2.prop - Logic 2 Kode Dosen

Propositional Logic 2: Interpretation and Semantics of
Propositional Formulas – Laws of Logical Equivalences

Mathematical Logic – First Term 2023-2024
MZI
School of Computing
Telkom University
SoC Tel-U
September-October 2023
MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 2 September-October 2023 1 / 43

Acknowledgements
This slide is compiled using the materials in the following sources:
1 Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (Chapter 1), 8th Edition, 2019, by
K. H. Rosen (primary reference).
2 Discrete Mathematics with Applications (Chapter 2), 5th Edition, 2018, by
S. S. Epp.
3 Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and Reasoning about Systems
(Chapter 1), 2nd Edition, 2004, by M. Huth and M. Ryan.
4 Mathematical Logic for Computer Science (Chapter 2, 3, 4), 2nd Edition,
2000, by M. Ben-Ari.
5 Discrete Mathematics 1 (2012) slides in Fasilkom UI by B. H. Widjaja.
6 Mathematical Logic slides in Telkom University by A. Rakhmatsyah and B.
Purnama.
Some …gures are excerpted from those sources. This slide is intended for internal
academic purpose in SoC Telkom University. No slides are ever free from error nor
incapable of being improved. Please convey your comments and corrections (if
any) to <pleasedontspam>@telkomuniversity.ac.id.
Contents
1 Interpretation and Semantics of Propositional Formulas
2 Propositional Formulas Based on Their Semantics
3 Formula Schema (Supplementary), Logical Consequence, and Logical

Equivalence
4 Laws of Logical Equivalences

Interpretation and Semantics of Propositional Formulas
Contents

Equivalence

Interpretation
Interpretation
An interpretation of a propositional formula is an assignment of truth value for
that formula. The formula can be a compound proposition. For an atomic
proposition, an interpretation is simply a mapping from a propositional variable to
its truth. We denote the interpretation with following symbol: I, I1 , I2 , . . . .

Interpretation
Interpretation
I (p) = T means p is interpreted to true by interpretation I

I (q) = F means

Interpretation
Interpretation

I (q) = F means q is interpreted to false by interpretation I
I3 (p) = F means

Interpretation
Interpretation

I3 (p) = F means p is interpreted to false by interpretation I3
I5 (q) = T means

Interpretation
Interpretation

I3 (p) = F means p is interpreted to false by interpretation I3
I5 (q) = T means q is interpreted to true by interpretation I5

Interpretation of Compound Propositions
An interpretation of a proposition can be obtained simply from the

assignment of truth value of all atomic variables occur in that proposition.
The truth of a compound proposition can be determined from the truth of its
constituent atomic propositions.
For a complex formula, interpretation (also called semantics) is determined
by observing the interpretation of all subformulas occur in that formula.

Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

Let A be a proposition and I is an interpretation de…ned for each propositional
atom occurs in A. The interpretation of A with respect to I is de…ned recursively
as follows:
If A = p (an atomic proposition), then I (A) = I (p), and its truth value is
equal to the truth value of p.
If A = T, then I (A) = I (T) =


as follows:
If A = T, then I (A) = I (T) = T. Also, if A = F, then I (A) = I (F) =


as follows:
If A = T, then I (A) = I (T) = T. Also, if A = F, then I (A) = I (F) = F.
If A = :B, for some formula B, then
I (A) =


as follows:
I (A) = I (:B) =


as follows:
T,
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) =
F,


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
If A = B ^ C, for some formulas B and C, then
I (A) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T,
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T, if I (B) = I (C) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) =
F,


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T, if I (B) = I (C) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) = .
F, otherwise
If A = B _ C, for some formulas B and C, then
I (A) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T, if I (B) = I (C) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) = .
F, otherwise
I (A) = I (B _ C) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T, if I (B) = I (C) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) = .
F, otherwise
F,
I (A) = I (B _ C) = I (B) _ I (C) =


as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T, if I (B) = I (C) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) = .
F, otherwise
F, if I (B) = I (C) = F
I (A) = I (B _ C) = I (B) _ I (C) =
T,

as follows:
T, if I (B) = F
I (A) = I (:B) = :I (B) = .
F, if I (B) = T
T, if I (B) = I (C) = T
I (A) = I (B ^ C) = I (B) ^ I (C) = .
F, otherwise
F, if I (B) = I (C) = F
I (A) = I (B _ C) = I (B) _ I (C) = .
T, otherwise
If A = B C, for some formulas B and C, then

I (A) =


I (A) = I (B C) =


T,
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) =
F,


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
If A = B ! C, for some formulas B and C, then I (A) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
If A = B ! C, for some formulas B and C, then I (A) = I (B ! C) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
F,
I (B) ! I (C) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
F, if I (B) = T but I (C) = F
I (B) ! I (C) =
T,


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
I (B) ! I (C) = .
T, otherwise
If A = B $ C, for some formulas B and C, then
I (A) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
I (B) ! I (C) = .
T, otherwise
If A = B $ C, for some formulas B and C, then
I (A) = I (B $ C) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
If A = B ! C, for someformulas B and C, then I (A) = I (B ! C) =
I (B) ! I (C) = .
T, otherwise
If A = B $ C, for someformulas B and C, then
T,
I (A) = I (B $ C) = I (B) $ I (C) =


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
I (B) ! I (C) = .
T, otherwise
T, if I (B) = I (C)
I (A) = I (B $ C) = I (B) $ I (C) =
F,


T, if I (B) 6= I (C)
I (A) = I (B C) = I (B) I (C) = .
F, if I (B) = I (C)
I (B) ! I (C) = .
T, otherwise
T, if I (B) = I (C)
I (A) = I (B $ C) = I (B) $ I (C) = .
F, if I (B) 6= I (C)

Example
Suppose A is the formula p ^ q ! r and I is an interpretation de…ned as:
I (p) = F, I (q) = T, and I (r) = F. The interpretation of A under I, i.e., I (A)
is determined as follows:
I (A) =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
=

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
=

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
=

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
=

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F = T.
This interpretation can also be determined as follows:
I (p ^ q ! r) =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F = T.
I (p ^ q ! r) = (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r) =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F = T.
I (p ^ q ! r) = (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r) = (F ^ T) ! F =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F = T.
I (p ^ q ! r) = (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r) = (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F =

Example
I (A) = I (p ^ q ! r)
= I ((p ^ q) ! r)
= I (p ^ q) ! I (r)
= (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r)
= (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F = T.
I (p ^ q ! r) = (I (p) ^ I (q)) ! I (r) = (F ^ T) ! F = F ! F = T.

Exercise
Suppose I and J are two interpretations de…ned for atomic propositions as
follows: I (p) = T, I (q) = F, I (r) = F, J (p) = F, J (q) = F, J (r) = T.
Determine the interpretation of p ! q _ r and (p ! q) _ (p ! r) under I and J .
Solution:

Exercise
Solution:
1 I (p ! q _ r) =

Exercise
Solution:
1 I (p ! q _ r) = I (p ! (q _ r)) = I (p) ! (I (q) _ I (r)) =

Exercise
Solution:
1 I (p ! q _ r) = I (p ! (q _ r)) = I (p) ! (I (q) _ I (r)) = T ! (F _ F) =

Exercise
Solution:
T!F=

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
2 J (p ! q _ r) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
2 J (p ! q _ r) = J (p ! (q _ r)) = J (p) ! (J (q) _ J (r)) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
2 J (p ! q _ r) = J (p ! (q _ r)) = J (p) ! (J (q) _ J (r)) = F !
(F _ T) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
(I (p) ! I (q)) _ (I (p) ! I (r)) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
(I (p) ! I (q)) _ (I (p) ! I (r)) = (T ! F) _ (T ! F) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
(I (p) ! I (q)) _ (I (p) ! I (r)) = (T ! F) _ (T ! F) = F _ F =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
(I (p) ! I (q)) _ (I (p) ! I (r)) = (T ! F) _ (T ! F) = F _ F = F.

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
4 J ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
4 J ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = J (p ! q) _ J (p ! r) =
(J (p) ! J (q)) _ (J (p) ! J (r)) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
4 J ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = J (p ! q) _ J (p ! r) =
(J (p) ! J (q)) _ (J (p) ! J (r)) = (F ! F) _ (F ! T) =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
4 J ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = J (p ! q) _ J (p ! r) =
(J (p) ! J (q)) _ (J (p) ! J (r)) = (F ! F) _ (F ! T) = T _ T =

Exercise
Solution:
T ! F = F.
(F _ T) = F ! T = T.
3 I ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = I (p ! q) _ I (p ! r) =
4 J ((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) = J (p ! q) _ J (p ! r) =
(J (p) ! J (q)) _ (J (p) ! J (r)) = (F ! F) _ (F ! T) = T _ T = T.

Interpretation and Truth Table

A single line in a truth table corresponds to an interpretation of a proposition.
Suppose A is the formula (p _ :q) ! (p ^ q), the truth table of A can be

obtained as follows:
Interpretation Ik (:q) Ik (p _ :q) Ik (p ^ q) Ik (A)
I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T T



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T T F



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T T F F
where k = 1; 2; 3; 4.
Problem



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T T F F
where k = 1; 2; 3; 4.
Problem
How many lines are there in a truth table for verifying the truth of proposition with
1 3 di¤erent atomic propositions;



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T T F F
where k = 1; 2; 3; 4.
Problem



I1 (p) = T, I1 (q) = T F T T T
I2 (p) = T, I2 (q) = F T T F F
I3 (p) = F, I3 (q) = T F F F T
I4 (p) = F, I4 (q) = F T T F F
where k = 1; 2; 3; 4.
Problem
3 n di¤erent atomic propositions.
Propositional Formulas Based on Their Semantics
Contents

Equivalence

Validity, Satis…ability, and Contradiction
De…nition
Let A be a propositional formula:

De…nition
1 A is valid i¤ A is always true (T) for every interpretation applied to A. In
this case, A is also called a tautology.

De…nition
2 A is satis…able i¤ there exists at least one interpretation I which makes A is
true (T).

De…nition
true (T).
3 A is contradictory/ unsatis…able i¤ A is always false (F) for every
interpretation applied to A. In this case, A is also called a contradiction.

De…nition
true (T).
3 A is contradictory/ unsatis…able i¤ A is always false (F) for every
interpretation applied to A. In this case, A is also called a contradiction.
4 A is a contingency i¤ A is neither valid nor contradictory.

Consistent Set of Formulas

Suppose fA1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An g is a collection of formulas. The set fA1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An g
is consistent or mutually satis…able if there exists an interpretation I such that
I (A1 ) = I (A2 ) = = I (An ) = T.

Consistent Set of Formulas

Suppose fA1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An g is a collection of formulas. The set fA1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An g
is consistent or mutually satis…able if there exists an interpretation I such that
I (A1 ) = I (A2 ) = = I (An ) = T.
The stipulation that fA1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An g is consistent is equivalent to the condition

that the conjunction
A1 ^ A2 ^ ^ An
is satis…able.

Example of Validity, Satis…ability, and Contradictory (1)
Exercise
Verify whether formula A de…ned as (p q) _ (p :q) is valid, satis…able, or
contradictory.
Solution:

Exercise
contradictory.
Solution: using truth table, consider that
p q :q p q p :q A
T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T T
Since there exists an interpretation which makes A is true, then

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T T
Since there exists an interpretation which makes A is true, then A is satis…able.

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T T

Since every interpretation applied to A makes A is true, then

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T T

Since every interpretation applied to A makes A is true, then A is valid.

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :q p q p :q A
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T F T T

Since every interpretation applied to A makes A is true, then A is valid.
Obviously, A is not a contradiction.

Exercise
Verify whether formula A de…ned as (p _ q) ^ (:p ^ :q) is valid, satis…able, or
contradictory.
Solution:

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T F

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T F
Since every interpretation applied to A makes A is false, then A is a contradiction.

Exercise
contradictory.
p q :p :q p_q :p ^ :q A
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T F
Since every interpretation applied to A makes A is false, then A is a contradiction.

Obviously, A is not satis…able, let alone valid.

Exercise
Verify whether formula A de…ned as (p _ q) ^ :r is satis…able. Is A valid? Is A a
contradiction? Is A a contingency?
Solution:

Exercise
Solution:
1 Observe that for I (p) = I (q) = T and I (r) = F, then I ((p _ q) ^ :r) =

Exercise
Solution:
1 Observe that for I (p) = I (q) = T and I (r) = F, then I ((p _ q) ^ :r) = T.

Exercise
Solution:
2 Since there is an interpretation which makes A is true, then A

Exercise
Solution:
2 Since there is an interpretation which makes A is true, then A is satis…able.

Exercise
Solution:
3 Observe that for I (p) = I (q) = F and I (r) = T, then I ((p _ q) ^ :r) =

Exercise
Solution:
3 Observe that for I (p) = I (q) = F and I (r) = T, then I ((p _ q) ^ :r) = F.

Exercise
Solution:
4 Since there is an interpretation which makes A is false, then A

Exercise
Solution:
4 Since there is an interpretation which makes A is false, then A is not valid.

Exercise
Solution:
5 Since A is satis…able, then A is not a contradiction.

Exercise
Solution:
5 Since A is satis…able, then A is not a contradiction.
6 Since A is neither valid nor contradictory, then A is a contingency.

Remark
In order to determine whether a formula A is satis…able or not, we do not always
need to write down its truth table.
Problem
Is every valid formula also satis…able?

Proving Validity Without Truth Table (Supplementary)
Problem
Given a formula A := : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s), to determine
whether A is valid, do we need to construct its truth table?

Problem
Truth table method is not always e¢ cient.

Problem
Truth table method is not always e¢ cient. The above formula A requires
24 = 16 rows in its truth table.

Problem
We can prove the validity of a formula using falsi…cation or contradiction
method.

Problem
We can prove the validity of a formula using falsi…cation or contradiction
method.
In this method, we …rst assume that the formula is not valid, and then we try
to derive that this assumption leads to contradictory statements (and
therefore, our previous assumption is false).

Example
We want to prove that (:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q) is valid by contradiction method.

Example
1 Suppose that (:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q) is not valid, then

Example
1 Suppose that (:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q) is not valid, then there exists an
interpretation I such that I ((:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q)) =

Example
interpretation I such that I ((:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q)) = F.

Example
2 For convenience, we write A := :p _ :q and B := : (p ^ q). Our formula
can be rewritten as A ! B.

Example
3 Recall that I (A ! B) = F precisely when

Example
3 Recall that I (A ! B) = F precisely when I (A) =

Example
3 Recall that I (A ! B) = F precisely when I (A) = T and I (B) =

Example
3 Recall that I (A ! B) = F precisely when I (A) = T and I (B) = F,
therefore we obtain

Example
therefore we obtain I (:p _ :q) =

Example
therefore we obtain I (:p _ :q) = T and I (: (p ^ q)) =

Example
therefore we obtain I (:p _ :q) = T and I (: (p ^ q)) = F.

Example
4 Since I (: (p ^ q)) = F, then I (p ^ q) =

Example
4 Since I (: (p ^ q)) = F, then I (p ^ q) = T, therefore it must be the case
that I (p) =

Example
that I (p) = T and I (q) =

Example
that I (p) = T and I (q) = T.
5 From step (4), we get I (:p) =

Example
5 From step (4), we get I (:p) = F and I (:q) =

Example
5 From step (4), we get I (:p) = F and I (:q) = F, which makes
I (:p _ :q) =

Example
I (:p _ :q) = F.

Example
I (:p _ :q) = F. This result contradicts to the previous I (:p _ :q) = T in
step (3).

Example
step (3).
6 Accordingly, our assumption that (:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q) is not valid was
wrong.

Example
step (3).
6 Accordingly, our assumption that (:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q) is not valid was
wrong.
7 Therefore, (:p _ :q) ! : (p ^ q) is a valid formula.

Exercise
Show that (p ! q) $ (:p _ q) is valid without using its truth table.
Solution:

Exercise
Solution:
Suppose that (p ! q) $ (:p _ q) is not valid,

Exercise
Solution:
Suppose that (p ! q) $ (:p _ q) is not valid, then there exists an interpretation
I such that I ((p ! q) $ (:p _ q)) =

Exercise
Solution:
I such that I ((p ! q) $ (:p _ q)) = F.

Exercise
Solution:
To shorten, we write A := p ! q and B := :p _ q. Our formula can be rewritten

as A $ B.

Exercise
Solution:

as A $ B.
Recall that I (A $ B) = F precisely when

Exercise
Solution:

as A $ B.
Recall that I (A $ B) = F precisely when I (A) 6= I (B), hence we have two

possibilities, i.e., I (A) =

Exercise
Solution:

as A $ B.

possibilities, i.e., I (A) = T and I (B) =

Exercise
Solution:

as A $ B.

possibilities, i.e., I (A) = T and I (B) = F, or

Exercise
Solution:

as A $ B.

possibilities, i.e., I (A) = T and I (B) = F, or I (A) = F and I (B) = T.

Exercise
Solution:

as A $ B.

possibilities, i.e., I (A) = T and I (B) = F, or I (A) = F and I (B) = T.
For convenience, we write these conditions as I1 (A) = T and I1 (B) = F, and

I2 (A) = F and I2 (B) = T.

For I1 , we have I1 (A) = T and I1 (B) = F.


1 From I1 (B) = I1 (:p _ q) = F we get I1 (:p) =


1 From I1 (B) = I1 (:p _ q) = F we get I1 (:p) = I1 (q) =


1 From I1 (B) = I1 (:p _ q) = F we get I1 (:p) = I1 (q) = F, and thus
I1 (p) =


I1 (p) = T. From this result we obtain I1 (p ! q) =


I1 (p) = T. From this result we obtain I1 (p ! q) = F.


2 This result contradicts the previous fact that I1 (A) = I1 (p ! q) = T for I1 .
For I2 , we have I2 (A) = F and I2 (B) = T.



1 From I2 (A) = I2 (p ! q) = F we get I2 (p) =



1 From I2 (A) = I2 (p ! q) = F we get I2 (p) = T and I2 (q) =



1 From I2 (A) = I2 (p ! q) = F we get I2 (p) = T and I2 (q) = F, and thus
I2 (:p) =



I2 (:p) = F. From this result we obtain I2 (:p _ q) =



I2 (:p) = F. From this result we obtain I2 (:p _ q) = F.



2 This result contradicts the previous fact that I2 (B) = I2 (:p _ q) = T for
I2 .



I2 .
As a result, there is no interpretation I that makes I ((p ! q) $ (:p _ q)) = F.



I2 .
As a result, there is no interpretation I that makes I ((p ! q) $ (:p _ q)) = F.

Consequently, the formula (p ! q) $ (:p _ q) is valid.

Exercise
Show that : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s) is valid without using its
truth table.
Solution:

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
Suppose that : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s) is not valid,

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
Suppose that : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s) is not valid, then there
exists an interpretation I such that
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.
For brevity, we write A := : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) and B := (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s).

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.
For brevity, we write A := : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) and B := (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s). Since

I (A ! B) = F

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

I (A ! B) = F precisely when I (A) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

I (A ! B) = F precisely when I (A) = T and I (B) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

I (A ! B) = F precisely when I (A) = T and I (B) = F, our assumption gives
us:
1 I (B) = I (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

us:
1 I (B) = I (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s) = F, therefore
I (:p) = I (:q) = I (:r) = I (:s) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

us:
I (:p) = I (:q) = I (:r) = I (:s) = F, and hence
I (p) = I (q) = I (r) = I (s) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

us:
I (p) = I (q) = I (r) = I (s) = T.
2 From step (1), we obtain I (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

us:
I (p) = I (q) = I (r) = I (s) = T.
2 From step (1), we obtain I (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) = T, and thus
I (A) = I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s)) =

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

us:
I (p) = I (q) = I (r) = I (s) = T.
I (A) = I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s)) = F.

Exercise
truth table.
Solution:
I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.

us:
I (p) = I (q) = I (r) = I (s) = T.
I (A) = I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s)) = F.
3 The result in step (2) contradicts our previous supposition that I (A) = T.

As a result, there is no interpretation I satisfying

I (: (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s)) = F.
Therefore : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! (:p _ :q _ :r _ :s) is valid.

Exercise
Determine whether each of these formulas is valid, satis…able, a contradiction, or
a contingency.
1 (p ! q _ p ! r) $ (p ! q ^ r)
2 (p ^ q _ :r) ! (: (p $ r) ^ :q)
3 ((:p ^ q) ^ (r ! p) ^ (r ! s) ^ (s ! t)) ! t
4 ((p ! q) ^ (:p ! r) ^ (r ! s)) ! (:q ! s)
5 ((p ! q) ^ (r ! s) ^ (:p ! :s)) ! (r ! q)
6 p q ! (p ^ :q) _ (:p ^ q)
7 p q ! (p _ q) ^ (:p ^ :q)
8 p q ! : (p $ q)
9 : (p $ q) $ (p ^ :q) _ (:p ^ q)
10 (p _ q) ^ (:p ^ :q) $ (p ^ :q) _ (:p ^ q)

Formula Schema (Supplementary), Logical Consequence, and Logical
Equivalence
Contents

Equivalence

Equivalence
Formula Schema (Supplementary)

Using truth tables, we can prove that each of these formulas is valid:
1 A1 := p _ :p
2 A2 := q _ :q
3 A3 := (p ! q) _ : (p ! q)

Equivalence

1 A1 := p _ :p
2 A2 := q _ :q
3 A3 := (p ! q) _ : (p ! q)
Observe that each of these formulas have a “similar” structure.

Equivalence

1 A1 := p _ :p
2 A2 := q _ :q
3 A3 := (p ! q) _ : (p ! q)
In order to not prove each formula individually, we can investigate the formula
schema A _ :A instead.

Equivalence

1 A1 := p _ :p
2 A2 := q _ :q
3 A3 := (p ! q) _ : (p ! q)
In A1 , we have p as formula A, in A2 we have q as formula A, and in A3 we have

p ! q as formula A.

Equivalence

1 A1 := p _ :p
2 A2 := q _ :q
3 A3 := (p ! q) _ : (p ! q)

p ! q as formula A.
Formula A1 , A2 , and A3 which are obtained from replacing formula A with

particular concrete formula are called as instances of formula schema A _ :A.

Equivalence

1 A1 := p _ :p
2 A2 := q _ :q
3 A3 := (p ! q) _ : (p ! q)

p ! q as formula A.
Formula A1 , A2 , and A3 which are obtained from replacing formula A with

particular concrete formula are called as instances of formula schema A _ :A.
If formula schema A _ :A is valid, then every instance of this formula schema is

valid as well.
Equivalence
Exercise
Show that following formulas are valid:
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
Observe that each of these formulas can be considered as formulas with identical
schema, that is,

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
schema, that is, : (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B. For the …rst formula, A = p and B = q,
for the second formula A =

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
for the second formula A = p ^ q and B =

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
for the second formula A = p ^ q and B = r ^ s, and for the last formula
A=

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
A = p ^ q ^ r and B =

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
A = p ^ q ^ r and B = s ^ t ^ u.

Equivalence
Exercise
1 : (p ^ q) ! :p _ :q
2 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s) ! : (p ^ q) _ : (r ^ s)
3 : (p ^ q ^ r ^ s ^ t ^ u) ! : (p ^ q ^ r) _ : (s ^ t ^ u).
Solution:
A = p ^ q ^ r and B = s ^ t ^ u.
Accordingly, to prove that each of these formulas is valid, it is su¢ cient to prove
that formula schema : (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B is valid. The prove can be carried
out using contradiction method.

Equivalence
1 Suppose : (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B is not valid, then there is an interpretation I

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
2 As a consequence, we obtain I (: (A ^ B)) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
2 As a consequence, we obtain I (: (A ^ B)) = T and I (:A _ :B) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
2 As a consequence, we obtain I (: (A ^ B)) = T and I (:A _ :B) = F.
3 From I (:A _ :B) = F we obtain

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
3 From I (:A _ :B) = F we obtain I (:A) = I (:B) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
3 From I (:A _ :B) = F we obtain I (:A) = I (:B) = F, and so
I (A) = I (B) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
I (A) = I (B) = T.
4 From step (3) we obtain I (A ^ B) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
I (A) = I (B) = T.
4 From step (3) we obtain I (A ^ B) = T, hence I (: (A ^ B)) =

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
I (A) = I (B) = T.
4 From step (3) we obtain I (A ^ B) = T, hence I (: (A ^ B)) = F.

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
I (A) = I (B) = T.
4 From step (3) we obtain I (A ^ B) = T, hence I (: (A ^ B)) = F. This
result contradicts to I (: (A ^ B)) = T in step (2).

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
I (A) = I (B) = T.
5 Therefore, there is no interpretation I such that
I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.

Equivalence

such that I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
I (A) = I (B) = T.
5 Therefore, there is no interpretation I such that
I (: (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B) = F.
6 As a conclusion the formula schema : (A ^ B) ! :A _ :B is valid.

Equivalence
Logical Consequence and Logical Equivalence
De…nition
Suppose A and B are two propositional formulas.
Formula A and B are (logically) equivalent if the formula
A$B
is a tautology. In this condition, we write A B or A , B.

Formula B is said to be the (logical) consequence of A if the formula
A!B
is a tautology. In this condition, we write A ) B.

To verify a logical consequence or a logical equivalence of two formulas, we can
use:
truth table
laws of logical equivalences

Equivalence
Example of Logical Consequence (1)
Exercise
Show that ((p ! q) ^ p) ) q.
Solution:

Equivalence
Exercise
Solution: we will show that ((p ! q) ^ p) ! q is a tautology by its truth table,

observe that
p q p!q (p ! q) ^ p ((p ! q) ^ p) ! q
T T

Equivalence
Exercise

observe that
p q p!q (p ! q) ^ p ((p ! q) ^ p) ! q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Equivalence
Exercise

observe that
p q p!q (p ! q) ^ p ((p ! q) ^ p) ! q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
The logical consequence ((p ! q) ^ p) ) q is also known as modus ponens (we’ll

get back to this in the rule of inferences section).

Equivalence
Exercise
Show that ((p ! q) ^ :q) ) :p.
Solution:

Equivalence
Exercise
Solution: we will show that ((p ! q) ^ :q) ! :p is a tautology by its truth table,
observe that
p q :p :q p!q (p ! q) ^ :q ((p ! q) ^ :q) ! :p
T T

Equivalence
Exercise
observe that
p q :p :q p!q (p ! q) ^ :q ((p ! q) ^ :q) ! :p
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T

Equivalence
Exercise
observe that
p q :p :q p!q (p ! q) ^ :q ((p ! q) ^ :q) ! :p
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T
The logical consequence ((p ! q) ^ :q) ) :p is also known as modus tollens

(we’ll get back to this in the rule of inferences section).

Equivalence
Example of Logical Equivalence (1)
Exercise
Show that p ! q :p _ q.
Solution:

Equivalence
Exercise
Solution: we will show that (p ! q) $ (:p _ q) is a tautology by its truth table,
observe that
p q :p p!q :p _ q (p ! q) $ (:p _ q)
T T

Equivalence
Exercise
observe that
p q :p p!q :p _ q (p ! q) $ (:p _ q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

Equivalence
Exercise
observe that
p q :p p!q :p _ q (p ! q) $ (:p _ q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
Note that p ! q and :p _ q have identical truth value in every row of the above
truth table.

Equivalence
Exercise
Show that : (p ^ q) :p _ :q.
Solution:

Equivalence
Exercise
Solution: we will show that : (p ^ q) $ :p _ :q is a tautology by its truth table,

observe that
p q :p :q p^q : (p ^ q) :p _ :q : (p ^ q) $ :p _ :q
T T

Equivalence
Exercise

observe that
p q :p :q p^q : (p ^ q) :p _ :q : (p ^ q) $ :p _ :q
T T F F T F F T
T F F T F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T F T T T

Equivalence
Exercise

observe that
p q :p :q p^q : (p ^ q) :p _ :q : (p ^ q) $ :p _ :q
T T F F T F F T
T F F T F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T F T T T
Note that : (p ^ q) and :p _ :q have identical truth value in every row of the
above truth table. The logical equivalence : (p ^ q) :p _ :q is also known as
De Morgan’s law.

Laws of Logical Equivalences
Contents

Equivalence

Logical Equivalences Concerning :, ^, and _
p^T p Identity laws

p_F p
p_T T Domination laws
p^F F
p_p p Idempotent laws
p^p p
: (:p) p Double negation law
p_q q_p Commutative laws
p^q q^p

(p ^ q) ^ r p ^ (q ^ r) Associative laws
(p _ q) _ r p _ (q _ r)
p _ (q ^ r) (p _ q) ^ (p _ r) Distributive laws
p ^ (q _ r) (p ^ q) _ (p ^ r)
: (p ^ q) :p _ :q De Morgan’s laws
: (p _ q) :p ^ :q
p _ (p ^ q) p Absorption laws
p ^ (p _ q) p
p _ :p T Negation laws
p ^ :p F
By associative laws, the parentheses in formulas (p ^ q) ^ r, p ^ (q ^ r),

(p _ q) _ r, and p _ (q _ r) can be omitted and these formula can be rewritten
identically as p ^ q ^ r (for conjunctive form) and p _ q _ r (for disjunctive form).

Logical Equivalences Concerning ! and $
p!q :p _ q
p!q :q ! :p
: (p ! q) p ^ :q
(p ! q) ^ (p ! r) p ! (q ^ r)
(p ! r) ^ (q ! r) (p ^ q) ! r
(p ! r) _ (q ! r) (p _ q) ! r
(p ! q) _ (p ! r) p ! (q _ r)
p$q (p ! q) ^ (q ! p)
p$q :p $ :q
p$q (p ^ q) _ (:p ^ :q)
: (p $ q) p $ :q

Proving Equivalence Using Laws of Equivalences (1)
Exercise
Show that p ^ q ! r p ! (q ! r) using the laws of logical equivalences.
Solution:

Exercise
Solution:
p^q !r (p ^ q) ! r (precedences of ^ and !)

Exercise
Solution:
: (p ^ q) _ r (equivalence A ! B :A _ B)

Exercise
Solution:
(:p _ :q) _ r (De Morgan’s law)

Exercise
Solution:
:p _ (:q _ r) (associative law for _)

Exercise
Solution:
:p _ (q ! r) (equivalence :A _ B A ! B)

Exercise
Solution:
:p _ (q ! r) (equivalence :A _ B A ! B)
p ! (q ! r) (equivalence :A _ B A ! B)
Equivalence of formula A ! B :A _ B can be proven easily using

contradiction method of formula schema (A ! B) $ (:A _ B).
The equivalence p ^ q ! r p ! (q ! r) is also known as exportation law.

Exercise
Show that : (p _ (:p ^ q)) and :p ^ :q are equivalent using the laws of logical
equivalences.
Solution:

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:
: (p _ (:p ^ q))

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:
: (p _ (:p ^ q)) :p ^ : (:p ^ q) (De Morgan’s law)

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:

:p ^ (: (:p) _ :q) (De Morgan’s law)

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:

:p ^ (p _ :q) (double negation law)

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:

(:p ^ p) _ (:p ^ :q) (distributive law)

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:

F _ (:p ^ :q) (negation law)

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:

(:p ^ :q) _ F (commutative law)

Exercise
equivalences.
Solution:

(:p ^ :q) _ F (commutative law)
:p ^ :q (identity law)

Proving Validity Using Laws of Equivalences (1)
Exercise
Show that (p ^ q) ! (p _ q) is valid using the laws of logical equivalences.
Solution:

Exercise
Solution:
We must show that (p ^ q) ! (p _ q) is equivalent to T.
(p ^ q) ! (p _ q)

Exercise
Solution:
(p ^ q) ! (p _ q) : (p ^ q) _ (p _ q) (equivalence A ! B :A _ B)

Exercise
Solution:
(:p _ :q) _ (p _ q) (De Morgan’s law)

Exercise
Solution:
(:p _ p) _ (:q _ q) (commutative and
associative law for _)

Exercise
Solution:
T_T (commutative and
negation law for _)

Exercise
Solution:
T_T (commutative and
negation law for _)
T (domination law)
Note: from this result, we can write (p ^ q) ) (p _ q).

Exercise
Show that (p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q) is valid using the laws of logical equivalences.
Solution:

Exercise
Solution:
We must show that (p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q) is equivalent to T.
(p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q)

Exercise
Solution:
(p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q)
: (p ! q ^ r) _ (p ! q) (equivalence A ! B :A _ B)

Exercise
Solution:
(p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q)
: (:p _ (q ^ r)) _ (:p _ q) (equivalence A ! B :A _ B)

Exercise
Solution:
(p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q)
(: (:p) ^ : (q ^ r)) _ (:p _ q) (De Morgan’s law)

Exercise
Solution:
(p ! q ^ r) ! (p ! q)
(: (:p) ^ : (q ^ r)) _ (:p _ q) (De Morgan’s law)
(p ^ (:q _ :r)) _ (:p _ q) (De Morgan’s law
and double negation law)

(p ^ :q) _ (p ^ :r) _ (:p _ q) (distributive law)


(p ^ :q) _ (:p _ q) _ (p ^ :r) (commutative law for _)


(::p ^ :q) _ (:p _ q) _ (p ^ :r) (double negation law)


: (:p _ q) _ (:p _ q) _ (p ^ :r) (De Morgan’s law)


T _ (p ^ :r) (negation law)


(p ^ :r) _ T (commutative law for _)


(p ^ :r) _ T (commutative law for _)
T (domination law)
Note: from this result, we can write (p ! q ^ r) ) (p ! q).

2.prop - Logic 2 Kode Dosen

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Propositional Logic 2: Interpretation and Semantics of

Propositional Formulas – Laws of Logical Equivalences

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 2 September-October 2023 1 / 43

1 Interpretation and Semantics of Propositional Formulas

2 Propositional Formulas Based on Their Semantics

3 Formula Schema (Supplementary), Logical Consequence, and Logical

4 Laws of Logical Equivalences

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 2 September-October 2023 3 / 43

1 Interpretation and Semantics of Propositional Formulas

2 Propositional Formulas Based on Their Semantics

3 Formula Schema (Supplementary), Logical Consequence, and Logical

4 Laws of Logical Equivalences

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Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

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Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

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Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

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Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

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Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

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Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas

MZI (SoC Tel-U) Propositional Logic 2 September-October 2023 7 / 43

Semantics Rules for Propositional Formulas