Political Ideology DDIP 2022

• Ideology is one of the most elusive concepts in the social sciences (McLellan,
1986);
• It is what men think, that determines how they act (John Stuart Mill);
• Many political events and movements began with ideology;
• Historically, ideology is a product of industrialization and fragmentation of
modern society over the past two centuries;
• An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. The word ideology was coined
by Count Antoine Destutt de Tracy, Elements of Ideology, in the late
18th century to define a "science of ideas.”
• The word 'ideology' is a product of the French Enlightenment, which means a
science of ideas (ideas-ology);

Introduction
Introduction

• Every ideology and political movement has its origins in the ideas of
several past thinkers, for example, the past known as "mad men in
authority" such as Mussolini, Hitler, Lenin, Stalin, Mao Zedong (John
Maynard Keynes);
• Almost the entire 20th century was marked by the clash of 3 major
ideologies - liberalism, communism and fascism - which have
dominated world politics;
• The present time is also marked by conflicts between ideologies,
such as ethnonationalism vs. nationalism, black vs. white (racism),
religious fundamentalism vs. secularism, gay vs. anti-gay, feminism
vs. antifeminism, globalization vs. anti-globalization.
Introduction
• Ideologies tend to be abstract thoughts applied to reality and, thus,
make this concept unique to politics.
• Ideology is often considered synonymous with belief systems - mind-
sets; political culture, Weltanschauung, or political traditions.
• There is a functional relationship between philosophy, theory and
ideology;
• Moreover, ideology involves collective action and effort. All
ideologies and political movements are rooted in the past;
• Thus understanding the ideology provides an interpretation, not only
of how the world is but also how it should be - Normative
Introduction

• Ideology can be used to maintain existing power structures, or

to change by offering alternatives to new power structures
• Ideology is not standard, but is very dynamic, which allows
changes in interpretation, reinterpretation and overlapping
because they share common concerns and thoughts (eg, eco-
feminist).
• Can these ideologies end (the end of ideology - Daniel Bell) or
is the ideology of liberalism which won the battle against all
other ideologies (the end of history -Francis Fukuyama)?
Key Issues

• What is Political Ideology?

• What are the characteristic themes, theories and principles of each of the
major ideologies?
• What rival traditions or internal tensions does each ideology encompass?
• How have the major ideologies changed over time?
• How can the rise and fall of ideologies be explained?
• Has ideology come to an end? Could ideology come to an end?
The Role of Ideas in Politics
• What people think and believe about society, power, rights, etc., determines their
actions
• Everything has to pass through the mind of the individual before he or she acts
• How do the ideas and beliefs appear in our minds?
• Critical examination of reality – thinking for oneself
• Influence of others’ opinions – family, education, mass media, etc.
• Some forms of teaching imprison the mind
• Others liberate the mind, enabling it to think critically
• Subjugation by force is the crudest form of social control
• Mind control is a much more effective method
• But is it really effective?
 Two Main Concepts about the
Role of Ideas in Politics
• Political culture – the broad pattern of political
orientations shared by a large group of people (a
nation, a region, a class, an ethnic group)
• Political ideology – a system of political ideas,
developed for the purposes of political action
(governing a country, launching a social movement
or a political party, organizing a revolution – or a
counterrevolution, etc.)
Concept: Ideology

• In other words, from a social-scientific view point, an ideology is a more

or less coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organized political
action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the
existing system of power relationships.
• All ideologies
a) Offer an account of the existing social order, usually in the form of a
world view.
b) Provide a model of a desired future, a vision of the “good society”.
c) Outline how political change can and should be brought about.
• Ideologies are not sealed systems of thought; rather, they are fluid sets of
ideas that overlap with one another at a number of points.
Ideology Defined

“rigid set of ideas”; e.g.

a systematic body of somebody refrains from
a system of thought and concepts, especially eating meat “for
belief. about human life or practical rather than
culture. ideological reasons” —
negative

ruling ideology: sets of ideas to justify sets of ideas to justify

legitimating the power certain organized social certain actions while
of the dominant group actions —could be masking their real
—negative positive or negative nature —negative
Definition of “Ideology”

• Often the concept of ideology is used as a political tool to

criticize the views or thoughts of opponents.
1.Napoleon: “Idealogues” = spreading false and subversive
ideas”
2.Karl Marx: “The ideas of the ruling class which propagate false
interests among the suppressed classes”
3.Popper Arendt: “All embracing doctrines that claim a
monopoly of truth and suppresses opposition in totalitarian
regimes”
Definition

Heywood: “an ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides the
basis for political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or
overthrow the existing system of power.

Terence Ball and Richard Dagger: “an ideology is a fairly coherent and
comprehensive set of ideas that explains and evaluates social conditions, helps
people understand their place in society, and provides a program for social and
political action”;
John Plamenatz: ideology has been defined as “a set of closely related beliefs,
or ideas, or even attitudes, characteristic of a group or community”
 An ideology can be thought of as a
comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at
things. The main purpose behind an ideology
is to offer change in society through a
normative thought process (what the world
Other ought to be).

Definitions Ideology is a set of ideas that sharpens human

thought and action that values ​something,
such as nationality, ethnicity/race/ethnicity,
the role and function of government, the
relationship between men and women,
human responsibility for the environment and
so on;
• Ideology provides a basic human framework for political action,
which can be used to:
1. Legitimacy;
2. Solidarity and Mobilization;
3. Leadership and Manipulation;
4. Communication;
5. Emotional fulfilment, Criticism,
6. Utopia and Conservation

Functions or Uses
 What is Political Ideology?
• In social studies, a political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals,
principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution,
class or large group that explains how society should work, and offers
some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. Many
political parties base their political action and programme on an
ideology.
• A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power
and to what ends it should be used. Some parties follow a certain
ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a
group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of
them.
What is Political Ideology?
• A definition of 'ideology’ must be neutral: it must reject the notion that ideologies are 'good' or 'bad', true or
false, or liberating or oppressive.
• The modern, social scientific meaning of the term, sees ideology as an action-orientated belief system, an
interrelated set of ideas that in some way guides or inspires political action.
• To provide people with programs of political action:
• to govern societies, or
• to struggle for change
• Both for integration and for conflict, you need an ideology – a coherent set of ideas for purposeful action.
• The earliest ideologies were religions. Many of the earliest rulers in history were priests.
• In the Modern Age, political ideologies become increasingly secular (non-religious, some anti-religious), but
religions continue to serve as important sources for ideologies to this day. Examples: Christian democracy,
Christian socialism, Protestant fundamentalism, Islamic radicalism.
Political Ideologies

• An ideology, such as liberalism, conservatism, socialism, or fascism,

is a comprehensive set of beliefs that combine theory with practice.
• Each ideology has its own logic about the individual and human
nature, and the relationship between the individual and society.
• Ideologies are thus both empirical (descriptive) and normative
(prescriptive) in nature.
• One’s basic beliefs about power, political values, and the role of
government.
• Grows out of economic, educational, and social conditions and
experiences
Political Ideologies

• The twentieth century was shaped by which three

ideologies?
• Democracy is not an ideology in and of itself, it is an ideal.
• Democracy is claimed as an ideal for liberalism,
conservatism, and socialism.
• Each ideology defines democracy differently.
• Likewise, each ideology claims to promote freedom, but
each has a different definition of freedom.
• Democracy and liberty are essentially contested concepts –
there is no universal definition that everyone agrees on.
 According to Roy C. Macridis and Mark L.
Hulliung, there are 4 main themes of political
ideology, namely:
1. The role and nature of the individual
(human nature);
Main Themes 2. The nature of truth and how it can be
found;
of Political 3. Relations between individuals and
groups;
Ideologies 4. Characteristics of political authority -
sources and boundaries;
5. The goals and mechanisms of economic
organization, especially issues of
material and economic equality, are
linked to individual freedom.
 Explanation (How the world Works
[Empirical])

Evaluation (Deciding whether things

Functions of are good or bad [Normative])
Political
Orientation (Supplies the holder
Ideologies with a sense of identity)

Political Program (Action) (What to

do and how to do it)
Functions of Political Ideologies
• Explanation. Why are social, political, and economic conditions the way they are? Why does economic
depression occur? What is the cause of economic inequality?
• Evaluation How does one evaluate present social conditions? Take for example, the fact that modern
societies contain inequality and class distinctions.
• A communist evaluates the presence of distinct social classes as inegalitarian and enslaving.
• A liberal says that distinct social classes are inevitable, but that differences between classes should be
minimized when possible.
• A contemporary conservative might argue that social classes are good because they reward effort and
ingenuity & help motivate people to work harder.
• Orientation An ideology provides the individual with a political identity. Examples:
• A member of a class. (Socialism)
• An individual capable of reasoning on her own and possessing certain rights. (Liberalism)
• A member of a long running “community” or society that changes only very gradually. (Conservatism)
• Political Program
• Programmatic or prescriptive function. Ideologies recommend action, how to change the world. This is
the normative function of ideologies.
Differences between Political Ideologies and
Political Philosophies
• Most political philosophies aim to perform the same four functions that ideologies
perform.
• A political philosophy typically does so with greater precision and detail, and is
pitched at a more abstract level, with greater detail to contingencies and specifics.
• Plato’s Republic, Rousseau’s On Social Contract, Machiavelli’s The Prince, and John
Locke’s Second Treatise of Government are all examples of political philosophies.
• An ideology, (in contrast to a political philosophy) is designed to capture people’s
hearts and minds, with a greater emphasis on stimulating agency (action).
• Ideologies place more emphasis on political program, compared to political
philosophies.
Foundational Disputes in Political Ideologies

The differences between ideologies are rooted in basic assumptions about:

 Human Nature are humans naturally peaceful, cooperative, rational?
 ‘Naturally’ good, cooperative, even perfectible
 Inherently flawed, evil, dangerous
 Individual versus Collective: which interests come first?
 A normative choice with empirical implications
 Conception of Freedom
 Freedom as an ‘essentially contested concept’
 ‘Freedom from…’ versus ‘Freedom to…’
 Equality: how much social inequality is acceptable?
Ideologies and Liberty

• Like “democracy,” liberty is an “essentially contested concept”

• Essentially contested concept: Does not have an agreed upon
meaning
• Each ideology has its own particular understanding of the content
of liberty
• An agent must be free from certain obstacles

• Each ideology theorizes different obstacles between an agent

and his or her freedom
Two Conceptions of Liberty

• Classical Liberal view

• Negative or “Modern” Liberty
• Freedom from governmental authority
• Socialist and Welfare Liberal view:
• Positive (Ancient) Liberty
• Freedom to participate in political life
• We will see these how these two conceptions used by the
other ideologies later
 Freedom and Equality
• Freedom  The belief that the rights of each individual in society are of
primary importance.
• Equality  The belief that all individuals in a society should be treated in
the same way.
• The balance of freedom and equality helps to determine the nature of
political ideology that political parties shape their policies.
• Governments attempt to balance freedom and equality. Political ideologies
have different beliefs regarding the importance of freedom and equality.
Emergence of Modern Ideologies

• Liberalism, the first modern ideology to emerge in the West, first

arose in Britain and France as a reaction to feudalism and the
Church.
• Liberalism emerged initially as a rejection of the idea of ascribed
status (the idea that one’s station in life would not change).
• Both Conservatism and Socialism emerged later as a response to
(differing interpretations of) the excesses and shortcomings of
liberal rationalism.
 Titoism
Neo-Liberalism, Modern Conservatism,
1950’s Eurocommunism
Maoism 1980’s 1970’s
1930’s 1970’s reaction
against
Communism Social Democracy Modern Liberalism Modern Conservatism
Lenin, 1903 Bernstein, 1901 T.H. Green, 1880’s Friedman, 1860’s
Fascism
Mussolini, 1922

fake
Socialism
Marx, 1848 dubious

actual

Nationalism
Radicalism Mazzini, 1850’s
reaction Conservatism
Rousseau, 1762
against
Tom Paine, 1793 economic Burke, 1792
doctrine
LEFT The original, classic Liberalism RIGHT
Adam Smith, 1776
 The Types of Old and New Ideologies
Mainstream
• Liberalism  Neo-Liberalism;
• Conservatism  Neo-Conservatism;
• Marxism, Socialism, Communism  Neo-Marxism, Neo-Socialism, Neo-Left,
Eurocommunism;
• Fascism dan Nazism  Neo-Fascism, Neo-Nazism;
• Nationalism  Ethno-nationalism, Ultranationalism.

Contemporary
• Feminism;
• Enviromentalism, Ecologism, “Green” Politics;
• Fundamentalism.
 The Political Spectrum

• Political ideologies, through opposition, competition, fusion, mixing, etc. – exist in constant
interaction with each other
• Together, they form a political spectrum  It is a useful tool of political analysis
• The political spectrum allows us to understand the roots of ideology and party beliefs.
• The political spectrum is a line along which are placed the various political ideologies and
political parties
• This line has a centre, a left side and a right side
• The extreme ends of the line represent extreme political beliefs while the centre is
associated with more moderate beliefs
• The origins of the political spectrum are associated with the French Revolution
The Political Spectrum
The Political Spectrum

• The centre of the political spectrum is associated

with the democratic form of government.
• The extreme ends of the line on both the right
and the left are totalitarian in form.
• Totalitarian forms of government are found at the extreme ends of
the political spectrum on both the right and the left. The state
exercises total control in this form of government.
• In a totalitarian regime the individual exists to serve the state.
The Political Spectrum
The Political Spectrum:
From Right to Left
The Political Spectrum:
From Right to Left
The Political Spectrum:
From Right to Left

• Ideology is not always divided into two extreme points 

extremists vs. moderates
• There are always groups of people with political ideological views
that lie between these two extreme points. At least divided into 3
(three).

Far Left Centre- Left Centre Centre-Right Far Right

 Political Spectrum: The Standard
Linear Model

Far Left Centre- Left Centre Centre- Right Far Right

Socialists Liberal Conservatives Ultraconservatives

Communists Liberals Conservatives Fascists

Radicals Reactionaries
The Ideological Spectrum
The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left
 The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left

Similarities more Differences more

Important than Important than
Differences similarities

LEFT RIGHT
(Marxist, Socialist, (Conservatives,
Liberalist) Monarchist, Fascist)

Conventional Left-Right ideological spectrum

(Kenneth R. Hoover, 1994, Ideology and Political Life, 2nd ed. California:Wadsworth Publishing
Company)
 The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left

Liberty Authority
Equality Hierarchy
Fraternity Order
Rights Duties
Progress Tradition
Reform Reaction
Internationalism Nationalism
The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left
Classical Individual
Liberalism FREEDOM Conservatism
Reform Traditional
Liberalism Conservatism
Democratic-
Socialism Monarchism

Marxism- AUTHORITY
Leninism Fascism
Similarities Differences
more Important more Important
than Differences than similarities
 The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left
Ideas associated with different fields of political spectrum:
• The Right:
Conservatism – preserve the status quo, oppose change
Reaction – throw back the forces of change, restore the old order
Fascism – mobilize the nation for war, suppress pluralism to achieve unity through orthodox
• The Left:
Radicalism – go to the roots of problems, change the foundations of society
Socialism – advance the interests of society against the interests of elites
Communism – abolish private property to achieve equality and social harmony, suppress pluralism
to achieve unity through orthodoxy
• The Centre:
Liberalism – expand the scope of freedom, accept change, assert the primacy of individual rights,
develop market economy and political pluralism
Borrow ideas from Left and Right
The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left

 So, there are several dimensions here:

 Change or preservation of status quo

 Freedom or order

 Pluralism or orthodoxy

 Equality or inequality

 Market or state

 Ideas interact, travel across the spectrum.

 Too many possible combinations.
 How can all these complexities be taken into account?
The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left
Market Inequality

Welfare state liberalism Neoliberalism

Social democracy Market authoritarianism

Market socialism
Left Right

Traditional conservatism

State socialism Fascism

(Communism)

Equality State
 The Ideological Spectrum:
From Right to Left
the market, trade

LIBERALISM CONSERVATISM

THE LEFT: THE RIGHT:

change, status quo,
freedom, order,
equality, inequality,
labour capital
COMMUNISM FASCISM

the state, war

 Socialism vs. Capitalism

Neoliberalism Neoconservatism

Welfare state liberalism

Traditional conservatism
Social democracy

Ultraconservatism
Democratic socialism

Reform communism
(market socialism)
Totalitarian communism Fascism (National socialism)

Red - socialism
White - capitalism
 Elitism vs. Populism

Neoliberalism Neoconservatism

Welfare state liberalism

Traditional conservatism
Social democracy

Ultraconservatism
Democratic socialism

Reform communism
(market socialism)
Totalitarian communism Fascism (National socialism)

White – elitist (discourage popular participation in politics)

Red – populist (mobilize the masses)
For or Against Liberal Democracy

Neoliberalism Neoconservatism

Welfare state liberalism

Traditional conservatism
Social democracy

Ultraconservatism
Democratic socialism

Reform communism
(market socialism)
Totalitarian communism Fascism (national socialism)

White – reject liberal democracy

Red – support liberal democracy
 The Political Spectrum
The Right Wing

• Political beliefs on the right side of the line

support tradition and oppose change in
society.
• The extreme right is associated with Fascism.
• Because the beliefs of conservatism and
liberalism are democratic they are located
inside the circle.
The Political Spectrum
Centre to Right Wing
Liberalism

• Considered the ideology of the industrialized Western countries, and has been developing
for about 300 years;
• The products of the destruction of feudalism and the growth, in its place, of a market or
capitalist society;
• Early liberalism reflected the aspirations of a rising industrial middle class, and liberalism
and capitalism have been closely linked ever since.
• It attacked absolutism and feudal privilege, and advocated constitutional and, later,
representative government.
• This became the centerpiece of classical, or 19th -century, liberalism.
• In the form of economic liberalism, this position is supported by a free market mechanism
and the belief that the economy works better when left alone by the government, thereby
ensuring prosperity, individual freedom, merrit-system, and social justice;
Liberalism’s ‘Four Functions’

 Explanatory: Social conditions are the result of individual

choices and actions
 Evaluative: Societies work best when individuals are free to do
as they wish without harming or violating rights of others
 Orientation: Rational, self-interested individuals (and hence
equal)
 Programmatic: programs for promoting individual liberty
(classical) and opportunity (welfare)
 Liberalism

Liberals wanted They opposed:

governments based Divine-right monarchies
on written The old aristocracy
constitutions. Established churches

They saw the role of government as protecting the

individual’s freedom of thought, speech, and religion.
 Liberalism

• As capitalists, they had

different goals from those
of the poor, working
class.
Liberals
• They believed only those
supported
with a financial stake in
laissez-faire and
society, male property
the free market owners, should be able to
vote.
• Only later would liberals
support universal
manhood suffrage.
The Elements of Liberalism

• Individualism is the core principle of liberal ideology. It reflects a belief in the supreme
importance of the individual or it emphasizes the individual human being rather than any
social group or collectivity (collective body). The liberal goal is therefore to construct a
society within which individuals can follow 'the good' as they define it, to the best of
their abilities.
• Freedom  Individual freedom (or liberty) is the core principle of liberal ideology.
Humans have the right to act according to their wishes. It is given priority over, equality,
justice or authority. This arises naturally from a belief in the individual and the desire to
ensure that each person is able to act as he or she chooses. Nevertheless, liberals
advocate 'freedom under the law', as they recognize that one person's liberty may be a
threat to the liberty of others.
The Elements of Liberalism

• Reason  Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be
uncovered through the exercise of human reason and by critical enquiry  progress. This
inclines them to place their faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgments on
their own behalf, being, in most cases, the best judges of their own interests.
• Equality  individuals are 'born equal', at least in terms of moral worth. This is
reflected in a liberal commitment to equal rights and entitlements, notably in the form
of legal equality ('equality before the law') and political equality ('one person, one vote;
one vote, one value’). However, as individuals do not have the same levels of talent or
willingness to work, liberals do not endorse social equality. Rather, they favor equality
of opportunity (a 'level playing field') that gives all individuals an equal chance to realize
their unequal potential.  meritocracy
The Elements of Liberalism

• Toleration  Liberals believe that toleration is both a guarantee of

individual liberty and a means of social enrichment  a balance or
harmony between views and competing interests. They believe that
pluralism, in the form of moral, cultural and political diversity, is
healthy: it promotes debate and intellectual progress by ensuring that
all beliefs are tested in a free market of ideas.
• Consent  Authority and social relationships should always be based on
consent (willing agreement). Government must therefore be based on
the 'consent of the governed'. This is a doctrine that encourages liberals
to favor representation and democracy. In this sense, authority arises
'from below' and is always grounded in legitimacy.
The Elements of Liberalism

• Constitutionalism: Although liberals see government as a vital guarantee

of order and stability in society, they are constantly aware of the danger
that government may become a tyranny against the individual
(remember Lord Acton!). They therefore believe in limited government
 government is limited by the constitution. This goal can be attained
through the fragmentation of government power, by the creation of
checks and balances amongst the various institutions of government, and
through the establishment of a 'written' constitution embodying a bill of
rights that defines the relationship between the state and the individual.
The Division of Liberalism

Liberalism

Classical Modern
Liberalism Liberalism
Classical Liberalism

• The central theme of classical liberalism is a commitment to an extreme form of

individualism. Human beings are seen as egoistical, self-seeking and largely self-reliant
creatures.
• This atomist view of society is underpinned by a belief in 'negative' liberty, meaning non-
interference, or the absence of external constraints upon the individual.
• Although in the late nineteenth century a form of social liberalism emerged which
emphasized more welfare reform and economic intervention;
• In Tom Paine's words, the state is a 'necessary evil'. It is 'necessary' in that, at the very
least, it establishes order and security and ensures that contracts are enforced  the
'nightwatchman' state;
• However, it is 'evil' in that it imposes a collective will upon society, thus limiting the
freedom and responsibilities of the individual.
•
Classical Liberalism

• The classical liberal ideal is therefore the establishment of a

minimal or 'nightwatchman' state, with a role that is limited
to the protection of citizens from the encroachments of
fellow citizens.
• This implies a deeply unsympathetic attitude towards the
state and all forms of government intervention.
• In the form of economic liberalism, this position is
underpinned by a deep faith in the mechanisms of the free
market and the belief that the economy works best when left
alone by government.
• Laissez-faire capitalism is thus seen as guaranteeing
Classical Liberalism

• Initially as a political doctrine that attacked absolutism and feudal

privileges by developing constitutional and representative
government (John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, 1690)
Classical Liberalism

• In the 19th century, a liberal economic creed had developed which

praised the virtues of laissez-faire capitalism and condemned all
forms of government interference (Adam Smith, The Wealth of
Nations, 1776)
Modern Liberalism

• Modern liberalism is characterized by a more sympathetic attitude towards state

intervention.
• This shift was born out of the recognition that industrial capitalism had generated
new forms of injustice and left the mass of the population subject to the ups and
downs of the market.
• From this perspective, freedom does not just mean being left alone, which might
imply nothing more than the freedom to starve.
• New Liberals such as T. H. Green and J. A. Hobson saw freedom not only means
leaving alone, but freedom from hunger;
• This form of social welfare can expand freedom by guaranteeing individuals from
social demons that destroy individual existence;
Modern Liberalism

• This view provided the basis for social or welfare liberalism. This is
characterized by the recognition that state intervention, particularly in the
form of social welfare, can enlarge liberty by protecting individuals from the
social evils that destroy individual existence. Nevertheless, modern liberals'
support for collective provision and government intervention has always been
conditional.
• Their concern has been with the problems of the weak and vulnerable, those
who are literally not able to help themselves.
• Their goal is to raise individuals to the point where they are able, once again,
to take responsibility for their own circumstances.
Modern Liberalism

• Meanwhile, modern liberalism is characterized by a state

intervention. This was mainly influenced by John Stuart Mill's work,
On Liberty, 1859, which emphasized in addition to the quality of
individual life, sympathy for women's suffrage and the cooperation
of workers.
• Desire for a free, open, tolerant society
• Humans as rational and able to recognize and promote self-interest
• Liberty and equality of opportunity
• Classical Liberalism versus Modern (Welfare) Liberalism
Modern Liberalism

 In the same way, modern liberals

abandoned their belief in laissez-faire
capitalism, largely as a result of John
Maynard Keynes’ (1883-1946) insight that
growth and prosperity could be maintained
only through a system of regulated
capitalism, with key economic
responsibilities being placed in the hands
of the state.
Liberalism and Conservatism

Inspired by the Enlightenment and the

French Revolution, liberals and nationalists
challenged conservatives.

• Middle-class or “bourgeois” liberalism represented

the interests of business owners, bankers, lawyers,
editors, and writers.
• Liberals called for greater individual freedom.
Liberalism and Conservatism

• Liberalism is divided into classical and reform liberalism.

• Liberals were believers in the progress of good men with reform liberals
accepting more government intervention in the economy.
• Conservatives were not as optimistic about mankind but strongly
supported economic freedom.
• Conservative ideas and doctrines first emerged in the late 18th and
early 19th century.
• They arose as a reaction against the growing pace of economic and
political change, which was in many ways symbolized by the French
Revolution.
Conservatism

• In trying to resist the pressures caused by the growth of liberalism,

socialism and nationalism, conservatism stood in defense of traditional
social order.
• A form of conservatism developed in the UK and the USA that was
characterized by Edmund Burke’s belief in 'change in order to conserve’.
• Human imperfection
• Focused on conserving existing social order
• Custom and tradition as ‘latent wisdom’
• Organic view of society
• Acceptance of inequality
• Freedom and order
Conservatives believed that:

Ideas such If change By defending

as natural had to peace and
rights could come, it stability, all of
only lead to must come society would
chaos slowly benefit

Conservatives urged monarchs to use troops to crush

protests. They believed that revolutionary ideas such as
freedom of the press must be suppressed.
Conservatism’s ‘Four Functions’

 Explanatory: Social conditions are the result of

human imperfections (intellectual and moral)
 Evaluative: Success is a question of social order and
harmony
 Orientation: Each of us is part of a greater whole,
and we should act with interest of society (not just
self) in mind
 Programmatic: Slow and cautious change
Elements of Conservatism
• Tradition  The central theme of conservative thought, 'the desire to conserve', is
closely linked to the perceived virtues of tradition, respect for established customs,
and institutions that have endured through time. In this view, tradition reflects the
accumulated wisdom of the past, and institutions and practices that have been 'tested
by time', and it should be preserved. Tradition also has the virtue of promoting
stability and security, giving individuals a sense of social and historical belonging
• Pragmatism  Conservatives have traditionally emphasized the limitations of human
rationality, which arise from the infinite complexity of the world in which we live.
Abstract principles and systems of thought are therefore distrusted, and instead faith is
placed in experience, history and, above all, pragmatism: the belief that action should
be shaped by practical circumstances and practical goals, that is, by 'what works’.
Conservatives have thus preferred to describe their own beliefs as an 'attitude of mind'
or an 'approach to life', rather than as an ideology.
Elements of Conservatism

• Human Imperfection  The conservative view of human nature is broadly pessimistic. In

this view, human beings are limited, dependent, and security-seeking creatures, drawn to
the familiar and the tried and tested. In addition, individuals are morally corrupt: they
are tainted by selfishness, greed and the thirst for power. The roots of crime and disorder
therefore reside within the human individual rather than in society. The maintenance of
order therefore requires a strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, and stiff
penalties.
• Organicism  Conservatives have traditionally viewed society as an organic whole, or
living entity. Society is thus structured by natural necessity, with its various institutions
(families, local communities, the nation and so on), contributing to the health and
stability of society. The whole is more than a collection of its individual parts.
Elements of Conservatism

• Hierarchy In the conservative view, social position and status are natural and inevitable in an
organic society. These reflect the differing roles and responsibilities of, for example, employers
and workers, teachers and pupils, and parents and children. Nevertheless, in this view, hierarchy
and inequality do not give rise to conflict, because society is bound together by mutual obligations
and duties. Indeed, as a person's 'station in life' is determined largely by luck and the accident of
birth, the rich and privileged acquire a particular responsibility of care for the less fortunate.
• Authority  To some degree, authority is always exercised 'from above', providing leadership,
guidance and support for those who lack the knowledge, experience or education to act wisely in
their own interests (an example being the authority of parents over children).
• Property  Conservatives see property ownership as being vital because it gives people security
and a measure of independence from government, and it encourages them to respect the law and
the property of others.
Paternalistic Conservatism

• The paternalistic strand in conservative thought is entirely consistent with principles such as
organicism, hierarchy and duty, and it can therefore be seen as an outgrowth of traditional
conservatism.
• Often traced back to the early writings of Benjamin Disraeli (1804-81), paternalism draws upon a
combination of prudence and principle.
• In warning of the danger of the UK being divided into 'two nations: the Rich and the Poor’, Disraeli
articulated a widespread fear of social revolution.
• This warning amounted to an appeal to the self-interest of the privileged, who needed to recognize
that 'reform from above' was preferable to 'revolution from below'.
• In effect, in this view, duty is the price of privilege; the powerful and propertied inherit a
responsibility to look after the less well-off in the broader interests of social cohesion and unity.
Paternalistic Conservatism

• The resulting one-nation principle, the cornerstone of what can

properly be termed a Tory position, reflects the vision of organic
balance, a cohesive and stable hierarchy (and not not so much the
ideal of social equality) .
• The one-nation tradition embodies an essentially pragmatic
attitude towards economic policy. This is clearly seen in the
'middle way' approach adopted in the 1950s by UK Conservatives.
• This approach rejected the two ideological models of economic
organization: laissez-faire capitalism on the one hand, and state
socialism and central planning on the other.
Paternalistic Conservatism

• The solution therefore lies in a blend of market competition and

government regulation ('private enterprise without selfishness’ - H.
Macmillan), within which the balance between the state and the individual
can be adjusted pragmatically according to 'what works’.
• Very similar conclusions were drawn after 1945 by continental European
conservatives, who embraced the principles of Christian Democracy, most
rigorously developed in the 'social market' philosophy of the German
Christian Democrats (CDU)
• This philosophy embraces a market strategy insofar as it highlights the
virtues of private enterprise and competition, but it is social in that it
believes that the prosperity so gained should be employed for the broader
benefit of society.
The New Right

• The New Right represents a kind of counter-revolution

against both the post-1945 drift towards state
intervention and the spread of liberal or progressive
social values.
• New Right ideas can be traced back to the 1970s and
the conjunction between the apparent failure of
Keynesian social democracy, signaled by the end of the
postwar boom, and growing concern about social
breakdown and the decline of authority.
The New Right

• Such ideas had their greatest impact in the UK and the USA, where they
were articulated in the 1980s in the form of Thatcherism and Reaganism,
respectively.
• They have also had a wider, even worldwide, influence in bringing about a
general shift from state- to market-orientated forms of organization.
• However, the New Right can be seen as an attempt to marry two distinct
traditions, usually termed 'neoliberalism' and 'neoconservatism’ (and not a
coherent and systematic philosophy).
• Although there is political and ideological tension between these two, they
can be combined in support of the goal of a strong but minimal state.
The New Right: Neo-Liberalism

• Neoliberalism is an updated version of classical political economy that was developed in

the writings of free-market economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman and
philosophers such as Robert Nozick.
• The central pillars of neo-liberalism are the market and the individual. The principal
neoliberal goal is to 'roll back the frontiers of the state', in the belief that unregulated
market capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth and widespread prosperity.
• In this view, the 'dead hand' of the state discourages enterprise. Government (however
well intentioned) has a damaging effect upon human affairs.
• This is reflected in the liberal New Right's preference for private enterprise over state
enterprise: In short, 'private, good; public, bad’.
The New Right: Neo-Liberalism

• The nanny state is seen to breed a culture of dependence and to undermine

freedom, which is understood as freedom of choice in the marketplace.
• Instead, faith is placed in self-help, individual responsibility and
entrepreneurialism.
• The political ideology that promotes a liberal economy as a tool to promote
economic security
• Using the principles of free markets, free trade, and privatization
• More emphasis on economic problems when compared to traditional liberalism
• Spread the values ​of individual freedom (human rights) and democratization
The New Right: Neo-Conservatism

• Neo-conservatism reasserts 19th-century conservative social principles. The conservative New Right
wishes, above all, to restore authority and return to traditional values, notably those linked to the
family, religion and the nation.
• Another aspect of neo-conservatism is the tendency to see the emergence of multicultural and multi-
religious societies with concern, on the basis that they are conflict-ridden and by nature unstable.
• This position also tends to be linked to an insular form of nationalism that is skeptical about the
growing influence of supranational bodies such as the UN and the EU.
• “A liberal who was mugged by reality.“
• Four pillars:
• Taxes and federal budget
• Size of government
• Traditional moral values
• An idealist/expansive foreign policy
Fascism

• An authoritarian political ideology that cares about the loss of cultural values ​and moral
decadence.
• Strive to 'regenerate the spirit of nationality' by encouraging feelings of nationality or race;
and encouraging the cult of the unity, strength and purity of the nation. Example: Benito
Mussilini in Italy.
• This ideology is related to the problems of nationalism and racism. In its world view,
Fascism tends to view other races as "poison" to their people.
• For the advancement of society, it is necessary to 'purify' society. Prioritizing the existence
of the nation rather than individualism. Fascism as a political ideology began in Italy in 1922
with the regime of Benito Mussolini.
• In Germany the National Socialist Party led by Hitler came to power in 1933.
• This was a backward looking political philosophy which stressed militarism and racial purity.
Fascism’s ‘Four Functions’

 Explanatory: Problems from ‘enemies of the nation

or people’ (scapegoats)
 Evaluative: Strength and unity of the nation or
people
 Orientation: Define yourself as part of
nation/people (not as individual)
 Programmatic: Establish fascist elite in uncontested
power (Believe, obey, fight).
 Fascism
• This is due to several factors:
1. The existence of post-World War I democracies is considered to be weaker
than autocratic countries.
2. The world economic crisis in the 1930s.
3. Resistance to the Russian revolution of 1917.
4. Nationalist competition was mainly caused by dissatisfaction with the
outcome of the Versailles agreement that was felt by Germany, Italy and
Japan
• Irrationalism, Elitism, Statism, Militarism, and Hypernationalism/Racism
• Mussolini Slogan: credere, obbediere, combattere (believe, obey, fight)
• Relatively less perceived as a political ideology
• Organic view of society (society over individual)
• Nation/People as determining identity
 The Political Spectrum
The Left Wing

• The political beliefs of the left side of the spectrum support

economic equality and change or progress in society
• The extreme left is associated with Communism
• Socialism and the Social Democratic parties are located on the
left inside the circle
• The socialists, also, believe in economic equality but only if it
can be achieved through the ballot box. Democratic socialist
political parties can be found in most modern democratic
states.
The Political Spectrum
The Left Wing
Marxism

• In its earliest forms, socialism tended to have a fundamentalist, Utopian and revolutionary
character.
• Its goal was to abolish a capitalist economy based on market exchange, and replace it with a
socialist society to be constructed on the principle of common ownership.
• The most influential representative of this brand of socialism was Karl Marx.
• As a theoretical system, Marxism has constituted the principal alternative to the liberal
rationalism that has dominated Western culture and intellectual enquiry in the modern period.
• As a political force, in the form of the international communist movement, Marxism has also
been seen as the major enemy of Western capitalism, at least in the period 1917-91.
Marxism

This highlights a central difficulty in dealing with Marxism:

• The difference between Marxism as a social philosophy derived from
the classic writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820-95), and
the phenomenon of 20th century communism, which in many ways
departed from and revised classical principles.
• Marx believed that he had developed a new brand of socialism that
was scientific, in the sense that it was concerned primarily with
disclosing the nature of social and historical development rather
than with advancing an essentially ethical critique of capitalism.
The Elements of Marxism

• Historical materialism  The cornerstone of Marxist philosophy is what Engels called 'the materialist
conception of history'. This highlighted the importance of economic life and the conditions under which
people produce and reproduce their means of subsistence. Marx held that the economic 'base', consisting
essentially of the 'mode of production', or economic system, conditions or determines the ideological and
political 'superstructure’. This suggests that social and historical development can be explained in terms of
economic and class factors.
• Dialectical change  Following Hegel (Thesis  Antithesis  Synthesis), Marx believed that the driving force
of historical change was the dialectic, a process of interaction between competing forces that results in a
higher stage of development. In its materialist version, this model implies that historical change is a
consequence of internal contradictions within a 'mode of production' reflected in class antagonism. Orthodox
Marxism ('dialectical materialism') portrayed the dialectic as an impersonal force shaping both natural and
human processes.
The Elements of Marxism

• Alienation  Alienation was a central principle of Marx's early writings. It is the process
whereby, under capitalism, labour “the worker” (proletariat) is reduced to being a mere
commodity, and work becomes a depersonalized activity.
• Class struggle to overthrow a capitalist society (bourgeoisie). The central contradiction within
a capitalist society arises from the existence of private property. This creates a division
between the bourgeoisie or capitalist class or ruling class, the owners of the 'means of
production', and the proletariat, who do not own property and thus subsist through selling
their labour (literally 'wage slaves’).
• Surplus value  the derivation of the laborers who have invested in the production of goods.
Marx believed that all value derives from the labour expended in the production of goods. This
means that the quest for profit forces capitalist enterprises to extract 'surplus value' from
their workers by paying them less than the value of their labour. Capitalism is therefore
inherently unstable, because the proletariat cannot be permanently reconciled to exploitation
and oppression.
The Elements of Marxism

• Proletarian revolution  Marx proclaimed that proletarian revolution was inevitable,

and predicted that it would occur through a spontaneous uprising aimed at seizing
control of the means of production  revolutionary class consciousness;
• Communism  a dictatorship of the proletariat Marx predicted that proletarian
revolution would the beginning of a transitionary 'socialist' period during which a
'dictatorship of the proletariat' would be required to contain a counter-revolution
mounted by the dispossessed bourgeoisie. However, as class antagonism faded and a
fully communist society came into existence, this proletarian state would simply
'wither away’. A communist society would be classless in the sense that wealth would
be owned in common by all, and the system of 'commodity production' would be
replaced by one of 'production for use' geared to the satisfaction of genuine human
needs. With this, the 'prehistory of man' would come to an end, allowing human
beings for the first time to shape their own destinies and realize their full potential.
Marxist View of Society

Ideas, Values, Beliefs,

Laws (Ideological
‘Superstructure’)

Social Relations of Production

(Base or ‘Structure’)

Forces of Production (Material Resources

and Technology)
Stage of Development according to Marx

Communism

Capitalism

Feudalism

Slavery

Primitive Communalism
The Division of Marxism

Marxism

Orthodox Modern
Communism Marxism
Communism’s ‘Four Functions’

Explanatory: Social conditions determined by economic and class

relations
Evaluative: Sharpness of class divisions determines ‘stage of
development’
Orientation: People should think of themselves in terms of their class
position
Programmatic: Policies must be put into place to advance movement
toward communist revolution and ‘classless society’
Orthodox Communism

• Marxism in practice is inextricably linked to the experience of Soviet communism,

and especially to the contribution of the first 2 Soviet leaders, Lenin and Stalin.
• Indeed, 20th century communism is best understood as a form of Marxism-Leninism:
that is, as orthodox Marxism modified by a set of Leninist theories and doctrines.
• Lenin's central contribution to Marxism was his theory of the revolutionary or
vanguard party.
• This reflected Lenin's fear that the proletariat, deluded (deceived/fooled) by
bourgeois ideas and beliefs, would not realize its revolutionary potential because it
could not develop beyond 'trade-union consciousness': a desire to improve working
and living conditions rather than to overthrow capitalism.
Orthodox Communism

• A revolutionary party, armed with Marxism, was therefore needed to

serve as the 'vanguard of the working class’.
• When Lenin's Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in 1917, they did so as a
vanguard party, claiming to act in the interests of the proletarian class.
• The dictatorship of the proletariat therefore became, in practice, a
dictatorship of the Communist Party, which acted as the 'leading and
guiding force' within the Soviet one-party state.
• The USSR was more profoundly affected by Stalin's 'second revolution’
in the 1930s than it had been by the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution.
Orthodox Communism

• In reshaping Soviet society, Stalin created a model of orthodox communism that

was followed in the post-1945 period by states such as China, North Korea and
Cuba, and throughout eastern Europe.
• Stalin's changes stemmed largely from his most important ideological innovation,
the doctrine of 'Socialism in One Country', which proclaimed that the USSR could
'build socialism' without the need for an international revolution.
• What can be called economic Stalinism was initiated with the launch in 1928 of the
first Five Year Plan, which brought about the swift and total eradication of private
enterprise. This was followed in 1929 by the collectivization of agriculture.
Orthodox Communism

• All resources were brought under the control of the state, and a system of central planning was
established.
• Stalin's political changes were no less dramatic. During the 1930s Stalin transformed the USSR into a
personal dictatorship. He eradicated all vestiges of opposition and debate from the Communist
Party.
• In effect, Stalin turned the USSR into a totalitarian dictatorship, operating through systematic
intimidation, repression and terror.
• Although the more brutal features of orthodox communism came to an end after Stalin's death in
1953, the core principles of the Leninist party (hierarchical organization and discipline) and of
economic Stalinism (state collectivization and central planning) stubbornly resisted pressure for
reform.
Modern Marxism

• A more complex and subtle form of Marxism developed in Western Europe.

• By contrast with Soviet Marxism, western Marxism tended to be influenced by Hegelian ideas and
by the stress upon 'Man the creator' found in Marx's early writings.
• Human beings were seen as makers of history, and not simply as puppets controlled by impersonal
material forces.
• By insisting that there was an interplay between economics and politics, between the material
circumstances of life and the capacity of human beings to shape their own destinies, Western
Marxists were able to break free from the rigid 'base-superstructure' straightjacket.
• Their ideas have sometimes been termed neo-Marxist. This indicates an unwillingness to treat the
class struggle as the beginning and end of social analysis.
Modern Marxism

• In his Prison Notebooks (written in 1929-35) Antonio Gramsci emphasized the degree to
which capitalism was maintained not merely by economic domination, but also by political
and cultural factors. He called this ideological 'hegemony'.
• A more overtly Hegelian brand of Marxism was developed by the so-called Frankfurt School
 Max Hokheimer, Theodore Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and then Juergen Habermas.
• Frankfurt theorists developed what was called 'critical theory', a blend of Marxist political
economy, Hegelian philosophy and Freudian psychology, which had a considerable impact
upon the New Left in the 1960s.
• Herbert Marcuse, one of the co-founders of the Frankfurt School, hoped marginalized
groups such as students, ethnic minorities, women, and the countries of the Third World
(and not the proletariat) to be the agents of change.
Socialism

• Socialist ideas can be traced back to Thomas More's “Utopia” (1516), or even Plato's
Republic. However, socialism did not take shape as a political creed until the early 19 th
century.
• It developed as a reaction against the emergence of industrial capitalism. Socialism first
articulated the interests of artisans and craftsmen threatened by the spread of factory
production, but it was soon being linked to the growing industrial working class.
• During much of the 20th century, the socialist movement was divided into two rival
camps. Revolutionary socialists, following the example of Lenin called themselves
communists, while reformist socialists, who practised a form of constitutional politics,
embraced what increasingly came to be called social democracy.
Socialism

• This ideology developed as a reaction against the emergence of industrial capitalism;

• Its original aim was to abolish a capitalist economy based on market exchange, and replace
it with a socialist society;
• Socialism has developed and branched into various forms during the 19th and 20th
centuries, such as reformist socialism, revisionist socialism, revolutionary socialism
(communism), constitutional socialism, eurocommunism.
• Various political scientists have stated that at the end of this century, socialism is no
longer in demand, even as a state ideology. Only Cuba and North Korea are still
implementing it, while the PRC and Vietnam have combined it with the ideology of
capitalism;
Socialism’s ‘Four Functions’

 Explanatory: Social conditions can only be understood by

reference to economic and class relations
 Evaluative: Sharpness of economic divisions (exploitive?)
determines health of society
 Orientation: People should think of themselves in terms of
their economic (class) position
 Programmatic: Policies must be put into place to advance
economic equality (which is a prerequisite for ‘true’
political equality)
The Elements of Socialism

• Community  social interaction and groups. The core of socialism is the vision of
human beings as social creatures linked by the existence of a common humanity.
Individual identity is fashioned by social interaction and membership of social groups.
Socialists are inclined to emphasize nurture over nature, and to explain individual
behavior mainly in terms of social factors rather than innate qualities.
• Brotherhood  tied to each other  collectivity; Fraternity: Humans are bound
together by a sense of comradeship or fraternity. This encourages socialists to prefer
cooperation to competition, and to favor collectivism over individualism. In this
view, cooperation enables people to harness their collective energies and strengthens
the bonds of community, while competition pits individuals against each other,
breeding resentment, conflict and hostility.
The Elements of Socialism

• Social equality  egalitarianism  which can ensure stability and social cohesion.
Equality is the central value of socialism. In particular, socialists emphasize the
importance of social equality, an equality of outcome as opposed to equality of
opportunity. They believe that a measure of social equality is the essential
guarantee of social stability and cohesion. It also provides the basis for the exercise
of legal and political rights.
• Needs  the distribution principle of prosperity. Sympathy for equality also reflects
the socialist belief that material benefits should be distributed on the basis of
need, rather than simply on the basis of merit or work. “From each according to his
ability, to each according to his need”. This reflects the belief that the satisfaction
of basic needs (hunger, thirst, shelter, health, personal security and so on) is a
prerequisite for a worthwhile human existence and participation in social life.
The Elements of Socialism

• Social class: First, socialists have tended to analyse society in terms of the distribution of
income or wealth, and they have thus seen class as a significant (usually the most significant)
social cleavage. Second, socialism has traditionally been associated with the interests of an
oppressed and exploited working class (however defined), and it has traditionally regarded
the working class as an agent of social change, even social revolution. The socialist goal is
either the eradication of economic and social inequalities or their substantial reduction.
• Common ownership: The relationship between socialism and common ownership has been
deeply controversial. Private property is seen to promote selfishness, acquisitiveness and
social division. Common ownership, on the other hand, is a means of harnessing material
resources to the common good. Modern socialism, however, has moved away from this narrow
concern with the politics of ownership.
Social Democracy

• From the late 19th century onwards, a reformist socialist tradition emerged that
reflected the gradual integration of the working classes into capitalist society
through an improvement in working conditions and wages and the growth of
trade unions and socialist political parties.
• This brand of socialism proclaimed the possibility of a peaceful, gradual and legal
transition to socialism, brought about through the adoption of the 'parliamentary
road’.
• Reformist socialism drew upon 2 sources.
• The first was a humanist tradition of ethical socialism, linked to thinkers
such as Robert Owen (1771-1858).
• The second was a form of revisionist Marxism developed primarily by Eduard
Bernstein.
Social Democracy

• Social democracy does not have the theoretical coherence of classical liberalism or fundamentalist
socialism.
• Whereas the former is ideologically committed to the market, and the latter champions the cause
of common ownership, social democracy stands for a balance between the market and the state, a
balance between the individual and the community.
• At the heart of social democracy, there is a compromise between, on the one hand, an acceptance
of capitalism as the only reliable mechanism for generating wealth and, on the other, a desire to
distribute wealth in accordance with moral, rather than market, principles.
• In the early 20th century, this process could be seen at work in the reformist drift of, for example,
the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), especially under the influence of revisionist Marxists
such as Eduard Bernstein.
Social Democracy

• The chief characteristic of modern social democratic thought is a concern for the underdog in society, the weak and
vulnerable.
• There is a sense, in which social democracy cannot simply be confined to the socialist tradition.
• It may draw on a socialist belief in compassion and a common humanity, a liberal commitment to positive freedom
and equal opportunities, or, for that matter, a conservative sense of paterna l duty and care.
• Whatever its source, it has usually been articulated on the basis of principles such as welfarism, redistribution and
social justice.
• In the form of Keynesian social democracy, which was widely accepted in the early period after the World War II, it
was associated with a clear desire to 'humanize' capitalism through state intervention.
• It was believed that Keynesian economic policies would secure full employment, a mixed economy would help
government to regulate economic activity, and comprehensive welfare provision funded via progressive taxation would
narrow the gap between rich and poor.
Social Democracy

• In the 1980s and 1990s, however, social democracy more obviously moved into retreat. This
occurred for a variety of reasons.
• In the first place, changes in the class structure, and particularly the growth of professional
and clerical occupations, meant that social-democratic policies orientated around the interests
of the traditional working class were no longer electorally viable.
• Second globalization appeared to render all specifically national forms of economic
management, such as Keynesianism, redundant.
• Third, nationalized industries and economic planning proved to be inefficient, at least in
developed states.
• Fourth, the collapse of communism undermined the intellectual and ideological credibility not
just of state collectivization but of all 'top-down' socialist models.
• In this context it became increasingly fashionable for politicians and political thinkers to
embrace the idea of an ideological 'third way'.
Third Way and Communitarianism

• Third Way and Communitarianism are adaptations of

socialism, liberalism and several components of new right
thinking.
• Anthony Giddens criticized the Conservative Party's economic
program under "Thatcherism."
• The Third Way is often interpreted as a way out of the
conflict between socialism (which emphasizes the state) and
capitalism (which glorifies the role of the market).
• The Third Way is indeed trying to get out of the impasse of
"left" and "right" thinking.
• Capitalism is an economic basis - requires an inclusive society
Third Way

• The term 'third way' is imprecise and subject to a variety of interpretations.

This occurs because third-way politics draws on various ideological
traditions, including modern liberalism, one-nation conservatism and
modernized social democracy.
• Different third-way projects have also developed in different countries,
including those associated with the New Democrats and Bill Clinton in the
USA and New Labour and Tony Blair in the UK, as well as those that have
emerged in countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and New
Zealand.
Third Way

Certain characteristic third-way themes can be identified:

• The first of these is the belief that socialism, at least in the form of 'top-down' state intervention, is dead.
With this goes a general acceptance of globalization and the belief that capitalism has mutated into a
'knowledge economy’, which places a premium on information technology, individual skills and both
labour and business flexibility.
• The second feature of third-way politics is that (by contrast with neoliberalism) government is recognized
as having a vital economic and social role.
However, this role is a more focused one, concentrating on the promotion of international
competitiveness by building up education and skills, and the strengthening of communities and civil
society to contain the pressure generated by market capitalism.
• The final feature of third-way politics is that it has broken with socialist egalitarianism and embraces
instead the liberal ideas of equality of opportunity and meritocracy.
This has led to support for what has been called a 'workfare state', in which government support in terms
of benefits or education is conditional on individuals seeking work and becoming self-reliant.
 Other Ideologies

• Nationalism: creating independent states,

fostering national unity Other important
ideologies which
• Anarchism: rejection of the state as a have not developed
social mechanism into comprehensive
systems of thought,
• Feminism: struggle for gender equality but have had major
influence on national
• Environmentalism: saving the planet and global politics:
• What about religious fundamentalisms?
Feminism

 Attempts to 'liberate' women from their “traditional” positions in society

 Highlight the problem of discrimination that causes women to be unable to
progress and develop
 In the condition of male domination in a gendered society, it leads to the
construction that women are 'slaves' of men
 This also has implications for the implementation of political policies, such as:
maternity
 Some oppose differentiating gender identities, some consider it an inherent
difference (apart from biological problems) between men and women
 And is society designed to make it easy for men to achieve progress? This ideology
wants equality. (society needs to be restructured to create gender equality)
Fundamentalism

• Believing in a certain principle as the "Truth" that cannot be

challenged
• In the case of religious fundamentalism, this truth can be
found in its teachings
• In contemporary developments, religious fundamentalism is
often equated with Islamic fundamentalism which is
considered a threat to western ideology.
• However, in fact several other major religions such as
Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism also have elements of
fundamentalism