of ideology itself satisfies many basic human needs by

telling us how to meet them.

Ideology • An ideology provides its believers with a sense of

understanding history and societies, and with clues
about what kinds of things thy should pay attention
to or ignore

• Ideology is essential. It is a yardstick, a reference

point. Without a perspective with which to grasp the
world, we cannot operate within it.

• Ideology is powerful. Ideologies have provided the

inspiration to bring some governments into powr and
throw others out of power.
The name liberalism came from the Latin "liber" meaning free. Society should be
as free as possible from government interference. Although there were many
differences among classical liberals, the central tenets of classical liberalism are as
follows:
Classical
Individual Freedom Liberalism
Liberalism stands for the organisation of a society which allows for and
promotes individual freedom and development.

Rationality
Liberals believe in the notion that individuals are pre-eminently rational.
Individuals are considered to be one of the highest value and their value is
seen as being displayed in their rational capacities to order and shape their
own lives.

Progress
Liberalism is also distinguished by its concern to promote progress.
The liberals argue that by expanding knowledge and perfecting
reason, and by improving economic condition.
The name liberalism came from the Latin "liber" meaning free. Society should be
as free as possible from government interference. Although there were many
differences among classical liberals, the central tenets of classical liberalism are as
follows:
Classical
Individual Freedom Liberalism
Liberalism stands for the organisation of a society which allows for and
promotes individual freedom and development.

Rationality
Liberals believe in the notion that individuals are pre-eminently rational.
Individuals are considered to be one of the highest value and their value is
seen as being displayed in their rational capacities to order and shape their
own lives.

Progress
Liberalism is also distinguished by its concern to promote progress.
The liberals argue that by expanding knowledge and perfecting
reason, and by improving economic condition.
 • Modern liberalism accepts the principal tenets of classical
liberalism. They believe in individualism, rationality, rule of law,
constitutional government, and popular sovereignty.
• They agreed that government intervention in people's moral,
religious, and intellectual lives should be kept to an absolute
minimum.
• By the late 19th century, it had become apparent that the free
market was not self-regulating. Competition was not perfect.
• The system seems to produce a large underclass of the terribly

Modern poor.
• Modern liberals called classical liberalism "negative liberalism"
because it was a philosophy that sought to liberate individual

Liberalism
human beings from the oppression of absolute monarchs, feudal
economies, and official religions.
• Modern liberals however, were emphasising "positive liberalism".
• They declared that it is meaningless to guarantee people's
freedom of speech if people can't feed their families or get a
decend education.
• Instead of expelling the government from marketplace, modern
liberals advocated bringing the government back in to protect
people from sometimes-unfair economic system.
Classical conservatism meant conserving society's traditional values and
institutions against radical changes. It is better to look at classical
conservatism as a set of general principles which are as follows:

Irrational Impulses Classical

Conservatives believed that people are only partly rational; they also have
wildly irrational passions. Conservatism
Order and Stability
Conservatives prefer order and stability in order to promote liberty or
civilisation.

Gradual Change
Most conservatives believe that things should change, but only gradually
giving people time to adjust.

Common Sense and Pragmatism

Conservatives prefer to rely on experience. They are people of practical
action rather

Necessity of Government
Conservatives believe that government is essential to maintain law and
order in the country. They believed that only a government of talented and
propertied elite could preserve the sacred rights of humans.
 • Modern conservatism is a modern attitude or a state of mind.
• They follow the ideas of Milton Friedman, the Nobel Prize-winning
economist, and Frederich von Hayek.
• They argue that the free market is still the best route, that the

Modern original doctrine of Adam Smith is right, and the government should
regulate private business minimally or not at all.
• Entrepreneurs should be allowed freedom of enterprise to improve

Conservatism businesses and create jobs and prosperity for others.

• On social and cultural issues, modern conservatism borrows from
Edmund Burke a concern for tradition, especially in religion.
• Pat Robertson believe that government's highest obligation is to
make sure that Americans are guided by traditional American values
and institutions.
• They have been opposed to abortion, pornography, and many also
oppose affirmative rights for groups, such as homosexuals.
• Modern conservatism is a blend of the economic ideas of Adam
Smith and the traditionalist ideas of Edmund Burke.
• In short, conservatism is an ideology which considers human beings
to be imperfect and hence, lays down limits to political activity.
Marxism is based upon certain ideas which are as follows:
• Historical Materialism
Marx believed that the way in which a society uses its
resources and produces its goods, determines its political
and social structures.
• Surplus Value
Workers produce things with their labour, but get paid
only a fraction of the value of what they produce. The
capitalists, who own the means of production, take the
rest.
• The Class Struggle
According to Marx, it is the conflict between the haves
and the have nots that moves history forward.
• Revolution
The excessive exploitation of the proletariat, coupled with
the development of the capitalist society, would make a
social revolution inevitable.
• The Classless Society
The revolution is followed by a short transition stage
between the destruction of capitalism and the
establishment of the new order. This stage is called
dictatorship meant to eliminate the last vestiges of
capitalism and to stabilise the result of the revolution.
Once this mopping up operation is accomplished, there
will emerge a just, productive society, in which there will
be no class distinctions.
Marxism or
Scientific
Socialism
Edward Bernstein was the founder of the revisionist school of socialist theory. In
1899, he produced Evolutionary Socialism, which challenged some of the central
Marxist tenets of the German Social Democratic Party. What are the salient
characteristics of revisionism?

• Values
Social democrats believed that Marx had given too much importance in bringing
about socialist revolution. They argued that economics is undoubtedly an
important motivator, but there are other factors that play a role as a political
stimulant.

• Advancing Capitalism
Social democrats argue that contrary to Marx's prediction, capitalism and capitalist
class were increasing.

Social
Democracy
• Evolutionary Socialism
Social democrats argue that violent revolutionary socialism is inappropriate as a
way of removing the evils of capitalism.

• Pragmatism
• Social democrats believed their cause would be better served by abandoning
dogmatic theories and supporting pragmatic political policies to achieve
socialism.
• They advocated working through existing European political systems by active
political participation and by winning elections.
• The German Social Democrats (SPD) and other social democratic parties
gradually dropped Marxism altogether from their documents.
• They moderated their positions, worked together with other parties, and won
many more seats in election.

Social
Democracy
 Marxism-Leninism is one of the three variants of Marxism. Marxism-

Communism or Leninism was based on four principal propositions:

• Revolution in a backward country. Lenin argued that proletarian

Marxism- revolution can take place in a backward country. It would have

taken place in advanced industrialised lands as predicted by Karl
Marx. The situation has changed where capitalism has become

Leninism imperialistic, selling its product in overseas markets, in colonies, and

making enormous profits. Imperialism was essential to capitalism.
Those countries that could not maintain colonies, as in Spain and
Russia were ripe to revolution.
• Communist Party. To promote the cause of revolution, it was
essential to create an organised communist party composed of
dedicated revolutionaries that possess the revolutionary
consciousness. Without such a party, the workers would not
develop a proper revolutionary consciousness and it would be
impossible to achieve communism. Even after czarist government
was destroyed, Lenin continued to maintain a similar view of the
Communist Party.
 3. Dictatorship of the Proletariat. In order to move from capitalism to
communism, it was necessary to pass through a phase called
dictatorship of the proletariat, that is, to turn over power entirely and
exclusively to the working class.

Communism or 4. Transition to Communism. Lenin argued that to make the transition

from the stage of socialism to the stage of communism, it was
necessary to construct socialism, which would not be achieved unless

Marxism- capitalism had run its course. To Lenin, it is possible to construct

socialism without going through the bourgeois state of economic and

Leninism political development.

Islam as an
Ideology

There is disagreement among scholars on the question of whether

Islam is an ideology. They point out that ideologies are man-made,
whereas Islam is divine. Islam is the second largest religion in the world.
Some of the major characteristics of Islam as an ideology are as
follows:
Islam as an
Ideology
• Simplicity, Rationalism and Practicality. Islam is a religion without any mythology. Its
teachings are simple and intelligible. It is free from superstitions and irrational beliefs. There is no
hierarchy of priest, and there are no rituals and complicated rites. Islam is a practical religion
because in it, faith is not a mere profession of beliefs; it is very mainstream of life.
• Unity of Matter and Spirit. Islam stands not for life-denial but for life fulfilment. Islam does not
believe in ascetism. Islam asks the believers to help others, even when one is economically hard-
pressed, to pray for the peace of all mankind, and to administer justice to one's own self. Islam
aims at establishing an equilibrium between two aspects of life the material and the spiritual.
• A Complete Way of Life. Islam provides guidance for all walks of life-individual and social,
material and moral, economic and political, legal and cultural, national and international.
Islam as an
Ideology
4. Balance between the Individual and Society. Islam believes in the individual personality of man
and holds everyone personally accountable to God. Islam neither neglects the individual nor
society-it establishes a harmony and a balance between the two and assigns to each its proper due.
5. Universality and Humanism. In Islam, all men are equal irrespective of colour, language, race, or
nationality. Islam addresses itself to the conscience of humanity and banishes all false barriers of
race, status, and wealth.
6. The Economic System of Islam. Islam does not allow classes and forbids that wealth to circulate
among a limited group of the rich. The Qur'an enjoins the believers to ensure that the wealth does
not become a commodity to circulate among the rich. Islam established zakat and thus legalised
state interference and set up the first institution of social security.
 • The term "Fascism" comes from the Latin word fasces which means
bundle.
• Fascist ideas are borrowed from various sources including social
Darwinists who believed in the principle of struggle for existence

Fascism and survival of the fittest.

• The salient features of Fascism are as follows:
⚬ Totalitarianism. The essential feature of fascism is a belief in the
absolute and totalitarian state. It plays a role in every aspect of
society.
⚬ Nationalism. According to the fascists, the nation had a
personality, a will, and an end of its own apart from those of the
individuals. The nation was the supreme arbiter of the people
whose duty was to serve the nation.
⚬ Antiliberalism. Fascism is antiliberal. It rejected the notion of
democracy and constitutional government.
⚬ Militarism and Violence. Fascist glorify war and violence as a
means of achieving political end at both domestic and
international levels.
⚬ Leadership. The basic slogan of fascism was "one party, one
leader". Fascism gave utmost regard to leaders who were
worshipped as heroes or supermen. The leader is depicted as a
genius who is capable of performing miraculous feats of
leadership and heroism.
Nationalism,
Ethnonationalism,
and Internationalism
Carlton Hayes defines nationalism as "modern emotional fusion of two phenomena: patriotism
and nationality. According to Shafer, "it is a varying combination of beliefs and conditions
partly founded on myth and partly on reality. To Hans Kohn, " it is a state of mind, an act of
consciousness, the individual 's act pf consciousness, the individual's identification of himself
with the 'we-group' in which the loyalty of the individual is felt to be due the nation state".

Nation implies , then, a collection of people who "belong together" because of common traits
that they were born with or acquired from family and culture while growing up or simply
because of a "living and corporate will."
 • As an ideology, nationalism emerged from the mixture of ideas and
events from in Europe from 1789 until 1815.

Origins and • This period began with the French Revolution, and encompassed
both Napoleon's imperial conquest and his final defeat by the anti-
French European powers.

Effects of • Ideologically, the revolutionary regime repudiated all traditional

claims to political authority, such as divine right, inheritance, and
conquest. Instead, they believe that the principle of sovereignty

Nationalism resides essentially in the nation.

• This ideology frightened the monarch of Europe, led to initially by
the Austrian Hapsburg, and threatened the revolutionary regime.
• The French armed forces succeeded not only in defending their
country, but in conquering large areas of Europe, spreading the
doctrines of popular sovereignty and liberation from traditional
religious and political authorities.
• French stirred up and intensified national feelings in other European
countries, and traditional rulers exploited it to mobilise their
populations Napoleon's forces.
• Giuseppe Mazzini claimed that human population is too enormous,
and as such individuals can relate directly to others only through the
nations into which God has divided mankind.
• Mazzini urged peoples of Europe to become aware of their unity
and destiny, throw off alien monarchies, create their own free
governments, and work in harmony with other people to realise
God's purpose of leading humanity to a new age of happiness.
• Mazzini called upon Italians to reject all forms of individualism, to
submerge themselves, even to the point of self sacrifice.
 • Nationalism has served as an ideology connected to a wide variety
of political and economic interests. It has been linked with
ideologies and movements of imperialism, racism, fascism, Nazism,
socialism, and communism.
• Nationalism used by ambitious leaders who wanted to capture
power or those who have newly risen to power.
Uses and Abuses of • Nationalism, as a support for new governing elites is clearly
evident in most of the states that have been emerged from former

Nationalism European colonial empires since the Second World War.

⚬ For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, there were 6000 distinct
cultural-linguistic group, organised politically into bands,
chiefdoms, principalities, and empires.
⚬ In competing for African colonies late in that century, European
governments set off their territorial claims with arbitrarily drawn
boundaries.
⚬ When leaders of anti-colonial nationalist movements gained
independence for these European-created countries and
become their new governing elites. they always insisted that the
colonial boundaries be respected as the territorial borders of
their new states.
• Ethnonationalism is the belief that people should be governed only by rulers of
the same ethnic groups.
• Ethnonational conflicts, sometimes severe and violent, have wrecked a majority
of the newly independent-states at some point in the past few decades.
• For example, from 1967 to 1970, the large Ibo ethnic group attempted to
secede from Nigeria and establish the independent state of Biafra in which it
would be numerically dominant.
• By contrast, in 1970, Bengali leaders in East Pakistan declared its separation
from West Pakistan, as the new sovereign state of Bangladesh.
• Nationalism is also an important ideological weapon in competitive struggles
among ethnic groups for power and resources.
• The Palestine Liberation Organization claims to represent a nation deprived of
its homeland and determined to retrieve its own country.
• Militantly opposing to that claim. Israelis believe their state to be the legitimate
homeland of the long-exiled Jewish people, and brutally deny the distinctive
"nationhood" of the Palestinian Arabs.
• Nationalism in a variety forms seems likely to remain a feature of the political
world indefinitely. It can still provide an emotionally powerful focus for
grievances and resentments against foreign domination.

Ethnonationalism
 • Islam aims at destroying the chains of racial and national prejudices
and unites all mankind on the basis of equal rights and opportunities
for all.
• Nationalism gained currency in Muslim world in the wake of
colonialism and was propagated, after the gradual withering away
of the colonial system, by a new class of Western educated elite.

Nationalism • Nationalism represents a parallel ideology to that of Islam. It is

incompatible with the concept of ummah on several grounds.
⚬ First, nationalism is a form of glorified tribalism which was

and Islam rejected outright by the Prophet saying "He is not of us who
claims and who dies the cause of tribal partisanship."
⚬ Second, nationalism is based on linguistic, geographical,
cultural, racial, and other similar factors which are contrary to the
Qur'anic conception of Ummah.
⚬ Third, nationalism, giving rise to the structure of the nation-state
system, demands the promotion of its own interests to the
exclusion of and, at times, at the cost of all others. The Qur'an
demands of the ummah, instead of promotion of virtue and
eschewing of vice, to cooperate "for the good, to the purpose of
achieving piety" and to disagree with and oppose one another
so as to prevent evil, to avoid crime, and stop aggression.
⚬ Fourth, nationalism intensifies the cultural plurality and social
antagonism between various units and sub-units of the Muslim
world. It militates against the idea of Muslim unity which is the
essential feature of the ummah which is the universal system
with one strong, comprehensive ideology.
 • Nationalism creates a spirit of intolerance. It was the prevalence

Nationalism feelings of bitterness and hatred among the French and Germans
which were partly responsible for the two World Wars.
• Every child in France was taught after 1871 that he or she was to

and take revenge against Germany , who had humiliated France in 1871.
• Internationalism is the feeling that the individual is not only a

Internationalism member of his state, but also a citizen of the world.

• Such a feeling promotes a peaceful cooperation among the states
of the world.
• Internationalism depends upon the existence of nation-states.
• What it demands is that in the matters of external sovereignty,
states must be prepared to accept certain limitations for the
promotion of international peace.
• In practice, internationalism asks from the states the following:
⚬ States must be bound by the decisions of international
organisations in matters which affect other states.
⚬ States must agree not to resort to war in order to settle disputes.
⚬ States must prevent any act of regression against itself or any
other state and help the victim of aggression by any means
possible.
 • Critics point out that internationalism cannot prosper as long as

Nationalism nation-states survive.

internationalism.
Nationalism is a great challenge to

• Nations have violated international law in order to protect narrow

and national interest.

• Nations also resist international mediations as violations of the

Internationalism concept of national sovereignty.

• People all around the world, however believe that the nation-states
must cooperate to achieve world peace.
Feminism
• Feminism is a collective term for systems of belief and
theories that emphasize women's rights and their position in
society.
Feminism in
• Feminists are united by the idea that men and women should
be equal politically, economically, and socially.
• Today's feminists are opposed to any social roles being
a Nutshell
determined by sex.
• They insist on equal pay, equal education, and equal
opportunities in work. All women should be given the right to
complete control over their productive lives, and hence ask
for free contraception and abortion on demand at any stage
of pregnancy.
• Feminist thinking has succeeded in drawing public attention
to inequality between women and men and to the structure
within society that belittle and work against women
• Feminism has also succeeded in challenging perception of
women's skills, with the result that some women are entering
non-traditional areas of female employment such as the
construction industry.
• The Liberalist on Feminism
• In A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), Marry
Wollstonecraft challenged the conventions of the day
that the sole purpose of women were to bear and raise
children and to please men. She demanded equal
rights for women in education, employment and
administration.
• In her Enfranchisement of Women (1851), Harriet
Taylor argued strongly in favour of married women
having a life and career of their own.
• John Stuart Mill, believed in male-female friendship of
marriage. Such friendship was not only desirable for
emotional satisfaction, but also essential for the
progression of human society.
• Mill argued for giving voting rights to women and
equal rights in the areas of education and occupation.
• He argued that it is harmful to innate distinction
between men and women. Rather, the treatment of
women as equals would be beneficial for the
happiness and advancement of humanity.
• In the 20th century, feminism began to attract a large
following.
• Entering the workforce encouraged them to become
more independent and to demand that their husbands'
share in household and child-rearing duties.
Approaches to
Feminism
• The Marxist on Feminism
• the Marxist insist that the state as an institution is an
instrument of the dominant class to exploit the
subordinate class in society.
• Marxist approach to the state received a systematic
treatment in the writings of Marx, Engels, Gramsci,
Miliband, Poulantzas, and many others
• In Marx's own words "The executive of the modern
state is but a committee for managing the common
affairs of the whole bourgeoisie, and that political
power is organised power of one class for oppressing
another."
• Marxist feminists consider gender status to be the
outcome of economic factors rather than cultural
values.
• Marxist believe that ideology arises in order to justify
existing material conditions and gender status in
society. In other words, sexual asymmetry is explained
by the different relationships of men and women to
the means of production.
• According to Engels, the oppression of women is
linked to the emergence of private property.
• Men formed private families because they wanted to
bequeath their possessions to their children, thereby
replacing mother-right with patrilineality.
• Women became dependents because their production
was relegated to private sphere, that is, within the
family unit.
Approaches to
Feminism
• The Marxist on Feminism
• According to Marxists, the only solution to ending
sexual asymmetry is to bring women back into the
sphere of social production.
• Engels said "The first condition for the liberation of the
wife is to bring the whole female sex back into public
industry and that this in turn demands that the
characteristics of the monogamous family as the
economic unit of society be abolished.
• Critics of the Marxist approach argue that Marxists
assume that with the abolition of the fundamental
distortion of class rule, the problem of stable
representation of diverse group interests resulting
from the division of labour will be easily solved.
• This assumption is tenable because there will still have
to be mechanism for articulating, representing,
mediating, and ultimately deciding between
alternative forms and modes of satisfying human
needs.
• Critics claim that sexism, not classism, fundamentally
constitutes the inequality and that it will not be
resolved by the abolition of class society.
• In essence, although gender inequality may be
biologically determined, biological differences
between sexes are by no means unchangeable.
Approaches to
Feminism
• The Islamic School and Feminism
• The Islamic school argues that "Western-style feminist
struggles have liberated women only to the extent that
they are prepared to become sex objects and market
their sexuality as an advertising tool to benefit
patriarchal capitalism.
• On the contrary, Islamic school of thought argues that
women could benefit by returning to the original
sources of Islam.
• Afshar summarised their arguments in the following
ways:
⚬ Islamic dictum bestows complementarity on
women, as human beings, as partners to men, and
as mothers and daughters.
⚬ Islam demands respect for women and offers them
opportunities to be learned, educated, and trained,
while at the same time providing an honoured
space for them to become mothers, wives, and
housemakers.
⚬ Islam recognises the importance of women's life
cycle. They have been given different roles and
responsibilities at different times of their lives and
they are respected for that.
Approaches to
Feminism
• The Islamic School and Feminism
• Throughout the Quran, it is repeated over and over
that men and women are created as companions on
earth to complement and comfort one another.
• A woman under Islamic law is vested with all the rights
which belong to her as an independent human being.
• No one, not even her father can force her to marry
against her expressed consent.
• In Islam, a woman has basic freedom of choice and
expression based on recognition of her individual
personality.
• According to Islamic law, a woman's right to her
money, real estate, or other properties is fully
acknowledge.
• There is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from seeking
employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in
positions which fit her nature and in which society needs her
most.
• The thinking of most Muslims is governed by a number of
social, psychological, and economic traditions.
• First, the shariah emphasises the role of extended rather than
the nuclear family as the unit of society.
• Some Muslim families are "residentially extended" in the sense
that their members live communally with three or more
generations of relatives in a single building.
• Second, Islamic traditions prescribe a much stronger
participation of the family in contracting and preservation of
marriages.
Approaches to
Feminism
• The Islamic School and Feminism
• Fourth, Islam specifies a differentiation of male and
female roles and responsibilities in society.
• Feminism has generally denied any such
differentiation.
• In the case of Western feminism, the roles providing
financial support, of success in career, and of decision
making have been given overwhelming respect and
concern, while those dealing with domestic matters
were devalued and even despised.
• Islam instead maintains that both type of roles are
equally deserving of pursuit and respect and that when
accompanied by the equity demanded by the religion,
a division of labour along sex lines is generally
beneficial to society.
• In the Qur'an, no difference whatever is made is made
between sexes.
• Finally, the Qur'an and the shari'ah categorically demands
a separate legal status for women.
• This separate legal personality prescribes for every woman
the right to contract, to conduct business, and to earn and
possess property independently.
• Marriage has no effects on woman's legal status, her
property, her earnings, and even on her name.
• If she commits any civil offenses, her penalty is neither less
nor more than a man's in a similar case (5:83; 24:2).
• The feminist demand for separate legal status for women
is, therefore, on that is equally espoused by Islamic
traditions.
Approaches to
Feminism
Thank You