4.pred - Logic 1 Kode Dosen

Predicate Logic 1: Motivation – Parse Tree
Mathematical Logic – First Term 2023-2024
MZI
School of Computing
Telkom University
SoC Tel-U
October 2023
MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 1 / 48

Acknowledgements
This slide is compiled using the materials in the following sources:
1 Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (Chapter 1), 8th Edition, 2019, by
K. H. Rosen (primary reference).
2 Discrete Mathematics with Applications (Chapter 3), 5th Edition, 2018, by
S. S. Epp.
3 Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and Reasoning about Systems
(Chapter 2), 2nd Edition, 2004, by M. Huth and M. Ryan.
4 Mathematical Logic for Computer Science (Chapter 5, 6), 2nd Edition, 2000,
by M. Ben-Ari.
5 Discrete Mathematics 1 (2012) slides in Fasilkom UI by B. H. Widjaja.
6 Mathematical Logic slides in Telkom University by A. Rakhmatsyah and B.
Purnama.
Some …gures are excerpted from those sources. This slide is intended for internal
academic purpose in SoC Telkom University. No slides are ever free from error nor
incapable of being improved. Please convey your comments and corrections (if
any) to <pleasedontspam>@telkomuniversity.ac.id.
Contents
1 Motivation
2 Quanti…cation and Quanti…er
3 Bounded and Free Variables, Nested Quanti…er
4 Precedence of Quanti…ers and Other Logical Operators
5 Predicate Formulas (Supplementary)

Motivation
Contents
1 Motivation

Motivation
Motivation: Why do we need predicate logic?
In propositional logic discussion, we’ve seen that propositional formulas can be

useful for describing and determining the consistency of a system speci…cation in
computer science. However, propositional logic is not always practical.

Motivation

In propositional logic, every atomic fact is denoted using di¤erent propositional

variable, e.g.:

Motivation


variable, e.g.:
“Alex is a student” is denoted by p,
“Bernard is a student” is denoted by q, and
“Calvin is a student” is denoted by r.

Motivation


variable, e.g.:
“Alex is a student” is denoted by p,
“Bernard is a student” is denoted by q, and
“Calvin is a student” is denoted by r.
In the above examples, we don’t see the relationship between p, q, and r,

although all of these propositions state that “someone” is a student.

Motivation
In English, each of the previous phrases has a similar structure:

Motivation
|{z} is
Alex | a student
{z }
Subject Predicate

Motivation
|{z} is
Alex | a student
{z }
Subject Predicate
Bernard
| {z } is
| a student
{z }
Subject Predicate

Motivation
|{z} is
Alex | a student
{z }
Subject Predicate
Bernard
| {z } is
| a student
{z }
Subject Predicate
Calvin
| {z } is
| a student
{z }
Subject Predicate

Motivation
Predicate
From propositional logic, we know that “x > 2021” is a statement , but not a
proposition.

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.
The statement “x > 2021” or “x is larger than 2021” consists of:

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.
variable x which is a member of a particular set, let’s denote this set by D
(from the word domain);

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.
predicate “is larger than 2021”.

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.
The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.

The statement “x > 2021” can be written as P (x), where P is a predicate and x
is a variable.

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.

is a variable.
P (x) does not have a truth value unless x is replaced by an element in D.

The number of variable(s) observed in a predicate P is called the arity of P .
A unary predicate is a predicate with arity

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.

is a variable.

A unary predicate is a predicate with arity 1.
A binary predicate is a predicate with arity

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.

is a variable.

A binary predicate is a predicate with arity 2.
A ternary predicate is a predicate with arity

Motivation
Predicate
proposition.

is a variable.

A ternary predicate is a predicate with arity 3.
An n-ary predicate is a predicate with arity
Motivation
Predicate
proposition.

is a variable.

A ternary predicate is a predicate with arity 3.
An n-ary predicate is a predicate with arity n.
Motivation
Atomic Propositions in Predicate Logic
By using predicate logic, atomic propositions in our previous example have similar
structures. Suppose we have
“Alex is a student”.
“Bernard is a student”
“Calvin is a student”.

Motivation
All of these three propositions can be denoted respectively as Student (Alex),
Student (Bernard), and Student (Calvin). In these propositions, Student is a
predicate and Alex, Bernard, Calvin are called constants. In these examples,
Student is a predicate with arity

Motivation
All of these three propositions can be denoted respectively as Student (Alex),
Student (Bernard), and Student (Calvin). In these propositions, Student is a
predicate and Alex, Bernard, Calvin are called constants. In these examples,
Student is a predicate with arity 1 and the domain D can be a collection of all
people in the world.
To express “x is a student” in predicate logic, we can write Student (x).

Motivation
Suppose we have following propositions:

“Alex likes crepes”
“Bernard likes meatball”
“Calvin likes pizza”

Motivation

These propositions can be denoted respectively as Likes (Alex; crepes),
Likes (Bernard; meatball), and Likes (Calvin; pizza). In these propositions, ,
Likes is a predicate with arity

Motivation

These propositions can be denoted respectively as Likes (Alex; crepes),
Likes (Bernard; meatball), and Likes (Calvin; pizza). In these propositions, ,
Likes is a predicate with arity 2 and the domain of the predicate can be
D1 D2 = f(x; y) j x is a person and y is a foodg. This means D1 is a
collection of all people and D2 is the collection of all foods. The order of the
domain cannot be swapped over, D1 D2 is not equal to D2 D1 .
To denote “(person) x likes (food) y”, we write Likes (x; y).

Motivation
Predicate logic can be used to logically express following sentences in more formal,
precise, and detailed ways:
There exists an informatics student who sits in front of a computer every day.
Every freshman in informatics major takes Calculus 1.

Motivation
Predicate logic is used in the following deduction:
“Every freshman in informatics major takes Calculus 1”

“Alex is an informatics freshman”
“Therefore, Alex takes Calculus 1”
Remark

Motivation
Predicate logic is used in the following deduction:
“Every freshman in informatics major takes Calculus 1”

“Alex is an informatics freshman”
“Therefore, Alex takes Calculus 1”
Remark
Predicate logic covered in this Mathematical Logic course is also called as
…rst-order predicate logic or simply …rst-order logic. In this type of logic,
quanti…cation is applied to variables representing elements in particular domains
(this will be discussed later in the slides).

Motivation
Predicate as a function (1)
A predicate with arity n can be considered as a function from D1 D2 Dn

to fF; Tg, where D1 D2 Dn is a set of ordered tuple (d1 ; d2 ; : : : ; dn )
with di 2 Di for each i = 1; 2; : : : ; n.
Example
A unary predicate P with P (x) denotes “x > 2021” can be considered as a
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
where D is the set of observed numbers. The truth values of P (2021) and
P (2022) according to P (x) are obtained as follows:

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2021)

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2021) (2021 > 2021)

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2021) (2021 > 2021) F because

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2021) (2021 > 2021) F because 2021 > 2021 is false
P (2022)

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2022) (2022 > 2021)

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2022) (2022 > 2021) T because

Motivation

Example
function
P : D ! fF; Tg ,
P (2022) (2022 > 2021) T because 2022 > 2021 is true.

Motivation
Example
A binary predicate Q with Q (x; y) denotes “2x = 3y” can be considered as a
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
where D is the set of observed numbers. The truth values of Q (1; 2) and Q (3; 2)
according to Q (x; y) are obtained as follows:

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (1; 2)

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (1; 2) (2 1 = 3 2)

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (1; 2) (2 1 = 3 2) F because

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (1; 2) (2 1 = 3 2) F because 2 1 = 3 2 is false
Q (3; 2)

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (3; 2) (2 3 = 3 2)

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (3; 2) (2 3 = 3 2) T because

Motivation
Example
function
Q : D D ! fF; Tg ,
Q (3; 2) (2 3 = 3 2) T because 2 3 = 3 2 is true

Motivation
Example
A ternary predicate R with R (x; y; z) denotes “x + y = z” can be considered as a
function
R : D D D ! fF; Tg ,
where D is the set of observed numbers. The truth values of R (1; 2; 3) and
R (3; 2; 1) according to R (x; y; z) are obtained as follows:

Motivation
Example
function
R (1; 2; 3)

Motivation
Example
function
R (1; 2; 3) (1 + 2 = 3)

Motivation
Example
function
R (1; 2; 3) (1 + 2 = 3) T because

Motivation
Example
function
R (1; 2; 3) (1 + 2 = 3) T because 1 + 2 = 3 is true.
R (3; 2; 1)

Motivation
Example
function
R (3; 2; 1) (3 + 2 = 1)

Motivation
Example
function
R (3; 2; 1) (3 + 2 = 1) F because

Motivation
Example
function
R (3; 2; 1) (3 + 2 = 1) F because 3 + 2 = 1 is false.

Motivation
We’ve seen the methods for verifying the truth values of predicates with arity 1, 2,
and 3.

Motivation
and 3. How about predicates with arity 0 (i.e., nullary predicate)?

Motivation
The truth value of a predicate with arity 0 does not depend on any element
in the domain D,

Motivation
in the domain D,
the truth value of a predicate with arity 0 always equal regardless the element
in D, in other words, the truth value remains constant,

Motivation
in the domain D,
the truth value of a predicate with arity 0 always equal regardless the element
in D, in other words, the truth value remains constant,
a proposition in propositional logic which we’ve learned earlier can be
considered as a predicate with arity 0.

Quanti…cation and Quanti…er
Contents
1 Motivation

In a predicate, there are two types of quanti…cation which can be applied to

variables:
1 universal quanti…cation
2 existential quanti…cation
These quanti…cations express the extent to which range a predicate is true over a
range of elements. In English, the words all, some, many, none, and few are used
in quanti…cation.

Universal Quanti…cation
Universal Quanti…cation
Universal quanti…cation for predicate P (x) is the statement
“P (x) for all (every) element x in the domain D”
This statement is denoted symbolically as
8x 2 D P (x) , or
8x P (x) , if D is clear from context.
P (x) is the scope of quanti…cation 8x.

The above formulation is usually read as
“For all (every) x in D we have P (x) ”, or

“P (x) is true for every x in the universe of discourse”
The symbol 8 is called the universal quanti…er .

More About Universal Quanti…cation
If the domain D is …nite, for example, suppose D = fa1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an g, then we have
8x P (x)
8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )

8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )
8x P (x) is false if there is (at least) one x in D that makes P (x) false.
8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )
The value x which makes 8x P (x) false is called the counterexample of the
statement 8x P (x).
Example
Suppose there are three people in a particular classroom, Alice, Bob, and Charlie.
8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )
statement 8x P (x).
Example
The statement “everyone in the classroom is a student” can be expressed as
8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )
statement 8x P (x).
Example
“Alice, Bob, and Charlie are students in the classroom”.
8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )
statement 8x P (x).
Example
“Alice, Bob, and Charlie are students in the classroom”. The statement “everyone
in the classroom is a student” is false if at least one of Alice, Bob, or Charlie is
not a student.
8x P (x) P (a1 ) ^ P (a2 ) ^ ^ P (an )
statement 8x P (x).
Example
“Alice, Bob, and Charlie are students in the classroom”. The statement “everyone
in the classroom is a student” is false if at least one of Alice, Bob, or Charlie is
not a student. Suppose, for example, Bob is not a student in the classroom, then
Bob is the counterexample of the statement “everyone in the classroom is a
student”.
Existential Quanti…cation
Existential Quanti…cation
Existential quanti…cation for predicate P (x) is the statement
“P (x) for some (at least one) element x in the domain D”
This statement is denoted symbolically as
9x 2 D P (x) , or
9x P (x) , if D is clear from context.
P (x) is the scope of quanti…cation 9x.

The above formulation is usually read as
“There is an x in D such that P (x) ”, or

“There is at least one x in the universe of discourse such that P (x) ”
The symbol 9 is called the existential quanti…er .

More About Existential Quanti…cation
9x P (x)

9x P (x) P (a1 ) _ P (a2 ) _ _ P (an )

9x P (x) P (a1 ) _ P (a2 ) _ _ P (an )
9x P (x) is false if all x in D make P (x) false.
Example

9x P (x) P (a1 ) _ P (a2 ) _ _ P (an )
Example
The statement “there is a student in the classroom” can be expressed as

9x P (x) P (a1 ) _ P (a2 ) _ _ P (an )
Example
The statement “there is a student in the classroom” can be expressed as “Alice or
Bob or Charlie is a student in the classroom”.

9x P (x) P (a1 ) _ P (a2 ) _ _ P (an )
Example
The statement “there is a student in the classroom” can be expressed as “Alice or
Bob or Charlie is a student in the classroom”. The statement “there is a student
in the classroom” is false, if everyone in the classroom, i.e., Alice, Bob, and
Charlie is not a student.

Truth Value of a Quanti…ed Predicate
8x P (x) 9x P (x)
true when P (x) is true There is an x
for every x for which P (x) is true
false when There is an x P (x) is false
for which P (x) is false for every x

Bounded and Free Variables, Nested Quanti…er
Contents
1 Motivation

Bounded and Free Variables
Bounded and Free Variables

Suppose P is a unary predicate, a variable x occurs in P (x) is called bounded
variable if
1 x is replaced by a particular element in domain D, or
2 x is bounded by a particular quanti…er (8x or 9x)
A variable that is not bounded is called free variable. The terminology concerning
bounded and free variables are not only for unary predicate, but also for other
predicates with arity n > 1.

Example
Suppose P is a binary predicate, P (x; y) is evaluated in domain D1 D2 , we
have:

Example
have:
in 8x 2 D1 P (x; y) we have x is a bounded variable and y is a free variable

Example
have:
in 8y 2 D2 P (x; y) we have

Example
have:
in 8y 2 D2 P (x; y) we have y is a bounded variable and x is a free variable

Example
have:
in 8x 2 D1 P (x; d2 ) we have

Example
have:
in 8x 2 D1 P (x; d2 ) we have x and y are bounded variables (variable y is
replaced by d2 )

Example
have:
replaced by d2 )
in 9y 2 D2 P (d1 ; y) we have

Example
have:
replaced by d2 )
in 9y 2 D2 P (d1 ; y) we have x and y are bounded variables (variable x is
replaced by d1 )

Example
have:
replaced by d2 )
replaced by d1 )
in 9x 2 D1 8y 2 D2 P (x; y) we have

Example
have:
replaced by d2 )
replaced by d1 )
in 9x 2 D1 8y 2 D2 P (x; y) we have x and y are bounded variables

Example
have:
replaced by d2 )
replaced by d1 )
in 9y 2 D2 8x 2 D1 P (x; y) we have

Example
have:
replaced by d2 )
replaced by d1 )
in 9y 2 D2 8x 2 D1 P (x; y) we have x and y are bounded variables

Example
Suppose Q is a ternary predicate, Q (x; y; z) is evaluated in domain
D1 D2 D3 , we have:

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
in 8x 2 D1 Q (x; y; z) we have x is a bounded variable, y and z are free
variables

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
variables
in 9x 2 D1 8y 2 D2 Q (x; y; z) we have

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
variables
in 9x 2 D1 8y 2 D2 Q (x; y; z) we have x and y are bounded variables, z is
a free variable

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
variables
a free variable
in 9x 2 D1 9y 2 D2 8z 2 D3 Q (x; y; z) we have

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
variables
a free variable
in 9x 2 D1 9y 2 D2 8z 2 D3 Q (x; y; z) we have x, y, and z are bounded
variables

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
variables
a free variable
variables
in Q (d1 ; y; d3 ) we have

Example
D1 D2 D3 , we have:
variables
a free variable
variables
in Q (d1 ; y; d3 ) we have x and z are bounded variables (variables x and z are
respectively replaced by d1 and d3 ), y is a free variable

Formula with Nested Quanti…er
Let P be a ternary predicate whose universe of discourse is D1 D2 D3 . When

D1 , D2 , and D3 are clear from context, then the formula
8x 2 D1 9y 2 D2 8z 2 D3 P (x; y; z)
can be simpli…ed as
8x9y8z P (x; y; z)
This rule is also applied to any predicate with arity n > 1.
In other words, we may omit writing the domain whenever the domain is clear
from context.

Occurrence Order of (Nested) Quanti…ers

The occurrence order of quanti…ers can a¤ect the meaning of predicate formulas.
Example
Suppose Teach (x; y) means “person x teaches subject y” where the domain of x
is the set of all lecturers in Tel-U and the domain of y is the set of all courses in
Tel-U, then 8x9y Teach (x; y), 9y8x Teach (x; y), 9x8y Teach (x; y),
8y9x Teach (x; y) have di¤erent meanings:


Example
1 8x9y Teach (x; y) means


Example
1 8x9y Teach (x; y) means “for every lecturer x, he/she teaches a subject y”
or in other words


Example
or in other words “every lecturers in Tel-U at least teaches one subject”,


Example
2 9y8x Teach (x; y) means


Example
2 9y8x Teach (x; y) means “there is a subject y which is taught by every
lecturer x”


Example
lecturer x” or in other words “there is a subject taught by every lecturer in
Tel-U”,


Example
Tel-U”,
3 9x8y Teach (x; y) means


Example
Tel-U”,
3 9x8y Teach (x; y) means “there is a lecturer x who teaches every subject y”
or in other words


Example
Tel-U”,
or in other words “there is a lecture in Tel-U who teaches every subject”,


Example
Tel-U”,
4 8y9x Teach (x; y) means


Example
Tel-U”,
4 8y9x Teach (x; y) means “for every subject y, there is a lecturer x who
teaches y” or in other words


Example
Tel-U”,
4 8y9x Teach (x; y) means “for every subject y, there is a lecturer x who
teaches y” or in other words “every subject in Tel-U is taught by someone”.

Quanti…er Scope
Quanti…er Scope
In predicate logic expression 8x9y Teach (x; y) we have
8x9y Teach (x; y)

| {z }
scope of 9y
| {z }
scope of 8x

Quanti…er Scope
Quanti…er Scope
8x9y Teach (x; y)

| {z }
scope of 9y
| {z }
scope of 8x
9y contains Teach (x; y), in subformula 9y Teach (x; y) variable x is a free

variable.

Quanti…er Scope
Quanti…er Scope
8x9y Teach (x; y)

| {z }
scope of 9y
| {z }
scope of 8x
9y contains Teach (x; y), in subformula 9y Teach (x; y) variable x is a free

variable.
8x contains 9y Teach (x; y), in subformula 8x9y Teach (x; y) variable x is a
bounded variable.

Precedence of Quanti…ers and Other Logical Operators
Contents
1 Motivation

Precedence of Quanti…ers and Other Operators
Suppose we have a logical expression 8x P (x) ^ Q (x). We need to put the

parentheses to make the expression clear, which one is correct?
1 8x (P (x) ^ Q (x))
2 (8x P (x)) ^ Q (x)

Precedence of Quanti…ers and Other Operators
Suppose we have a logical expression 8x P (x) ^ Q (x). We need to put the

parentheses to make the expression clear, which one is correct?
1 8x (P (x) ^ Q (x))
2 (8x P (x)) ^ Q (x)
In predicate logic, the quanti…er 8 and 9 bind more tightly than other logical
operators.

The precedence of quanti…er and logical operators in predicate logic is described

by following table:
Operator Precedence
8 1
9 2
: 3
^ 4
_ 5
6
! 7
$ 8
Therefore 8x P (x) ^ Q (x) means

The precedence of quanti…er and logical operators in predicate logic is described

by following table:
Operator Precedence
8 1
9 2
: 3
^ 4
_ 5
6
! 7
$ 8
Therefore 8x P (x) ^ Q (x) means (8x P (x)) ^ Q (x).

Predicate Formulas (Supplementary)
Contents
1 Motivation

Terms in Predicate Logic
Predicate formulas are made up of terms which are de…ned as follows:
Terms
1 Any variable is a term. Variables are usually denoted by lowercase letters:
u; v; w; x; y; z, u1 ; u2 ; : : :, v1 ; v2 ; : : :, w1 ; w2 ; : : :, x1 ; x2 ; : : :, y1 ; y2 ; : : :,
z1 ; z2 ; : : :.
2 All constants in the domain (or universe of discourse) are terms. Constants
are usually denoted by lowercase letters: a; b; c, a1 ; a2 ; : : :, b1 ; b2 ; : : :,
c1 ; c2 ; : : :, or concretely. For example, constants might be numbers 0; 1; 2 (if
the domain is a particular set of numbers), constants might be names Alex,
Bob, or Charlie (if the domain is a particular set of people), etc.
3 If t1 ; t2 ; : : : ; tn are terms and f is a function with arity n 1, then
f (t1 ; t2 ; : : : ; tn ) is also term. In this case, f is considered as a function with
n variable whose value is a single term.

Example
Suppose f is a unary function and g is a binary function, a and b are constants, x
and y are variables, then:
1 a, b, x, and y are terms.
2 f (a), f (b), f (x), f (y) are terms, because f is a unary function.
3 g (a; b), g (y; x), g (b; y), g (x; x),
Example
3 g (a; b), g (y; x), g (b; y), g (x; x), are terms, because g is a binary function.
4 g (a), g (b), g (x), g (y)
Example
4 g (a), g (b), g (x), g (y) are NOT terms, because g is a binary function.
5 f (f (a)), f (f (b)), f (f (c))
Example
5 f (f (a)), f (f (b)), f (f (c)) are terms, because f ( ) is a term and f is a
unary function.
6 g (a; f (x)), g (a; f (y)), g (f (b) ; f (y)), g (y; f (x))
Example
unary function.
6 g (a; f (x)), g (a; f (y)), g (f (b) ; f (y)), g (y; f (x)) are terms, because a, y,
and f ( ) are terms and g is a binary function.
7 f (a; b), f (x; y), f (y; f (x))
Example
unary function.
7 f (a; b), f (x; y), f (y; f (x)) are NOT terms, because f is a unary function.
8 g (a; b; x), g (f (a) ; y; f (x)), g (y; f (a) ; g (x; b))
Example
unary function.
8 g (a; b; x), g (f (a) ; y; f (x)), g (y; f (a) ; g (x; b)) are NOT terms, because g
is a binary function.
9 g (g (a; b) ; g (x; y)), g (f (a) ; f (f (x))),
Example
unary function.
9 g (g (a; b) ; g (x; y)), g (f (a) ; f (f (x))), are terms .
10 g (f (a)), f (g (a)), g (x; f (x; y))
Example
unary function.
9 g (g (a; b) ; g (x; y)), g (f (a) ; f (f (x))), are terms .
10 g (f (a)), f (g (a)), g (x; f (x; y)) are NOT terms because f is a unary
function and g is a binary function.
Example
Suppose 0; 1; 2 : : : are constants, x; y; z are variables, s is a unary function, + and
are binary functions, then

Example
1 0, 1, 2, . . . are terms, so are x, y, z.

Example
2 s (0), s (x), s (y) are

Example
2 s (0), s (x), s (y) are terms, s (x; y), s (0; x), s (z; 2)

Example
2 s (0), s (x), s (y) are terms, s (x; y), s (0; x), s (z; 2) are NOT terms.

Example
3 + (0), + (x), + (y)

Example
3 + (0), + (x), + (y) are NOT terms, + (1; 2), + (1; s (x)), + (s (1) ; s (0)) are

Example
terms.

Example
terms.
4 (1; 2), (+ (1; 2) ; 0), (+ (1; 2) ; (s (0) ; s (1))) are

Example
terms.
4 (1; 2), (+ (1; 2) ; 0), (+ (1; 2) ; (s (0) ; s (1))) are terms, (1; + (0)),
(1), (1; s (0) ; s (s (1)))

Example
terms.
4 (1; 2), (+ (1; 2) ; 0), (+ (1; 2) ; (s (0) ; s (1))) are terms, (1; + (0)),
(1), (1; s (0) ; s (s (1))) are NOT terms.

Example
terms.
4 (1; 2), (+ (1; 2) ; 0), (+ (1; 2) ; (s (0) ; s (1))) are terms, (1; + (0)),
(1), (1; s (0) ; s (s (1))) are NOT terms.
The terms + (1; 2), + (1; s (x)), and + (s (1) ; s (0)) are usually written in in…x
notation, respectively as: 1 + 2, 1 + s (x), and s (1) + s (0).

Example
terms.
4 (1; 2), (+ (1; 2) ; 0), (+ (1; 2) ; (s (0) ; s (1))) are terms, (1; + (0)),
(1), (1; s (0) ; s (s (1))) are NOT terms.
The terms + (1; 2), + (1; s (x)), and + (s (1) ; s (0)) are usually written in in…x
notation, respectively as: 1 + 2, 1 + s (x), and s (1) + s (0).
The terms (1; 2), (+ (1; 2) ; 0) and (+ (1; 2) ; (s (0) ; s (1))) are usually
written in in…x notation, respectively as:1 2, (1 + 2) 0, and
(1 + 2) (s (0) s (1)).

Subterm
Subterm
1 A term t is a subterm of t itself.
2 If s and t are two terms used for constructing more complex term u, then s
and t are proper subterm of u.
3 Subterm is transitive: if s is a subterm of t and t is a subterm of u, then s is
subterm of u.
Example
Suppose 1 and 2 are constants, x is a variable, f is a unary function, and + and
are binary function. Let t be a term 1 + (2 f (x)), then the subterm of t are
(1)

Subterm
Subterm
subterm of u.
Example
(1) 1 + (2 f (x)),

Subterm
Subterm
subterm of u.
Example
(1) 1 + (2 f (x)), (2) 2 f (x),

Subterm
Subterm
subterm of u.
Example
(1) 1 + (2 f (x)), (2) 2 f (x), (3) f (x),

Subterm
Subterm
subterm of u.
Example
(1) 1 + (2 f (x)), (2) 2 f (x), (3) f (x), (4) 1,

Subterm
Subterm
subterm of u.
Example
(1) 1 + (2 f (x)), (2) 2 f (x), (3) f (x), (4) 1, (5) 2, and (6)

Subterm
Subterm
subterm of u.
Example
(1) 1 + (2 f (x)), (2) 2 f (x), (3) f (x), (4) 1, (5) 2, and (6) x.

Exercise
Suppose 1 and 2 are constants, x and y are variables, f is a unary function, and
+ and are binary function. Determine all subterms of
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).
Solution:

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).
Solution: subterms of (1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)) are:

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x
y+2

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x
y+2
f (1)

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x
y+2
f (1)
1

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x
y+2
f (1)
1
2

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x
y+2
f (1)
1
2
x

Exercise
(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2)).

(1 + f (1)) ((1 + x) (y + 2))
1 + f (1)
(1 + x) (y + 2)
1+x
y+2
f (1)
1
2
x
y

Exercise
Suppose 2 is a constant, x and y are variables, s is a unary function, and , +,
are binary function. Determine all subterms of (2 s (x)) + (y x).
Solution:

Exercise
Solution: subterms of (2 s (x)) + (y x) are:

(2 s (x)) + (y x)

Exercise

(2 s (x)) + (y x)
2 s (x)

Exercise

(2 s (x)) + (y x)
2 s (x)
y x

Exercise

(2 s (x)) + (y x)
2 s (x)
y x
s (x)

Exercise

(2 s (x)) + (y x)
2 s (x)
y x
s (x)
2

Exercise

(2 s (x)) + (y x)
2 s (x)
y x
s (x)
2
x

Exercise

(2 s (x)) + (y x)
2 s (x)
y x
s (x)
2
x
y

Parse Tree of A Term
Parse tree can be used to visualize the structure of a term in predicate logic.
For example, if 2 is a constant, x and y are variables, s is a unary function, and
, +, are binary function, then the parse tree for term (2 (s (x) + y)) x is
Parse Tree of A Term
Parse tree can be used to visualize the structure of a term in predicate logic.
For example, if 2 is a constant, x and y are variables, s is a unary function, and
, +, are binary function, then the parse tree for term (2 (s (x) + y)) x is
Predicate Formulas
Predicate Formulas
Formulas (or sentences) in predicate logic are made up of:
1 propositional constant: T (true) or F (false)
2 expression P (t1 ; t2 ; : : : ; tn ) where t1 ; t2 ; : : : ; tn are terms and P is an n-ary
predicate with n 1
3 logical operators: :; ^; _; ; !; $
and comply following rules:
1 every well-de…ned expression P (t1 ; t2 ; : : : ; tn ) is a predicate formula,
2 if A and B are two predicate formulas, then :A, A ^ B, A _ B, A B,
A ! B, A $ B, are all predicate formulas,
3 if A is a predicate formulas and x is a variable, then both of 8x A and 9x A
are predicate formulas.

Examples of Predicate Formulas
Example
According to the previous de…nition, if P , Q, R, S are predicates, then we have:
1 8xP (x) ^ Q (x) is a predicate formula, this formula can be written as
(8xP (x)) ^ Q (x), variable x in Q (x) is a free variable.
2 98xP (x) _ Q (x; y) is not a predicate formula (because the expression 98x is
not well-de…ned).
3 8x9P (x ! Q (x))

Example
not well-de…ned).
3 8x9P (x ! Q (x)) is not a predicate formula (because the expression 9P is
not well-de…ned).
4 8x9y (P (x; y) ! S (y; y))

Example
not well-de…ned).
3 8x9P (x ! Q (x)) is not a predicate formula (because the expression 9P is
not well-de…ned).
4 8x9y (P (x; y) ! S (y; y)) is a predicate formula, which can be written as
8x (9y (P (x; y) ! S (y; y))).

Example
5 9x8y (S (x; z) ^ S (y; x))

Example
5 9x8y (S (x; z) ^ S (y; x)) is a predicate formula, which can be written as
9x (8y (S (x; z) ^ S (y; x))), variable z in S (x; z) is a free variable.
6 8x8y (P (x; y) _ Q)

Example
6 8x8y (P (x; y) _ Q) is not a predicate formula (because the expression Q
without argument is not well-de…ned).
7 8z9y (P (x) ! Q (y))

Example
7 8z9y (P (x) ! Q (y)) is a predicate formula, which can be written as
8z (9y (P (x) ! Q (y))), variable x in P (x) is a free variable.
8 P (x) ^ (Q (x; y) ! 9R (R (x)))

Example
7 8z9y (P (x) ! Q (y)) is a predicate formula, which can be written as
8z (9y (P (x) ! Q (y))), variable x in P (x) is a free variable.
8 P (x) ^ (Q (x; y) ! 9R (R (x))) is not a predicate formula (because the
expression R (R (x)) is not well-de…ned).

Exercise
Suppose x and y are variables, a and b are constants over a particular domain D,
f is a unary function over D, g is a binary function over D, P is a unary
predicate, and Q is a binary predicate. Verify whether following expressions are
well-de…ned predicate formulas.
1 8xP (g (f (a) ; x))
2 9x8y (P (x) ! Q (y; y)).
3 9x (Q (x) ! P (x; y)).
4 Q (a; g (f (a) ; f (b))).
5 P (a; f (x)).
6 g (x; y) ! f (a).
7 9x8y (f (x) ! g (x; y)).
8 8x (P (x) ! g (a; f (x))).
9 9y (Q (y; y) $ P (y)).
10 9y9x (Q (y; x) ^ P (g (x; y)) ! P (a)).

Exercise
Suppose x and y are variables, a and b are constants over a particular domain D,
f is a unary function over D, g is a binary function over D, P is a unary
predicate, and Q is a binary predicate. Verify whether following expressions are
well-de…ned predicate formulas.
1 8xP (g (f (a) ; x)) Predicate formula.
2 9x8y (P (x) ! Q (y; y)). Predicate formula.
3 9x (Q (x) ! P (x; y)). Not a predicate formula.
4 Q (a; g (f (a) ; f (b))). Predicate formula.
5 P (a; f (x)). Not a predicate formula.
6 g (x; y) ! f (a). Not a predicate formula.
7 9x8y (f (x) ! g (x; y)). Not a predicate formula.
8 8x (P (x) ! g (a; f (x))). Not a predicate formula.
9 9y (Q (y; y) $ P (y)). Predicate formula.
10 9y9x (Q (y; x) ^ P (g (x; y)) ! P (a)). Predicate formula.

Subformula
The de…nition of subformula in predicate logic is analogous to the de…nition of

subformula in propositional logic.
Subformula
1 A formula A is a subformula of A itself.
2 If A and B are two propositional formulas used to construct a more complex
propositional formula C, then A and B are proper subformulas of C.
3 Subformula is transitive: if A is a subformula of B and B is a subformula of
C, then A is a subformula of C.
Example
Let A be a formula 8x9y (P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z)), then the subformula of A
are (1)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
are (1) 8x9y (P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z)), (2)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
are (1) 8x9y (P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z)), (2) 9y (P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z)),
(3)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
(3) P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z), (4)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
(3) P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z), (4) P (x) ^ Q (y; z), (5)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
(3) P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z), (4) P (x) ^ Q (y; z), (5) P (x), (6)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
(3) P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z), (4) P (x) ^ Q (y; z), (5) P (x), (6) Q (y; z), and
(7)

Subformula

Subformula
Example
(3) P (x) ^ Q (y; z) ! R (x; z), (4) P (x) ^ Q (y; z), (5) P (x), (6) Q (y; z), and
(7) R (x; z).

Exercise
Let m be a constant in the observed domain, determine all subformulas of
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).
Solution:

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).
Solution: subformulas of 8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)) are:

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x)

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x)
F (x; m)

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x)
F (x; m)
S (y; x)

Exercise
8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)).

8x8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
8y (F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m))
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x) ! B (x; m)
F (x; m) ^ S (y; x)
F (x; m)
S (y; x)
B (x; m)

Exercise
Determine all subformulas of 9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))).
Solution:

Exercise
Solution: subformulas of 9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))) are:

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)
9z :P (y; z)

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)
9z :P (y; z)
:P (y; z)

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)
9z :P (y; z)
:P (y; z)
:Q (y; x)

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)
9z :P (y; z)
:P (y; z)
:Q (y; x)
P (y; z)

Exercise

9x (9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)))
9z P (y; z) ^ 8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
9z P (y; z)
8y (:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z))
:Q (y; x) _ 9z :P (y; z)
9z :P (y; z)
:P (y; z)
:Q (y; x)
P (y; z)
Q (y; x)

Parse Tree of a Formula
Parse tree is useful to visualize the structure of a predicate formula.
For example, the parse tree of 8x ((P (x) ! Q (x)) ^ S (x; y)) is
Parse Tree of a Formula
Parse tree is useful to visualize the structure of a predicate formula.
For example, the parse tree of 8x ((P (x) ! Q (x)) ^ S (x; y)) is
Exercise
Let x; y; z be variables, a be a constant, f be a unary function, and B; E; M; S be
predicates. Draw the parse tree of each of these formulas.
1 8x9y (M (x; y) ^ 8z (M (z; y)) ! E (x; z)).
2 8x9y8z (M (x; y) ^ (M (z; y) ! E (x; z))).
3 8x (9y S (x; f (y)) ! B (x; f (a))).

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Predicate Logic 1: Motivation – Parse Tree

Mathematical Logic – First Term 2023-2024

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 1 / 48

2 Quanti…cation and Quanti…er

3 Bounded and Free Variables, Nested Quanti…er

4 Precedence of Quanti…ers and Other Logical Operators

5 Predicate Formulas (Supplementary)

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 3 / 48

2 Quanti…cation and Quanti…er

3 Bounded and Free Variables, Nested Quanti…er

4 Precedence of Quanti…ers and Other Logical Operators

5 Predicate Formulas (Supplementary)

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 4 / 48

Motivation: Why do we need predicate logic?

In propositional logic discussion, we’ve seen that propositional formulas can be

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 5 / 48

Motivation: Why do we need predicate logic?

In propositional logic discussion, we’ve seen that propositional formulas can be

In propositional logic, every atomic fact is denoted using di¤erent propositional

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 5 / 48

Motivation: Why do we need predicate logic?

In propositional logic discussion, we’ve seen that propositional formulas can be

In propositional logic, every atomic fact is denoted using di¤erent propositional

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 5 / 48

Motivation: Why do we need predicate logic?

In propositional logic discussion, we’ve seen that propositional formulas can be

In propositional logic, every atomic fact is denoted using di¤erent propositional

In the above examples, we don’t see the relationship between p, q, and r,

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 5 / 48

In English, each of the previous phrases has a similar structure:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 6 / 48

In English, each of the previous phrases has a similar structure:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 6 / 48

In English, each of the previous phrases has a similar structure:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 6 / 48

In English, each of the previous phrases has a similar structure:

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 6 / 48

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

P (x) does not have a truth value unless x is replaced by an element in D.

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

P (x) does not have a truth value unless x is replaced by an element in D.

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

P (x) does not have a truth value unless x is replaced by an element in D.

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 7 / 48

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

P (x) does not have a truth value unless x is replaced by an element in D.

The set D is called the domain or the universe of discourse.

P (x) does not have a truth value unless x is replaced by an element in D.

Atomic Propositions in Predicate Logic

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 8 / 48

Atomic Propositions in Predicate Logic

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Predicate Logic 1 October 2023 8 / 48