Epc 1-14

7/30/2023
Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411
Prof. Krishna C. Etika

BITS Pilani Associate Professor
Pilani Campus Department of Chemical Engineering
B.I.T.S-Pilani, Pilani Campus
Lecture-1
30-07-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
1
7/30/2023
Introduction
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control
Handout
Topics Lecture No
Impact of Man on the Environment: An Overview 1
Air Pollution: Sources and Effects 2
Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollutant Dispersion 3-4
Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement 5
Air Pollution Control Methods & Equipment 6-7
Review 8
Water Pollutants 9
Wastewater Sampling and Analysis 10
Waste Water Treatment 11-13
Hazardous Waste Management 14
Noise Pollution 15
Review 16
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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
2
7/30/2023
Handout
Evaluation Component Name Type (Open Weight Duration Day, Date,
(Quiz, Lab, Project, Mid- book, Session, Time
term exam, End semester Closed
exam, etc.) book,
Online, etc.)
EC - 1 Quiz I September 10,
Online 5% 10 min
2023
Quiz II October 14,
Online 10% 20 min
2023
Quiz III November 12,
Online 10% 20 min
2023
EC - 2 Mid-Semester Test Sunday,
Closed
35% 2 hours 24/09/2023
Book
(Evening)
EC - 3 Comprehensive Exam Sunday,
Open Book 40% 2 ½ hours 26/11/2023
(Evening)
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Contact List of Topic Sub-Topics Referenc

Hour Title e
 The Biosphere T1- Ch.1
 The Hydrologic Cycle
 The Nutrient Cycles- Carbon,
Impact of
Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Man on the
1-2 sulphur
Environment:
 Consequences of Population
An Overview
Growth-Exponential Growth
 Self-Study: Environment
Trends
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Introduction
What is an Environment?
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Introduction
The term environment is a broad term with many different
definitions, and the term is used differently by different
people. Thus it makes it difficult to define exactly what the
environment is??
The natural world or physical surroundings in general, either as

a whole or within a particular geographical area, esp. as
affected by human activity.
"The area surrounding a place or thing; the environs,

surroundings, or physical context."
Are Human’s Part of Environment???? 8

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Reality Check! https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-

spotlight/india/#:~:text=Lucknow%2C%20the%20capital%20of%20India's,Delhi%20is%20also%20highly
%20polluted.
All of India’s 1.4 billion

people live in areas where
the annual average
particulate pollution level
exceeds the WHO guideline.
Ninety-four percent live in
areas where it exceeds
India’s own air quality
standard.
“India is today the world’s second most polluted country. Air pollution shortens the average
Indian life expectancy by 6.3 years, relative to what it would be if the World Health Organization
(WHO) guideline was met; 3.4 years relative to what it would be if pollution were reduced to
meet the country’s own national standard. Some areas of India fare much worse than average,
with 30
airJuly
pollution
2023
shortening lives by more than 10 years in Delhi and its surrounding region.”
9
Reality Check!
Arsenic has been found in water in parts of 209 districts in

25 states and Union territories, while uranium has been
found in parts of 152 districts across 18 states.
Also, there are 14,079 iron-affected, 671 fluoride-affected,

814 arsenic-affected, 9,930 salinity-affected, 517 nitrate-
affected and 111 heavy metal-affected habitations in the
country.
Read more at:https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/arsenic-found-in-ground-

water-in-parts-of-209-districts-uranium-in-parts-of-152-districts-
govt/articleshow/93279825.cms
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Reality Check!
“Air and noise pollution should now be considered as
one of the major factors causing cardiac irregularities. As
cardiologists, we are used to thinking about many
traditional risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, or
diabetes. This study and others suggest that we should
start considering additional risks.”
Annual Frontier Report, 2022’

published by the United Nations Thirteen cities from South Asia feature in the
Environment Program. list. Five of them from India: Kolkata at 89 dB,
Asansol (89 dB), Jaipur (84 dB), and Delhi (83
The report ranks 61 cities around the world dB)
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Reality Check!
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Introduction
• Systematic pollution of our environment is one of the

biggest hazards faced by humanity today
• Task of preserving the purity of environment is of utmost
significance
• Two most pressing demands are (1) protection of
environment (2) efficient use of natural resources
• There is need of technical manpower who could develop

and implement effective means for protecting the
environment
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Environmental engineering
• The application of science and engineering principles,

under constraint, to the protection and enhancement of
the quality of the environment and to the enhancement
and protection of public health and welfare
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Impact of Man on the

Environment: An Overview
The Biosphere
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Nutrient Cycles- Carbon,Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

sulphur
Consequences of Population Growth-Exponential Growth
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BIOSPHERE
• The Environment which Supports Life and sustains

various human activities is known as biosphere
• Extends to about 20 km from the bottom of ocean to the
highest point in the atmosphere where life can be
sustained without protective devices
• Essentials for Life: Light, Heat, water, food and habitats
are supplied by the biosphere
• Biosphere is divided into smaller units or ecosystems
• All ecosystems can be divided into two parts
• Biotic (living) and abiotic (non living) components
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BIOSPHERE – Variety of
known living species
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BIOSPHERE
• The biotic category is subdivided into three functional

groups
• Producers (autotropic-self nourishing): Green Plants and algae
• Consumers (heterotrophic-other nourishing): animal life : fish, insects, birds, they
depend on consumption of Producers
• Decomposers (heterotrophic organisms): bacteria, algae that breaks down
complex compounds from waste materials
• Example : Operating ecosystem: Pond

• Abiotic substances – water, nutrients, oxygen and CO2
• Producers: large rooted plants and free floating minute plants (store energy and
liberate O2)
• Primary Consumers: Benthos or bottom forms and zooplankton with little or no
swimming ability. Phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton which in turn
eaten by large aquatic life such as fish.
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BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

(contd)
• Other consumers are insects, frogs and man

• All these forms produce organic waste and dead organisms.
• The decomposers bacteria and fungi utilize organic carbon and
generate CO2 Used By Algae
• The availability of the Nutrients carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen is
sufficiently small so as to limit the production of algae and maintain
dynamic equilibrium.
• The chemical elements circulate between the organisms and the
environment through pathways comprising of the natural cycles
• 1) hydrologic cycle
• 2) Biochemical cycles
• Carbon
• Phosphorus
• Nitrogen and sulphur
• These cycles operate in a balanced state with little variation thereby
contributing to the stability of atmosphere materials
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(contd)
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Hydrologic Cycle
• Natural cycle : More than 97% of water in biosphere is in oceans, the remaining
3% is found in continents and atmosphere
• More than 70% of this is in glaciers and icecaps
• Water on which human depend such as lakes, streams and ground water
accounts for less than 1% of total supply
• The hydrologic cycle of the biosphere depends on the reciprocity of evaporation
and precipitation. Liquid water on earth goes to the atmosphere as vapor by
evaporation and transpiration of the plants. The vapor is returned to Earth as
rain or snow over the oceans and oceans lose more water by evaporation than
they gain by precipitation. The difference is made up by runoff and seepage
from the continents, over which there is more precipitation than evaporation.
Continents lose more than 50% of the precipitation through evaporation and
remainder is stored in lakes, rivers or ground water which is later discharged
into oceans.
• Each year 4,23000 km3 water is evaporated, same quantity precipitated
• Amount of water temporarily stored & later discharged is 37000 km3
• This water is available for human use
• Minor modification by diverting or regulating the runoff and storage
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(diagram)
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Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)
• Dynamic equilibrium of formation, transformation and

decomposition of carbon compounds
• The producers through photosynthesis reduce carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere to organic carbon
• This then passes through consumers and decomposers,
which reenters the atmosphere through respiration and
decomposition
• Even though the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is of major
concern, the atmospheric reservoir for carbon is the smallest
and oceans hold the largest amount as a vast “sink” for CO2
• Typical reservoirs of carbon
• Oceans -40000 (billion tonnnes)
• Fossil fuels, rocks and minerals -5000 to 10000
• Soil- 2000
• Atmosphere- 750
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• Oceans store 50 times as much as the atmosphere
• Human activity releases roughly 7 billion tons of carbon
• Out of 7 billion tones 3 billion tons accumulate in the atmosphere
and the rest is taken up by ocean and terrestrial plants
• The exact mechanism by which the sea water interacts with the
air above it to remove CO2 is not clearly understood but the
oceanic reservoir tends to regulate the CO2 concentration.
• Even though the ~3 billion tons added to the atmosphere each
year is tiny fraction of the total held by the atmosphere, it
assumes significance because the natural processes and the
environment maintain dynamic equilibrium whereas human
activity put burden.
• Any global event that alter the exchange of CO2 between the
atmosphere and the ocean can significantly affect the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
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• Apart from daily consumption and production of carbon, earth

has significant reserves (limestone, fossil fuels (coal and
petroleum)
• Due of combustion some of bound carbon returns to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide or carbonic acid
• Plants grow faster in CO2 enriched atmosphere but is offset
by the denudation of forests, as a result detectable increase
of CO2 has been Observed
• Atmospheric CO2 concentration stable at 280 +/- 10 ppm till
onset of industrial revolution
• By 1959 CO2 concentration stable at 316 ppm, 1998: 367
(17% increase) and has reached 380 ppm by 2004 . Human
activities has disturbed the carbon cycle
30 July 2023 27
Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen

cycle)
• Nitrogen is gaseous form – 79% in atmosphere
• Cannot be used directly by most forms of life
• It must be fixed before utilization by plants and animals
• By fixation, nitrogen is converted to nitrates and ammonia
• Physicochemical and biological means
• Biological ( free living bacteria Azetobacter , clostridium or leguminuous
plants like Rhizaobium and blue green algae)
• They are key for atmospheric movement nitrogen
• The nitrates are assimilated to form amino acids , urea and other organic
residues in the producer, consumer and decomposer cycle.
• Amino acids and urea---converted to ammonia through “ammonification”
• To complete the cycle the denitrifying bacteria convert the ammonia into
nitrates and nitrates and then back to nitrogen
• Thus Total amount of nitrogen= total amount required to the atmosphere
as gas
• Human’s interference with the natural cycle by industrially fixing
nitrogen(fertilizers)
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Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen

cycle)
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Nutrients Cycle ( Phosphorus

cycle)
• Phosphorus plays important role in the growth of living tissue
• Metabolic process of energy transfer does not form gaseous
compounds at normal T, P
• Reservoirs in land are, rock and natural phosphate deposits
• Much of it is fixed in soil or absorbed on to soil particles
• Some of it lost to water bodies such as lake and streams and
eventually ends up in the ocean where phosphorus is
deposited partly in shallow sediments and partly in deep zone
• Land plants take up inorganic phosphate salts from soil and
convert them to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine
diphosphate (ADP)
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Nutrients Cycle ( Phosphorus

cycle)
• ATP and ADP are utilized by plants as energy carriers for their metabolic
reactions
• Organic phosphates are transferred to consumers and decomposers and
subsequently available as inorganic phosphates for recycling via bacterial
decomposition
• The inorganic phosphates that are leached from the land into the fresh water
systems are taken up rather rapidly by phytoplankton and are converted to
organophosphates. This phosphorus is ingested by zooplankton which are
consumed by other organisms . After their death the phosphates are released
into water by bacterial decompositon.
• Ocean cycle-Phosphates from unlighted depths to the photosynthetic zone
where it goes through phytoplankton, zooplankton and animal stages.
• Zooplankton-Excreate : Of that half is in inorganic form and rest organic
• Some of the phosphorus return to the land through fish harvesting. More
phosphorus is lost than it it is being added. Some concern there-Growth
determining nutrient
• Lack of it caused infertility in soil , fertilizer is used frequently , therefore the
phosphorous cycle is substantially affected
• Phosphorus pollution has contributed to the eutrophication of many water
bodies and may also affect natural food chains
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Nutrients Cycle (Sulphur

cycle)
• Basic constituent of proteins in plants and animals
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2)and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) are important gaseous forms
• Sulphate ion ( SO42-) is the common form found in water and soil
• Sulphate ion is reduced after being absorbed from the soil by plants and bacteria
and utimately incorporated as sulphydryl group (-SH) in proteins. Some sulphates
are reduced under anaerobic conditions directly to sulphides, including H2S or to
elemental sulphur by a class of bacteria known as desulfovibrio found in ocean
bottom
• Thus the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) escapes as a gas into the atmosphere and
replenishes the sulphur lost as precipitaion.
• In the presence of oxygen, H2S is rapidly oxidised to sulphates by bacteria of
genus Thiobacillus
• Even in absence of oxygen several types of bacteria oxidise H2S to elemental
sulphur
• Atmosphere receives sulphur through bacterial emission (H2S), fossil fuel burning
(SO2)sea salts (SO42-)and some volcanic emissions ( H2S, SO2, SO42-)
• The sulphates and acid then precipitates with rain
• Sulphur cycle is overloaded due to burning of fossil fuels at an ever increasing
rates
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Nutrients Cycle (Sulphur

cycle)
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8/6/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411

Lecture-2
06-08-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
1
8/6/2023
Handout
Topics Lecture No
Impact of Man on the Environment: An Overview 1
Air Pollution: Sources and Effects 2
Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollutant Dispersion 3-4
Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement 5
Air Pollution Control Methods & Equipment 6-7
Review 8
Water Pollutants 9
Wastewater Sampling and Analysis 10
Waste Water Treatment 11-13
Hazardous Waste Management 14
Noise Pollution 15
Review 16
6 August 2023 3
Consequences of Population
Growth
• Factor degrading environment is population growth
• Famine and pestilence kept population under control
• With the advent of chemical compounds to restore and
enhance soil fertility and to help protect domesticated
species man was able to extend food producing capacity
significantly
• Modern medicine have helped reduce human mortality
• Therefore it is important to assess growth population to
understand impact of population on environments
– Reasons for lower death rate (food production, cheap
energy sources, industrial revolution)
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Consequences of Population
Growth
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Exponential Growth
k = population growth rate
Doubling Time (Td) for Exponential Growth: Time taken to double the population, i.e.,
r = percent rate of growth

= (100 x k)
= (b-d+m)
b=percent birth rate
d=percent death rate
m=percent migration rate6
6 August 2023 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
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Problem 1
6 August 2023 7
Solution
Given,
Po = 1 billions
to = 2000
t= 2020
k = 1.6% = 0.016
P=?
P = 1x exp (0.016 x (2020-2000)

= 1.377 billions
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Solution
Given,
Po = 1.377 billions
to = 2020
t= 2050
k = 1.2% = 0.012
P=?
P = 1.377x exp(0.012 x (2050-2020)

= 1.974 billions
6 August 2023 9
Population Growth Rate India
If we assume that population growth rate will be

the average of last five years in the future
Then k = 0.86% = 0.0086
Doubling time: 0.693/0.86 = 80 years (Year 2103)

Estimated Population: 2.856 Billion
If k = 1.7% = 0.017
Doubling time: 41 years (Year 2064!)
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World Population & Energy

Consumption
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Effect of Population on Energy

Consumption
“Nature has enough for
satisfying everybody’s Desire for more and
need but not for more comfort
anybody’s greed”.
Nature has created the In the last 300 years we

coal and petroleum in have consumed most of
millions of years and we the coal and almost all
have exhausted them in of the petroleum
hundreds of years. products. Two main reasons for this
growth in energy
consumption
Per capita energy

Exponential growth of
consumption rate which
world’s population
is also exponential
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ENERGY CONSUMTION AND

DEMAND
Previously only marginal utilization of energy was realized.
The present industrial civilization became possible only
when supply of fossil fuels was tapped by mining of coal
about 900 years ago and oil 150 years ago.
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DEMAND
Improvements in technology for discovery and utilization of
fossil fuels.
Two main reasons for this growth in energy consumption
• Exponential growth of world’s population
• Total energy consumption of the world
• Per capita energy consumption rate which is also

exponential
l = per capita energy consumption growth rate = j - k 14

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DEMAND
 NOTE: EVEN IF per capita energy consumption growth
rate = 0, even then,
 World Energy Consumption Growth Rate will rise

exponentially! Why?
 What does that mean? How can per capita energy

consumption growth rate be ZERO??
 Exponential rise in demand for energy will put lot of

extra burden on fossil fuels – More Pollution and
Environmental Impact.
WE MUST CONTROL THE POLLUTION
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Pollution Mitigation
Pollution
Mitigation
Pollution Pollution
Prevention Control
Measures taken after

Avoiding or minimizing
wastes have been
the generation of
produced to limit the
wastes that produce
damage they may
pollutants
cause
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Pollution Prevention
increasing efficiency in energy use
use of environmentally benign fuel sources.
Modifying a production process to produce less

waste
Using non-toxic or less toxic chemicals as cleaners,

degreasers and other maintenance chemicals
Implementing water and energy conservation

practices
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https://www.epa.gov/p2/learn-about-pollution-prevention#p2 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Weather Vs Climate
What is the difference between weather

and climate?
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Weather Vs Climate
o Weather : atmospheric conditions that occur locally
over short periods of time—from minutes to hours
or days. Example: rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods,
or thunderstorms.
o Climate: the long-term (usually at least 30 years)

regional or even global average of temperature,
humidity, and rainfall patterns over seasons, years,
or decades.
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Climate Change
o Climate change is a long-term change in the average

weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local,
regional and global climates. These changes have a
broad range of observed effects that are synonymous
with the term.
o Is it Real???
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Climate Change
https://climate.nasa.gov/
6 August 2023 21
Climate Change
o Global temperatures are now at their highest since

records began. In fact, 17 of the 18 warmest years on
record have all taken place since 2001.
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Climate Change: Causes

Human activities are driving the global
warming trend observed since the mid-
20th century.
o The greenhouse effect is essential to life on Earth, but
human-made emissions in the atmosphere are trapping and
slowing heat loss to space.
o Five key greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon

dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and
ozone (O3).
o Is it only the GHGs or the Sun has become

hotter?
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Climate Change: Causes
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Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect: some of the infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the
atmosphere, but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas
molecules and clouds. The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s surface and the lower
atmosphere.
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Greenhouse Effect
o Do all gas molecules absorb and re-emit infrared

energy?
Molecules that have just two atoms

vibrate by simply moving closer together
and then further apart. The nitrogen (N2)
and oxygen (O2) molecules vibrate in this
simple mode.
 Molecules with more (and more complex!) vibration modes are more likely to interact
with passing waves of electromagnetic radiation.
 This is why carbon dioxide absorbs and emits infrared (IR) radiation, while nitrogen and
oxygen molecules do not.
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Global Warming Potential

(GWP)
o The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was developed to
allow comparisons of the global warming impacts of
different gases.
o It is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1

ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time (100
years), relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon
dioxide (CO2).
o The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms
the Earth compared to CO2 over that time period.
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Global Warming Potential

Methane (CH4) is estimated to have a GWP of 27-30 over
100 years
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 273 times that of CO2 for a
100-year timescale
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Why Not Reduce Water

Vapor?
Because….
o A 100 year GWP for H2O is 10−3 to 5 × 10−4
o It does not regulate earth’s temperature in a way that

other CHGs do
o It is condensable below a certain temperature
o However, the presence of other CHGs are increasing the

water vapor concentration leading to increased warming.
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Ozone Depletion
 Ozone layer in the stratosphere serves as a shield protecting

the earth surface from the sun’s deadly ultraviolet radiation .
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) when used in air conditioner and

refrigeration were valued for their stable and non toxic
properties. However,
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Environmental engineering
• The application of science and engineering principles,

under constraint, to the protection and enhancement of
the quality of the environment and to the enhancement
and protection of public health and welfare
6 August 2023 31
Major Pollution Issues
Water
Pollution
Solid
Air
Waste
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Air Pollution
What is “Air Pollution”
Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in
such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man
and his environment.
– These substances include
• Gases ( sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons etc)
• Particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols)
• Radioactive materials and many others
A particular substance is termed as a pollutant only when its

concentration is relatively high compared with the background
value and causes adverse effects
Example : if SO2 if present in atmosphere greater than the background
value of 2 x 10-4 ppm and causes measurable effects on
humans, animals, plants etc
Pollutants are naturally present in low (background) concentration.

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Background Concentration of
Pollutants
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Air Quality Index
o The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2,
CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly
averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards
are prescribed.
o Based on the measured ambient concentrations,

corresponding standards and likely health impact, a sub-index
is calculated for each of these pollutants.
o The worst sub-index reflects overall AQI.
o Associated likely health impacts for different AQI categories

and pollutants have been also been suggested, with primary
inputs from the medical expert members of the group.
6 August 2023 35
Air Quality Index

The AQI values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as
associated likely health impacts for the identified eight pollutants are as follows:
* CO in mg/m3 , and other pollutants in µg/m3; 24h-hourly average values for PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3, and Pb, and 8-hourly values for CO and O3.
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Air Quality Index
Based on the measured ambient concentrations of a pollutant, sub-index is calculated,

which is a linear function of concentration
(e.g. the sub-index for PM2.5 will be 51 at concentration 31 µg/m3, 100 at
concentration 60 µg/m3, and 75 at concentration of 45 µg/m3).
The worst sub-index determines the overall AQI.

6 August 2023 37
Calculation of AQI
Ip = [IHi – ILo / BPHi – BPLo] (Cp – BPLo) + ILo
Ip = index of pollutant p
Cp = truncated concentration of pollutant p
BPHi = concentration breakpoint i.e. greater than or equal to Cp
BPLo = concentration breakpoint i.e. less than or equal to Cp
IHi = AQI value corresponding to BPHi
ILo = AQI value corresponding to BPLo
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Problem 2
Calculate AQI on the basis of PM2.5 If the current concentration
of PM2.5 is 110 ug/m3

6 August 2023 39
Solution
Ip = ?
Cp = 110 ug/m3
BPHi = 120
BPLo = 91
IHi = 201
ILo = 300
Ip= [(300-201)/ (120-91)] (110-91) + 201 = 265.86
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Scales of Concentration
Concentration of the pollutants in atmosphere can be
expressed as
• Mass concentration
– 𝓶𝒑: mass of the pollutant
– 𝓶𝒂 : mass of the pure air in given air-pollutant mixture
• Volume concentration
– 𝒚𝒑: volume concentration
– 𝒗𝒑 : volume of pollutant
– 𝒗𝒑 : volume of pure air
• Volume concentration in ppm

• Mass-volume concentration
• 𝜌𝒑: Micrograms of pollutants per cubic meters air 𝛍𝒈/𝒎3

6 August 2023 41
A number of relationship can be developed among these
concentrations
Assuming ideal Gas Law for pollutants we get the following
M𝒑 molecular weight of pollutant , T is temperature in K and 8.314 x

10-2 is universal gas constant expressed as m3-bar/kg-mol-K
T= 25oC, Pressure = 1.0133 bars the equation reduces to
Substituting we get
𝜌𝒑
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Problem 2
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END OF LECTURE
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Solution
Given Data
yppm=35
yp = 35x10-6 m3 of CO/m3 of Air
But we need to determine the mass fraction,
How to determine the mass of 35x10-6 m3 of CO ?
6 August 2023 45
Solution
Assume CO is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of CO
= 28 g/mol
 mCO = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 35 x 10-6 m3, M = 28 g/mol,
R= 8.314 x 10-2m3-bar/kg-mol-K = 0.008312 x 10-2m3-bar/g-mol-K
, T = 298 K
6 August 2023 46
23
8/6/2023
Solution
Assume Air is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of Air
= 29 g/mol
 mair = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 1 m3, M = 29 g/mol,
, T = 298 K
6 August 2023 47
Solution
6 August 2023 48
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8/6/2023
Problem 4
Example
CO is present in standard atmospheric air (25 oC , 1 atm)
at a concentration of 50 ppm. Compute 𝒚𝒑, 𝜌𝒑, 𝒑 values
 Solution
Given data:
Concentration of CO = 50 ppm
Volume concentration, yp = yppm x 10-6 = 50 x 10-6 = 5 x
10-5
Mass volume concentration, ρp
M P y ppm (10 3 ) 28(50)10 3
P    57.26  10 3 μg/m 3  57.26  10 6 kg/m 3
24.45 24.45
6 August 2023 49
Example
The mass concentration wp, can be calculated as follows:
Divide mass concentration to volume concentration equation
wp mp  v a  v p 
  
yp v p  ma  m p 
But the term (ma+mp/va+vp) can be written as

ma  m p ma mp
 (1  y a )  yp
va  vp va vp
Taking the density of air, ρa, as equal to ma/va, and density of pollutant, ρp =
(mP/vP)yp; we get
p 57.26  10 6
wp    0.000048
 a (1  y p )   p 1.185(1  0.00005)  57.26  10 6
6 August 2023 50
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Air pollutant classification

Based on physical state
– Pollutants that are gases or particulates
– Gases, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
– Particulates represent any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual
aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 m in diameter) but smaller
than about 500 micrometers
Based on formation
– Primary pollutants
• Emitted directly from the sources
• Include ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist, spray, etc
• Include inorganic gases such that SO2, H2S, olefinic,
aromatic hydrocarbons, CO,CO2, H2F, etc
– Secondary pollutants
• Formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among
primary pollutants and normal atmosphere constituents
• Include SO3, NO2, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, various
sulphates & nitrates salts
Based on source
– Natural & anthropogenic sources
– Natural sources include: wind blown dust, volcanic ash and gases etc…
– Anthropogenic sources include: industry, agriculture etc…
6 August 2023 51
Properties of air pollutants
Particulate matters
– Refers to all atmospheric substances that are not gases
– Can be suspended particles or solid particles or mixtures of two
– Can be composed of inert of extremely reactive materials (100 µm or 0.1 µm or
less)
– Classification include:
• Dust
• Smoke
• Fumes
• Mist
• Fog
• Aerosols
6 August 2023 52
26
8/6/2023
Particulate matters
• Dust: particle size 1-200 𝛍m
• Natural disintegration of rock, grinding, spraying
• Large settling velocity, removed by gravity
• Smoke: fine particles 0.01-1 𝛍m
• Combustion and other chemical processes
• Can be liquid or solid and have different colours
• Fumes: particle size 0.1-1 𝛍m
• Solid particles released from chemical or metallurgical processes
• Mist: smaller than 10 𝛍m
• Liquid droplets formed by condensation in the atmosphere or from industrial processes
• Fog: mist in which liquid is water
• Aerosol: smaller than 1 𝛍m
• All air born suspensions solid or liquid
6 August 2023 53
Oxides of sulphur
– Most important emitted oxide is SO2
– Oxidised slowly in clean air to SO3
– Both SO2 & SO3 relatively quickly washed out of the atmosphere by rain
Nitrogen oxides
– Out of six or seven oxides of nitrogen NO2, NO & N2O are found in appreciable
quantities in atmosphere
– All the oxides are major concern as they are pollutants
Carbon monoxides
– Constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere
– Has a B.Pt of -192 0C
– Affinities towards hemoglobin in blood stream & is dangerous asphyxiant
– Main sources of CO in urban air are smoke, exhaust fumes, from devices
burning coal, gas or oil
6 August 2023 54
27
8/6/2023
Effects of air pollutants
Human effects
• Acute effects
• Short term exposure to air pollutants at high
concentrations
• Chronic effects
• Continuous exposure to air pollutants at low
concentrations
• Effects occur by continuous irritation by pollutants
which interact with environmental or biological
factors
6 August 2023 55
Respiratory effects
Pollutants enter the body in number of ways
Cause eye and skin irritation
Certain particulates swallowed as a result of internal
respiratory cleaning action
Particulate matter inhaled may be deposited in
various regions of the respiratory system depending
on particle size
6 August 2023 56
28
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Particulate matter
Toxic effect of particles can be grouped into three categories
Interference of inert particles with the cleaning mechanisms
of the respiratory tract
Particles act as carriers of adsorbed toxic because of their
physical or chemical characteristics
Particles may be intrinsically toxic because of their physical
or chemical characteristics
6 August 2023 57
Lead
It is neurotoxic whose poisoning results in convulsions, severe
and irreversible brain damage, and death
Inhaled lead is far more serious than ingested lead
Particles emitted by automobile are retained within lungs and
absorbed by body with an efficiency of 40%
Body maintains about 15-25 µg of lead per 100g of whole
blood
6 August 2023 58
29
8/6/2023
Cadmium
It is potential health hazard due to its presence in urban
atmosphere and cigarette smoke
Natural Cd levels in air vary from 0.002 µg/m3 to much
higher values of about 0.3 µg/m3 found near zinc smelters
Exposure to fumes or oxides of Cd is known to cause
cardiovascular diseases
Cd can interfere with the proper zinc and copper metabolism
in the body
6 August 2023 59
Nickel
Nickel carbonyl is emitted into the atmosphere and it is formed in
tobacco smoke
Within lung, carbonyl complex breaks down and deposits
finely divided nickel which is main cause of cancer in lungs
Nickel carbonyl cause changes in alveoli of lungs resulting in
respiratory damage symptoms
6 August 2023 60
30
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Mercury
Present in atmosphere because of its relatively high vapor
pressure
Gaseous mercury is washed from air by rain
Inorganic mercury is converted into its methyl or dimethyl
compounds by the action of bacteria
Mercury poisoning include neurological damage,
chromosomal aberrations and even death
6 August 2023 61
Oxides of nitrogen
 Major oxides of nitrogen which affect human health are nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 NO2 is insoluble and upon inhalation can reach moisture filled
alveoli of lungs
 It is converted to nitrous and nitric acids which are highly
irritating and cause damage to lungs
 Long term exposure to concentrations of order of 1 ppm could
lead to biochemical alterations in blood
6 August 2023 62
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Sulphur Dioxide
Aggravates existing respiratory diseases
Broncho constriction when exposed for a few minutes to
levels of 1.6 ppm
Formation of H2SO4, sulphate aerosols SO3 etc in the atm.
CO
CO+Hb  COHb
Has 210 times greater affinity to hemoglobin than O2
Tissues are deprived of O2
6 August 2023 63
Air pollution effects on vegetation

affects the leaf structure
Caused damage such as necrosis, chlorosis, epinasty
Cement dust affect the vegetation
Chemicals such as arsenic and fluorides when deposited on
leaves poison animals
6 August 2023 64
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Behaviour and Fate of

Pollutants
Natural Pathways of exchange of pollutants from atmosphere to
earth surface (Scavenging Processes).
Particulates :
• Wet removal by precipitation
• Dry removal by sedimentation, impaction and diffusion
Gases:
• Chemical reaction in the atmosphere to produce
aerosols and absorption on aerosols with subsequent
removal
• Absorption or reaction at land and ocean surfaces
6 August 2023 65
Wet precipitation
Wet precipitation has two distinct mechanisms- “rainout” and

“washout”
Rainout:
 Various processes taking place inside clouds
 Contaminants serve as condensation nuclei on which droplets
condense
 Effective for particle size less than 0.1 m
Washout:
 Removal of pollutants below the cloud level by falling rain
 Effective in removing particles >2 m
6 August 2023 66
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Dry deposition
(Accounts for about 20% of total particulate matter removal from

the atmosphere)
 Sedimentation
 Inertial impaction
 Diffusion
Sedimentation:
Particulate matter smaller than 0.1 m often coagulates through
mutual collisions and forms larger aggregates which are
effectively removed by gravitational settling. The rate of
settling of the particles depends on their settling velocities
according to the stokes’ law: gd 2  
vt 
p
   a 1 
2C 
 d p
18 a
p
 p 
6 August 2023 67
Dry deposition
vt = terminal settling velocity; dp = particle diameter; p and a = density of
particle and air, respectively; a = viscosity of air; P = air pressure; C =
constant
 Rate of sedimentation is strongly influenced by the particle size
 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have short
residence time in the atmosphere
Inertial impaction
Windborne particles strike on obstacle and are deposited
Diffusion
Small particles migrate to land and ocean surfaces
 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have short
residence time in the atmosphere
6 August 2023 68
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Interaction at the Earth’s surface
 Absorption
 Adsorption
 Biological action in Soil
6 August 2023 69

ABSORPTION
At the ocean surface SO2 first diffuses through the gas phase, crosses
the gas-liquid interface, and finally diffuses into the bulk of the
ocean where it is absorbed. NO2 also absorbed by ocean and other
surface waters.
ADSORPTION
SO2 first diffuses to the external surface of the solid, penetrates into the
pores of the solid, and is subsequently adsorbed on the pore site
BIOLOGICAL ACTION IN SOIL

Soil contains certain bacteria which can make use of CO in their
metabolism, producing either CO2 or CH4.
2CO  O2  2CO2
CO  3H 2  CH 4  H 2O
6 August 2023 70
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Chemical Reaction in the

Atmosphere
SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which combines with atmospheric
moisture to form H2SO4 mist(Slow process)
2 SO2  O2  2SO3
H 2O  SO3  H 2 SO4 (Removed by wet precipitation)
Metal salt particles serve as nucleation sites for droplet formation and
react with H2SO4 to produce sulphates, which are also removed by wet
precipitation
2 NaCl  H 2 SO4  Na2 SO4  2 HCl
Direct conversion of NO2 to HNO3 in presence of moisture (slow

process).
3NO2  H 2O  2 HNO3  NO
6 August 2023 71
Air pollution laws and

standards
The air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981
An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the
aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and
assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.
It extends to the whole of India.
Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution
State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution to be, State Boards for the Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution
6 August 2023 72
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The air act, 1981

Functions of Central Board
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of
the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
• Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms
and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
• Organize through mass media a comprehensive program regarding the
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution
and the measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and
prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
• Lay down standards for the quality of air.
• Collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution
Ref: http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/air/air1.html
6 August 2023 73
The air act, 1981

Functions of State Boards
• To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
and to secure the execution thereof.
• To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution
• To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
• To collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged or to be
engaged in programs relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
organize mass-education program relating thereto;
• To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider
necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
• To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
in such areas
• To lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for
the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants
into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air
pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an
aircraft
• To advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location
for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
• To Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
6 August 2023 74
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The air act, 1981
The state PCBs are empowered to

Close, prohibit or regulate any industry, operation or
process
Grant consent within four months after receiving an
application and if the application is rejected, allow the
industry to appeal to the appellate authority for grant of
consent
Bar any legal proceedings or law suits against the
government or the officials of the Board for actions taken
in pursuance of the act
6 August 2023 75
Standards
• Legal standards for ambient air quality are prescribed by

the govt
• Purpose of these standards is to reduce the pollutants to
a certain level which would avoid undesirable effects
• In India, various areas of a state are classified by the
concerned PCBs into three categoris
• Industrial and mixed use areas
• Residential and rural areas
• Sensitive areas
6 August 2023 76
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National Ambient Air Quality

Standards
Ref: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards.php
6 August 2023 77

Standards
6 August 2023 78
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8/13/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411

Re-CAP
13 August 2023 2
1
8/13/2023

DEMAND
Improvements in technology for discovery and utilization of
fossil fuels.
Two main reasons for this growth in energy consumption
• Exponential growth of world’s population
• Total energy consumption of the world
• Per capita energy consumption rate which is also

exponential
l = per capita energy consumption growth rate = j - k 3

13 August 2023
Weather Vs Climate
o Weather : atmospheric conditions that occur locally
over short periods of time—from minutes to hours
or days. Example: rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods,
or thunderstorms.
o Climate: the long-term (usually at least 30 years)

regional or even global average of temperature,
humidity, and rainfall patterns over seasons, years,
or decades.
13 August 2023 4
2
8/13/2023
Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect: some of the infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the
atmosphere, but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas
molecules and clouds. The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s surface and the lower
atmosphere.
13 August 2023 5
Air Pollution
What is “Air Pollution”
Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in
such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man
and his environment.
– These substances include
• Gases ( sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons etc)
• Particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols)
• Radioactive materials and many others
A particular substance is termed as a pollutant only when its

concentration is relatively high compared with the background
value and causes adverse effects
Example : if SO2 if present in atmosphere greater than the background
value of 2 x 10-4 ppm and causes measurable effects on
humans, animals, plants etc
Pollutants are naturally present in low (background) concentration.

13 August 2023 6
3
8/13/2023
Air Quality Index
o The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2,
CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly
averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards
are prescribed.
o Based on the measured ambient concentrations,

corresponding standards and likely health impact, a sub-index
is calculated for each of these pollutants.
o The worst sub-index reflects overall AQI.
o Associated likely health impacts for different AQI categories

and pollutants have been also been suggested, with primary
inputs from the medical expert members of the group.
13 August 2023 7
Air Quality Index

The AQI values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as
associated likely health impacts for the identified eight pollutants are as follows:
* CO in mg/m3 , and other pollutants in µg/m3; 24h-hourly average values for PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3, and Pb, and 8-hourly values for CO and O3.
13 August 2023 8
4
8/13/2023
Calculation of AQI
Ip = index of pollutant p
Cp = truncated concentration of pollutant p
BPHi = concentration breakpoint i.e. greater than or equal to Cp
BPLo = concentration breakpoint i.e. less than or equal to Cp
IHi = AQI value corresponding to BPHi
ILo = AQI value corresponding to BPLo
13 August 2023 9
Lecture-3
13-08-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
5
8/13/2023
expressed as


13 August 2023 11
concentrations

10-2 is universal gas constant expressed as m3-bar/kg-mol-K
Substituting we get
𝜌𝒑
13 August 2023 12
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Problem 3
13 August 2023 13
Solution
Given Data
yppm=35
yp = 35x10-6 m3 of CO/m3 of Air
But we need to determine the mass fraction,
How to determine the mass of 35x10-6 m3 of CO ?
13 August 2023 14
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8/13/2023
Solution
Assume CO is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of CO
= 28 g/mol
 mCO = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 35 x 10-6 m3, M = 28 g/mol,
, T = 298 K
13 August 2023 15
Solution
Assume Air is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of Air
= 29 g/mol
 mair = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 1 m3, M = 29 g/mol,
, T = 298 K
13 August 2023 16
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8/13/2023
Solution
13 August 2023 17
Problem 4
Example
CO is present in standard atmospheric air (25 oC , 1 atm) at
a concentration of 50 ppm. Compute 𝒚𝒑, 𝜌𝒑, 𝒑 values
 Solution
Given data:
Concentration of CO = 50 ppm
Volume concentration, yp = yppm x 10-6 = 50 x 10-6 = 5 x
10-5
Mass volume concentration, ρp
M P y ppm (10 3 ) 28(50)10 3
P    57.26  10 3 μg/m 3  57.26  10 6 kg/m 3
24.45 24.45
13 August 2023 18
9
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Example
The mass concentration wp, can be calculated as follows:
Divide mass concentration to volume concentration equation
wp mp  v a  v p 
  
yp v p  ma  m p 
But the term (ma+mp/va+vp) can be written as

ma  mp ma m
 (1  yp )  p yp
va  vp va vp
Taking the density of air, ρa, as equal to ma/va, and density of pollutant, ρp =
(mP/vP)yp; we get
p 57.26  10 6
wp    0.000048
 a (1  y p )   p 1.185(1  0.00005)  57.26  10 6
13 August 2023 19
Air pollutant classification

Based on physical state
– Pollutants that are gases or particulates
– Gases, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
– Particulates represent any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which
the individual aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about
0.0002 m in diameter) but smaller than about 500 micrometers
Based on formation
– Primary pollutants
• Emitted directly from the sources
• Include ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist, spray, etc
• Include inorganic gases such that SO2, H2S, olefinic, aromatic
hydrocarbons, CO,CO2, H2F, etc
– Secondary pollutants
• Formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among primary
pollutants and normal atmosphere constituents
• Include SO3, NO2, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, various sulphates &
nitrates salts
Based on source
– Natural & anthropogenic sources
– Natural sources include: wind blown dust, volcanic ash and gases etc…
– Anthropogenic sources include: industry, agriculture etc…
13 August 2023 20
10
8/13/2023
Particulate matters
– Refers to all atmospheric substances that are not gases
– Can be suspended particles or solid particles or mixtures of two
– Can be composed of inert of extremely reactive materials (100 µm or 0.1 µm or
less)
– Classification include:
• Dust
• Smoke
• Fumes
• Mist
• Fog
• Aerosols
13 August 2023 21
Particulate matters
• Dust: particle size 1-200 𝛍m
• Natural disintegration of rock, grinding, spraying
• Large settling velocity, removed by gravity
• Smoke: fine particles 0.01-1 𝛍m
• Combustion and other chemical processes
• Can be liquid or solid and have different colours
• Fumes: particle size 0.1-1 𝛍m
• Solid particles released from chemical or metallurgical processes
• Mist: smaller than 10 𝛍m
• Liquid droplets formed by condensation in the atmosphere or from industrial processes
• Fog: mist in which liquid is water
• Aerosol: smaller than 1 𝛍m
• All air born suspensions solid or liquid
13 August 2023 22
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Oxides of sulphur
– Most important emitted oxide is SO2
– Oxidised slowly in clean air to SO3
– Both SO2 & SO3 relatively quickly washed out of the atmosphere by rain
Nitrogen oxides
– Out of six or seven oxides of nitrogen NO2, NO & N2O are found in appreciable
quantities in atmosphere
– All the oxides are major concern as they are pollutants
Carbon monoxides
– Constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere
– Has a B.Pt of -192 0C
– Affinities towards hemoglobin in blood stream & is dangerous asphyxiant
– Main sources of CO in urban air are smoke, exhaust fumes, from devices
burning coal, gas or oil
13 August 2023 23
Air Pollutants
Classification
• Particulate matter (All atmospheric substances which are
not gaseous)
• Dust – 1-200 m, solid Ca, Al, Si compounds,
• Smoke – 0.01-1 m, liquid or solid Organic compounds
• Fumes – 0.1-1 m, solid Cd, Pb, Hg, Ni
• Mist/Fog - <10 m, liquids
• Gaseous pollutants
• SOx (SO2, SO3)
• NOx (N2O, NO, NO2)
• CO
• Hydrocarbon
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Particulate Matter (PM)
13 August 2023 25
Human effects
• Acute effects
• Short term exposure to air pollutants at high
concentrations
• Chronic effects
• Continuous exposure to air pollutants at low
concentrations
• Effects occur by continuous irritation by pollutants
which interact with environmental or biological
factors
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 Respiratory effects
 Pollutants enter the body in number of ways
 Cause eye and skin irritation
 Certain particulates swallowed as a result of internal
respiratory cleaning action
 Particulate matter inhaled may be deposited in various
regions of the respiratory system depending on particle
size
13 August 2023 27
Oxides of nitrogen
 Major oxides of nitrogen which affect human health are
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 NO2 is insoluble and upon inhalation can reach moisture
filled alveoli of lungs
 It is converted to nitrous and nitric acids which are highly
irritating and cause damage to lungs
 Long term exposure to concentrations of order of 1 ppm
could lead to biochemical alterations in blood
13 August 2023 28
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Sulphur Dioxide
 Aggravates existing respiratory diseases
 Broncho constriction when exposed for a few minutes to
levels of 1.6 ppm
 Formation of H2SO4, sulphate aerosols SO3 etc in the
atm.
CO
CO+Hb  COHb
Has 210 times greater affinity to hemoglobin than O2
Tissues are deprived of O2
13 August 2023 29
Particulate matter
Toxic effect of particles can be grouped into three
categories
Interference of inert particles with the cleaning
mechanisms of the respiratory tract
Particles act as carriers of adsorbed toxic because of
their physical or chemical characteristics
Particles may be intrinsically toxic because of their
physical or chemical characteristics
13 August 2023 30
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Lead
 It is a neurotoxic whose poisoning results in
convulsions, severe and irreversible brain damage, and
death
 Inhaled lead is far more serious than ingested lead
 Particles emitted by automobile are retained within
lungs and absorbed by body with an efficiency of 40%
 Body maintains about 15-25 µg of lead per 100g of
whole blood
13 August 2023 31
Cadmium
 It is potential health hazard due to its presence in urban
atmosphere and cigarette smoke
 Natural Cd levels in air vary from 0.002 µg/m3 to much
higher values of about 0.3 µg/m3 found near zinc
smelters
 Exposure to fumes or oxides of Cd is known to cause
cardiovascular diseases
 Cd can interfere with the proper zinc and copper
metabolism in the body
13 August 2023 32
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8/13/2023

Nickel
 Nickel carbonyl is emitted into the atmosphere and it is
formed in tobacco smoke
 Within lung, carbonyl complex breaks down and deposits
finely divided nickel which is main cause of cancer in lungs
 Nickel carbonyl cause changes in alveoli of lungs resulting
in respiratory damage symptoms
13 August 2023 33

Mercury
 Present in atmosphere because of its relatively high
vapor pressure
 Gaseous mercury is washed from air by rain
 Inorganic mercury is converted into its methyl or
dimethyl compounds by the action of bacteria
 Mercury poisoning include neurological damage,
chromosomal aberrations and even death
13 August 2023 34
17
8/13/2023

Air pollution effects on vegetation
 Affects the leaf structure
 Causes damage such as necrosis, chlorosis, epinasty
 Chemicals such as arsenic and fluorides when deposited
on leaves poison animals
Peroxyacyl nitrates or PANs, which are also referred to as acyl peroxy nitrates or APN, are
a component of photochemical smog, produced in the atmosphere when oxidized volatile
organic compounds combine with nitrogen dioxide
13 August 2023 35
Behaviour and Fate of Pollutants

Natural Pathways of exchange of pollutants from atmosphere
to earth surface (Scavenging Processes).
Particulates :
• Dry removal by sedimentation, impaction and diffusion
Gases:
• Chemical reaction in the atmosphere to produce aerosols
and absorption on aerosols with subsequent removal
• Absorption or reaction at land and ocean surfaces
13 August 2023 36
18
8/13/2023
Wet precipitation
Wet precipitation has two distinct mechanisms- “rainout” and

“washout”
Rainout:
 Various processes taking place inside clouds
 Contaminants serve as condensation nuclei on which
droplets condense
 Effective for particle size less than 0.1 m
Washout:
 Removal of pollutants below the cloud level by falling rain
 Effective in removing particles >2 m
13 August 2023 37
Dry deposition
(Accounts for about 20% of total particulate matter removal from the
atmosphere)
 Sedimentation
 Diffusion
Sedimentation:
Particulate matter smaller than 0.1 m often coagulates through mutual
collisions and forms larger aggregates which are effectively removed by
gravitational settling. The rate of settling of the particles depends on their
settling velocities according to the stokes’ law:

gd p2 2C 
vt    a 1  
 d p
18 a
p
 p 
vt = terminal settling velocity; dp = particle diameter; p and a = density of particle and
air, respectively; a = viscosity of air; P = air pressure; C = constant
13 August 2023 38
19
8/13/2023
Dry deposition

 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have
short residence time in the atmosphere
Inertial impaction
Windborne particles strike on obstacle and are deposited
Diffusion
Small particles migrate to land and ocean surfaces
 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have
short residence time in the atmosphere
13 August 2023 39
 Absorption
 Adsorption
 Biological action in Soil
13 August 2023 40
20
8/13/2023

ABSORPTION
At the ocean surface SO2 first diffuses through the gas phase, crosses
the gas-liquid interface, and finally diffuses into the bulk of the
ocean where it is absorbed. NO2 also absorbed by ocean and other
surface waters.
ADSORPTION
SO2 first diffuses to the external surface of the solid, penetrates into the
pores of the solid, and is subsequently adsorbed on the pore site
BIOLOGICAL ACTION IN SOIL

Soil contains certain bacteria which can make use of CO in their
metabolism, producing either CO2 or CH4.
2CO  O2  2CO2
CO  3H 2  CH 4  H 2O
13 August 2023 41
Chemical Reaction in the

Atmosphere
SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which combines with atmospheric
moisture to form H2SO4 mist(Slow process)
2 SO2  O2  2SO3
H 2O  SO3  H 2 SO4 (Removed by wet precipitation)
Metal salt particles serve as nucleation sites for droplet formation and
react with H2SO4 to produce sulphates, which are also removed by wet
precipitation
2 NaCl  H 2 SO4  Na2 SO4  2 HCl
Direct conversion of NO2 to HNO3 in presence of moisture (slow

process).
3NO2  H 2O  2 HNO3  NO
13 August 2023 42
21
8/13/2023
Air pollution laws and

standards
The air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981
• An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of
air pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out
the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and
assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.
• It extends to the whole of India.
• Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution
• State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution to be, State Boards for the Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution
13 August 2023 43
The air act, 1981

Functions of Central Board
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of
the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and
• Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms
and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
• Organize through mass media a comprehensive program regarding the
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution
and the measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and
prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
• Lay down standards for the quality of air.
• Collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution
13 August 2023 44
22
8/13/2023
The air act, 1981

Functions of State Boards
• To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
and to secure the execution thereof.
• To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution
• To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
• To collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged or to be
engaged in programs relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
organize mass-education program relating thereto;
• To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider
necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
• To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
in such areas
• To lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for
the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants
into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air
pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an
aircraft
• To advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location
for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
• To Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
13 August 2023 45
The air act, 1981
The state PCBs are empowered to

Close, prohibit or regulate any industry, operation or
process
Grant consent within four months after receiving an
application and if the application is rejected, allow the
industry to appeal to the appellate authority for grant of
consent
Bar any legal proceedings or law suits against the
government or the officials of the Board for actions taken
in pursuance of the act
13 August 2023 46
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8/13/2023
Standards
• Legal standards for ambient air quality are prescribed by

the govt
• Purpose of these standards is to reduce the pollutants to
a certain level which would avoid undesirable effects
• In India, various areas of a state are classified by the
concerned PCBs into three categoris
• Industrial and mixed use areas
• Residential and rural areas
• Sensitive areas
13 August 2023 47

Standards
13 August 2023 48
Ref: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards.php BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
24
8/13/2023

Standards
13 August 2023 49
NAAQS by USEPA 2006

Pollutant Primary Stds. Averaging Times Secondary Stds.
Carbon Monoxide 9 ppm (10 mg/m3) 8-hour None
35 ppm (40 mg/m3) 1-hour None
Lead 1.5 µg/m3 Quarterly Average Same as Primary

Nitrogen Dioxide 0.053 ppm (100 µg/m3) Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Same as Primary
Particulate Matter (PM10) Revoked Annual (Arith. Mean)
150 µg/m3 24-hour
Particulate Matter (PM2.5) 15.0 µg/m3 Annual (Arith. Mean) Same as Primary
35 µg/m3 24-hour
Ozone 0.08 ppm 8-hour Same as Primary
0.12 ppm 1-hour(Applies only in limited areas) Same as Primary
Sulfur Oxides 0.03 ppm Annual (Arith. Mean) -------
0.14 ppm 24-hour -------
------- 3-hour 0.5 ppm (1300 µg/m3)
13 August 2023 50
25
8/13/2023
WHO Air Quality Guidelines

Value
Pollutant Averaging time AQG value
Particulate matter
PM2.5 1 year 10 µg/m3
24 hour(99th percentile) 25 µg/m3
PM10 1 year 20 µg/m3

24 hour(99th percentile) 50 µg/m3
Ozone, O3 Ozone, O3 100 μg/m3

8 hour, daily maximum
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2
1 year 40 μg/m3
1 hour 200 μg/m3
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 24 hour 20 μg/m3

10 minute 500 μg/m3
Source: WHO, 2005. WHO air quality guidelines global update 2005, WHOLIS number E87950
http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/147851/E87950.pdf
13 August 2023 51
26
8/20/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411

Re-CAP
20 August 2023 2
1
8/20/2023
expressed as


20 August 2023 3
concentrations

10-2 is universal gas constant expressed as L-bar/mol-K
Substituting we get
𝜌𝒑
20 August 2023 4
2
8/20/2023
Lecture-3
13-08-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Air Pollution Sampling

• Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment:
particulate matters (suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and
respirable suspended particulate matter i.e. RSPM), carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
and photochemical oxidants (O3, PAN, H2O2).
• Sampling and measurement of air pollutants, generally known as air

quality monitoring.
• There are two quite different situations in which the air quality
measurement is undertaken.
1. The ambient air quality measurement where the pollutant levels in the
ambient atmosphere are measured.
2. The measurement of the pollutants emitted from a source such as
smoke stack and is known as stack sampling.
o Stack sampling provides information on the nature and quantities
of various pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere.
20 August 2023 6
3
8/20/2023
Air pollution sampling
20 August 2023 7
Air quality
Monitoring
Measurements of Ambient Air Quality

Emissions - Measures the
quality of all the air
(Stack Sampling) in a particular place.
20 August 2023 8
4
8/20/2023
Air quality Monitoring

 Most air pollution monitoring equipment performs the act of
sampling and analysis in one action = real time
measurement
 Older equipment = intermittent sampling (time lag between

when the sample was obtained and when data was
available)
 Almost all gaseous pollutants are monitored by real time

analysis - Particulate pollutants are still mostly monitored
by intermittent sampling, even though real time methods
are available
20 August 2023 9
Ambient Air Sampling
20 August 2023 10
5
8/20/2023

Basic considerations for sampling
• Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and
conditions to be studied.
• Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis. Most
pollutants = very low levels and require a large volume of gas
for accurate measurement
• The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency
of collection.
• Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in
pollution levels i.e. whether 1-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly,
24-hourly sampling.
• Continuous sampling is preferred.
• Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.
pollutants in very small quantities are easy to contaminate. Purge
sampling containers if grab samples are used
20 August 2023 11

• Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
• Grab Sampling
• Absorption in Liquids
• Adsorption on Solids
• Freeze-out Sampling
• Collection of Particulate Pollutants
• Sedimentation (Dust fall Jar)
• High-volume Filtration (The Hi-vol. Sampler)
• Tape Sampler
• Impingement
• Electrostatic Precipitation
• Thermal Precipitation
20 August 2023 12
6
8/20/2023
Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants

Grab Sampling
 Sample is collected by filling an evacuated flask or
inflatable bag.
 Plastic bags are widely used for grab sampling.
 Bag sampling is subject to losses caused by moisture
condensation or diffusion through walls of the bag
 Losses can be minimized by performing analysis
immediately following collection
20 August 2023 13
Grab Sampling
20 August 2023 14
7
8/20/2023

Absorption in liquids
 Absorption separates desired pollutants from air either
through direct solubility in absorbing medium or by
chemical reaction
 Different devices are used which provide a high degree
gas liquid contact
 Most commonly used collector is impinger.
 In impinge, the gas stream is impinged at high velocity
onto a flat surface thus providing good contact between
the gas and liquid.
20 August 2023 15

Adsorption in solids
 Based on principle that gases can be adsorbed on
surface of solid materials
 After adsorption, sample gases are desorbed for
analysis. This may be accomplished by heating.
 Most organic vapors are analyzed by gas
chromatograph (GC) techniques
20 August 2023 16
8
8/20/2023
20 August 2023 17

Freeze-out sampling
 A series of cold traps, which are maintained at
progressively lower temperature, are used to draw the
air sample where by the pollutants are condensed.
 The samples are brought to the laboratory and are
analysed with gas chromatograph etc.
20 August 2023 18
9
8/20/2023
Collection of particulate pollutants

• Particulate pollutants in atmosphere are grouped into
two categories
• Settle out due to force of gravity
• That remain suspended as aerosols
20 August 2023 19

Sedimentation (Dust fall jar)
 It is effective for collective larger than 10 micron
 Collector consist of plastic jar of about 20 to 35
cm height and 10 – 15 cm diameter at the
base.
 Sample is deposited over a period of one
month and material is dried and weighed
 Dust particles larger then 10 micron seldom
travel more than 1 km. So, dust fall jars must
be spaced near to the emission source.
20 August 2023 20
10
8/20/2023

High-Volume filtration
 Most commonly used particle sampling method
 It is for the particles of size less then 10 micron.
 In this method a known volume of air sampled through a filter
medium and increase in the weight due to trapped particles is
measured (Gravimetric analysis).
 Air-flow is measured by a small flow meter (calibrated in m3
air/minute)
 A glass filter has a collection efficiency of even 99 percent.
 particulate concentration measured is referred to as the
Total Suspended Particles (TSP), = combination of settleable
particles and suspended particles.
expressed as g/m3 for a 24-hour period – normally as part of 6
day cycle
20 August 2023 21
High Volumer Sampler
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/management/monitoring/air/air-
monitoring/measuring/samplers
20 August 2023 22
11
8/20/2023

Paper Tape Sampler
 Draw ambient air through a cellulose tape filter
 Sampling time 10 min to 2 hr
 Air is passed through a nozzle and particulates are collected
on the paper tape forming a spot
 Spots are evaluated by analyzing the light that can be
transmitted through the spot.
20 August 2023 23
COH Degree of Pollution

0-0.9 Light
1-1.9 Medium
2-2.9 Heavy
3-3.9 Very heavy
4-4.9 Extremely heavy
20 August 2023 24
12
8/20/2023

Impingment
 Here the separation of the dust
particles takes place with the
collision against the flat surface.
 Wet impingement is used to
collect particulate in liquid phase.
 These devices have an
advantage of collecting the
sample directly without the need
of filtration.
Andersen cascade impactor
20 August 2023 25
Stack Sampling
20 August 2023 26
13
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
• The major problem in stack sampling: obtaining a
representative sample.
• If a representative sample is not obtained then the
concentration and composition of the actual gas
stream will be different, and serious errors would
result in the analysis.
• The important factors in obtaining a representative

sample: a) selection of the sampling site and b) number
of sampling points required.
20 August 2023 27
Stack Sampling
• The gas stream in a stack is normally

under turbulent flow conditions and
any flow disturbance would cause
non-uniform and unstable gas flow
profiles and non-uniform particle
concentration patterns.
• The sampling site should be located

at least eight stack or duct
diameters downstream and two
diameters upstream from any
source of flow disturbance such
as, bends, fittings, or constrictions.
20 August 2023 28
14
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
• In some stacks, it is not always possible to ensure uniform

flow, so concentration patterns and, hence, multiple
samples are required to obtain a representative sample
• The actual sampling must be performed at a number of
traverse points in the stack
• Other problems associated with stack sampling are the
high temperatures and high velocities of the gases
encountered inside the stack
• High temperature - difficulties in collecting the sample -
require a number of additional measurements: moisture
content, pressure, temperature, the flow rate of the gases
and their compositions.
20 August 2023 29
Stack Sampling
Sampling System
• Stack sampling is carried out by diverting a part of the gas stream
through a sampling “train” of which a general arrangement is
shown below.
General arrangement of sampling train
6
1 2
3 4 7
5
1. Nozzle
2. Sampling Probe
3. Particulate collector
4. Cooling and/or gas collector
5. Gas flow meter
6. Flow control valve
7. To vacuum pump
20 August 2023 30
15
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Traverse Points
For the sample to become representative, it should be
collected at various points across the stack.
The number of traverse points may be selected as given
below:
https://cpcb.nic.in/openpdffile.php?id=UmVwb3J0RmlsZXMvTmV3SXRlbV8xMTBfaHppbmNpbmVyYXRvci5wZGY=
20 August 2023 31
Stack Sampling
The sampling site should be

located: at least 8 stack/duct
diameters downstream and 2
diameters upstream from any
source of disturbance.
If not possible then
For rectangular C/S, larger

dimension is the duct diameter.
https://cpcb.nic.in/openpdffile.php?id=UmVwb3J0RmlsZXMvTmV3SXRlbV8xMTBfaHppbmNpbmVyYXRvci5wZGY=
20 August 2023 32
16
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
• In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal
annular areas across two perpendicular diameters
• In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided in to 12 to 25

equal areas and the centers for each area are fixed
20 August 2023 33
Stack Sampling
20 August 2023 34
17
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Particulate Sampling
• The common technique employed for sampling particulate-laden
gas streams is the so called “isokinetic technique”.
• Under isokinetic conditions, the static pressure at the tip of the
probe must be equal to the static pressure in the free stream at
the same cross-section.
• This implies that when two pressures are equalized then the
corresponding velocities must be equal
Isokinetic
20 August 2023
35
Stack Sampling
• When a sharp-edged probe is introduced into a single-phase fluid stream, the
flow pattern = simple pitot tube.
• The velocity inside the probe is zero and the pressure at the tip of the probe
becomes equal to the stagnation pressure.
• If the gas velocity (up) < free stream velocity (u), is maintained inside the probe,
then the gas flow pattern at the tip of the probe may be represented by given
figure.
• In this case the static pressure at the tip of the probe is greater than the free
stream static pressure at the same cross section
Sub-isokinetic
20 August 2023 36
18
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
 If the gas velocity (up), > free stream velocity (u), is maintained inside
the probe, then the gas flow pattern at the tip of the probe may be
represented by given figure.
 In this case the static pressure at the tip of the probe is less than the
free stream static pressure, and too much gas will be sampled in
proportion to the probe area.
Super-Isokinetic
20 August 2023 37
Stack Sampling
 If sampling velocity > isokinetic rate, the sampling will have a lower mass
concentration of particulate material than the main stream because of greater
percentage of fine particles.
 If the sampling velocity < isokinetic rate, the particulate sample has a higher mass
concentration than actually present, with lower concentration of fine particles.
20 August 2023 38
19
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Isokinetic sampling can be achieved by two ways:
 By computing the point velocity of the free stream
with a pitot tube located as near to the sampling
probe as much as possible without interfering with
the free stream, and then adjusting the sampling
velocity
 By using a null-type sampling probe
20 August 2023 39
Stack Sampling
• Null type sampling probe: the static pressures measured
between the inner and outer probe walls is balanced
• This (assumes) that the velocity within the probe is equal to
the free stream velocity
• In practice numerous problems are encountered while
trying to maintain true isokinetic conditions because a null
pressure balance does not necessarily indicate a
matched velocity conditions
• The difference in turbulence for duct and probe flow, the
nozzle shape, its surface nonuniformities, possible plugging
of the inner static tap by fine particles, and the location of
the static holes- all these may contribute to nonisokinetic
conditions
20 August 2023 40
20
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Gaseous Sampling
• The basic routine for obtaining a gas sample from stack emission
is similar to that employed in sampling of particulate matter
• The sampling is much easier because it is not necessary to
sample at isokinetic conditions
• The sample can be withdrawn from the stack at a constant rate
independent of the flow rate in the stack
Precautions for obtaining a representative sample
• Particulate matter must be filtered upstream of the collection
system to prevent downstream line plugging as well as to
minimize losses of gaseous pollutants due to reaction with
particulates on cooling
• If moisture is present in stack gases it could get condensed in the
sampling line and dissolve the gaseous constituents of interest
• Suction through the nozzle draws a known volume of the gas
from the stack into a collection device which removes the
constituent gas of interest and the remaining gas is measured
with a flow meter located downstream of the collection device 41
20 August 2023
Analysis of Air Pollutants
20 August 2023 42
21
8/20/2023
SO2 Measurement
– UV fluorescence analyser
– flame photometric detector (with or without gas
chromatograph)
– electrochemical (coulimetric detector)
20 August 2023 43
SO2 Measurement
• The measurement of ambient SO2 levels by the UV fluorescence
SO2 analyzer
• Principle: SO2 molecules absorb UV light at the wavelength of 214
nm.
• The absorbed UV energy excites the outer electrons to the next
state.
• The excited electrons then return to the original state and emit
photons at the wavelength of 390 nm.
• The intensity of fluorescence is proportional to the SO2
concentration
• Fluorescence SO2 analyzer consists of a hydrocarbon “kicker”,
fluorescence chamber, light source, photoelectric detector,
electronics, etc
SO2 + hν (UV) SO2*
SO2* SO2 + light
20 August 2023 44
22
8/20/2023
SO2 Measurement
20 August 2023 45
NOx Measurement
• Atmospheric nitrogen and any nitrogen in fuel is converted into its oxides,
mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) during combustion. The
NO oxidizes in presence of O3 (ozone) to form NO2 in the atmosphere.
– NO is an odorless and colourless gas.
– NO2 is a reddish, brown, pungent, acidic gas.
• NO2 is 4 times more dangerous than NO.
– NO2 can irritate the lungs, increase susceptibility and severity of asthma
and lowers resistance to infections such as the flu. Children exposed to
NO2 are at increased risk of respiratory infection.
• The nitrogen oxides are responsible for acid rains that affect the terrestrial
and aquatic life.
• Nitrogen oxides are critical components of photochemical smog - it is
nitrogen dioxide that produces the yellowish brown colour of the smog and
significantly affects visibility.
20 August 2023 46
23
8/20/2023
NOx Measurement
• Determined using chemiluminescence

• Specific for NO, but total oxides of nitrogen determined
by passing sample over a catalyst to convert NO2 → NO
• Suitable for ambient air containing NOx (NO and NO2) at
levels less than 1 mL/m3
• Reaction of NO with ozone in a dark enclosed chamber
to produce light - detected by a pmt
• Provided the ozone is present in excess the light output
is directly proportional to the concentration of NO
NO + O3 NO2* + O2
NO2* NO2 + h (light)
20 August 2023 47
NOx Measurement
20 August 2023 48
24
8/20/2023
CO Measurement
• non-dispersive infra red (NDIR) devices, suitable for

detection from 0-500ppm by volume
• sample through a flow cell in the instrument where it is
irradiated with infrared radiation
• essentially just a modified dual beam infrared
spectrophotometer
20 August 2023 49
CO Measurement
20 August 2023 50
25
8/20/2023
Measurement of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC)
• Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs are organic chemicals that
easily vaporize at room temperature. They are called organic because
they contain the element carbon in their molecular structures. VOCs
have no colour, smell, or taste. VOCs include a very wide range of
individual substances, such as hydrocarbons (for example benzene
and toluene), halocarbons and oxygenates.
• Some VOCs are quite harmful, including benzene, polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 1,3 butadiene.
• Benzene may increase susceptibility to leukaemia, if exposure

is maintained over a period of time.
• PAHs can cause cancer.
• An apparent correlation between butadiene exposure and a

higher risk of cancer.
20 August 2023 51
 A Photo-Ionization Detector measures VOCs and other toxic gases in
low concentrations from ppb (parts per billion) up to 10,000 ppm.
 A Photo Ionization Detector (PID) uses an Ultraviolet (UV) light source
(Photo= light) to break down chemicals to positive and negative ions
(Ionization) that can easily be counted with a Detector.
 Ionization occurs when a molecule absorbs the high energy UV light,

which excites the molecule and results in the temporary loss of a
negatively charged electron and the formation of positively charged ion.
The gas becomes electrically charged. In the Detector these charged
particles produce a current that is then amplified and displayed on the
meter.
 The ions quickly recombine after the electrodes in the detector to
“reform” their original molecule. PIDs are non-destructive; they do not
“burn” or permanently alter the sample gas, which allows them to be
used for sample gathering.
20 August 2023 52
26
8/20/2023
Photo-Ionization Detector (PID)
20 August 2023 53
27
8/27/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
BITS Pilani Department of Chemical Engineering
Pilani Campus B.I.T.S-Pilani, Pilani Campus
Meteorological Aspects of Air

Pollutant Dispersion
27 August 2023 2
1
8/27/2023
Some Examples
27 August 2023 3
Inversion at Four Corners power plant
27 August 2023 4
2
8/27/2023
Inversion in Los Angeles, CA
27 August 2023 5
The Great Smog of 1952

A severe air-pollution event that affected London
during December 1952.
A period of cold weather, combined with an
anticyclone and windless conditions, collected
airborne pollutants—mostly arising from the use
of coal—to form a thick layer of smog over the
city.
It lasted from Friday 5 December to Tuesday 9
December 1952, and then dispersed quickly
when the weather changed.
This smog killed approximately 12,000 people

and shocked the world into starting the
environmental movement.
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Introduction to Dispersion
 Air pollutants emitted from anthropogenic sources are

transported and diluted in the atmosphere
 Otherwise pollutant concentration reach dangerous
levels near the source of emission
 Effective dispersion of pollutants depend on
Degree of stability
Turbulence
Degree of stability depend on environmental lapse rate
27 August 2023 7
Temperature Lapse Rates

Lapse Rate (Γ) : rate at which temperature changes with
height in the atmosphere.
Environmental Lapse Rate: The environmental lapse rate
is the cooling or warming as measured by a weather
balloon.
The relationship between the temperature and the altitude can
be obtained by considering air to be an ideal gas.
The change of pressure in the vertical direction may be
represented by the relation:
Where, P = atmospheric pressure, H = altitude, ρ = atmospheric

density
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Also, the ideal gas relation
Where, R = gas constant, T = absolute temperature
General expression for the variation of pressure with altitude
By assuming isothermal atmosphere and integrating the above Eqn.
Where, Po is the pressure at ground level (1.013 bars)

The above equation gives an exponentially decreasing pressure with altitude which is a
typical characteristic of compressible fluids such as air. 9
27 August 2023

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): rate of change of temperature
with height as a parcel of dry air rises or sinks without exchange of heat with
the surroundings (adiabatic heat exchange).
• As the air parcel rises in the atmosphere, it goes through a region of
decreasing pressure and expands. As it expands, it does work on the
surroundings. Since the process is usually rapid, there is no heat transfer
between the air parcel and the surrounding air.
For the case of an adiabatic process the first law of thermodynamics yields,
 dW  dU
• Since work done by the parcel of dry air, energy is lost to the surroundings
 Internal energy of the air parcel decrease Temperature of the air parcel
decrease.
• The decrease in temperature of a rising, expanding air parcel is an important
feature of vertical air motion.
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The work done on the surroundings is equal to pdV and change in internal energy
becomes equal to CvdT, where Cv is the specific heat at constant volume. By substituting
these terms pdV  C dT  0 V
per unit mass of the air parcel
pdv  cv dT  0
Where v is the specific volume and Cv is the specific heat per unit mass
For a ideal gas, we can write:

R
(Cv  )dT  vdp How??
After rearranging equation, we obtain
MW
dT v  MW

dp MW  Cv  R
The variation of temperature with altitude can be written as a product of two terms:
dT dT dp
 .
27 August 2023
dh dp dh 11
dT MW  g

dh MW  Cv  R
The above expression gives the temperature lapse rate for dry parcel of air moving
upwards adiabatically and is known as dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Now Calculate the DALR
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DALR Calculation
Specific heat capacity: the amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of a unit of mass by one Kelvin.
Molar specific heat capacity: amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 mol of the gas by 1 ◦C at the constant volume.
Molar Specific Heat Capacity for monatomic ideal gas is 3R/2 and the value for diatomic
ideal gas is 5R/2
27 August 2023 13
Temperature Lapse Rate
 dT  9.86 o C
  
 dh  adia 1000 meters
Thus, the dry adiabatic lapse rate, Γ is given by
 dT  10 o C
    
 dh  adia 1 km
27 August 2023 14
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In the presence of moisture in the atmosphere, a rising parcel of air may cool until the
partial pressure of water vapor equals the saturation vapor pressure of water. In such
circumstances, some of the water vapor will condense if sufficient nucleation sites are
present and release the latent heat. If λ is the latent heat per gram of water, then the
release of this heat is given by,
dQ    mdw
Where m is the mass of dry air in the parcel and dw is the ratio of the amount of water vapor
which is condensing to the mass of dry air. Adding this term to the right hand side of equation
(8) and proceeding further we get the lapse rate in a saturated condition:
dT g  dw
 
dz C p C p dz
Above equation is referred to as the wet adiabatic lapse rate equation although the process
is not strictly adiabatic.
27 August 2023 15
Dry adiabatic lapse rate vs Wet adiabatic lapse rate

 The temperature decrease upon increase in altitude is less
for moist air than that for dry air
 The wet adiabatic lapse rate is not a constant, dependent on
altitude.
 In warm tropical air the wet adiabatic lapse rate is
approximately one-third of the dry adiabatic lapse rate
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Atmospheric Stability
The tendency of the atmosphere to resist or enhance vertical
motion is termed stability. It is related to both wind speed and
the change of air temperature with height (lapse rate).
A comparison of the adiabatic lapse rate with the environmental lapse
rate gives an idea of the stability of the atmosphere.
If an air parcel is displaced from its original height it can:

Return to its original height - Stable
Accelerate upward because it is buoyant - Unstable
Stay at the place to which it was displaced
27 August 2023
- Neutral 17
Atmospheric Stability (Neutral)
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Atmospheric Stability (Unstable)
27 August 2023 19
Atmospheric Stability (stable)
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Match it to text!!
Absolute instability
If the environmental lapse rate is greater
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate
Absolute stability
If the environmental lapse rate is less
than the wet adiabatic lapse rate
Conditional stability
If the environmental lapse rate is
between the dry adiabatic lapse rate
and wet adiabatic lapse rate
27 August 2023 21
Inversion
The extreme case of a stable
atmosphere, called an
inversion, occurs when
temperature increases with
altitude. Such a lapse rate is
known as negative lapse rate.
Under these conditions, the
atmosphere is very stable and
practically no mixing of
pollutants takes place
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Different Temperature Lapse

Rates
DALR : Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
WALR: Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
SALR: Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate
CS: Conditional Stability
27 August 2023 23
Problem
Following observations have been made for the temperature of the
atmosphere with respect to elevation to find the stability of the
atmosphere:
Is the atmosphere?
a. Stable
b. Unstable
c. Neutral
d. Extremely stable
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Problem 2
 A rising plume of stack gas has a temperature of 10000C

at 200m. Assuming a dry adiabatic lapse rate determine
the temperature at 800m
27 August 2023 25
Plume Behaviour
1. Coning Plume :
• Formed when horizontal wind velocity exceeds 32 km/h and
cloud blocks solar radiation during the day and terrestrial
radiation during the night.
• There is little vertical mixing.
• The environment is slightly stable under sub-adiabatic
conditions (WALR<ELR<ALR).
• The plume shape is vertically symmetrical about the plume
line.
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Plume Behaviour
2. Fanning Plume
• Formed at extreme inversion conditions owing to a negative lapse
rate.
• When the environment is under conditions of inversion, a stable
environment occurs just above the stack, and the plume moves
horizontally rather than upwards.
• Occurs more frequently when there is less turbulence.
• For high stack, fanning is considered a favorable meteorological
condition as it doesn’t cause ground pollution.
27 August 2023 27
Plume Behaviour
3. Looping Plume
• The wavy looping plume arises in a super-adiabatic environment
(ELR>>ALR), resulting in a very unstable atmosphere due to rapid
mixing.
• In an unstable atmosphere, rapid vertical air motions occur both
upward and downward, resulting in a looping plume.
• As a result, large pollution concentrations may arise near the
ground.
• It is preferable to create high stacks where the environment is
normally hyper adiabatic to scatter these contaminants.
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Plume Behaviour
4. Neutral Plume
• In neutral atmospheric circumstances (ELR=ALR), a
neutral plume forms.
• A neutral plume rises vertically in an upward direction.
• The plume will continue to rise until it reaches a height
where the density and temperature of the surrounding air
are equal.
27 August 2023 29
Plume Behaviour
5. Lofting Plume
• Lofting plume is produced by a strong super adiabatic lapse
rate immediately above the stack and a negative lapse
rate (inversion) immediately below the stack opening.
• The downward movement is stopped by inversion.
• This results in a very rapid and turbulent upward mixing of the
plume. But the downward mixing is less.
• As a result, the dispersion of pollutants becomes quick, and
pollutants cannot come down to the ground.
• Such a plume is good for dispersing air contaminants and
providing significant protection to living beings.
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Plume Behaviour
6. Fumigating Plume
• The fumigant plume is the exact opposite of the lofting plume.
• Formed when there is a negative lapse rate (inversion) just above
the stack and a strong super adiabatic lapse rate below the stack.
• Pollutants cannot escape above the stack under these conditions,
thus they settle towards the ground due to turbulence and mixing.
• As a result, the dispersion of contaminants in a fumigant plume is
exceedingly poor.
27 August 2023 31
Plume Behaviour
7. Trapping Plume
• When an inversion layer exists above and below the stack, the
plume does not rise or fall.
• Rather, it is constrained or trapped between the two inversion
levels, resulting in a trapping plume.
• This plume isn’t optimal for pollution dispersion since it can’t go
past a particular height.
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Identify the Plume Behavior
a b
c d
27 August 2023 33
Answer
a. Lofting or coning
b. Nuetral
c. Fumigating
d. Looping
27 August 2023 34
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Wind Velocity and Turbulence

Differential solar heating of the Earth’s surface produces pressure and
temperature gradient. As a result, the atmosphere is practically in
continuous motion with air movements being always turbulent.
Thermal Turbulence: The motion of air near the surface of the Earth is
retarded by friction, which varies with surface roughness. The
planetary boundary layer, in which friction is significant, extends to
about 1 km above the Earth’s surface. The wind velocity profile
within the layer is not only influenced by the surface roughness but
also by the time of day. During the day, solar heating causes
thermal turbulence or eddies and these eddies set up convective
currents so that turbulent mixing is increased. This results in a more
flat velocity profile in the day than that at night.
Thermal turbulence also depends on the thermal stability of the
atmosphere. It is maximum on a clear sunny day in the afternoon
and minimum at night or in the early morning.
27 August 2023 35
Wind Velocity profiles during

day and night
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Mechanical Turbulence:
Is produced by shearing stress generated by air movement over the Earth’s surface-
the greater the surface roughness, the greater the turbulence. For smooth surfaces,
the air velocity profile becomes very steep near the ground. For rougher surfaces such
as those in urban areas more mechanical turbulence is generated and the velocity
profile becomes less steep and reaches deeper into the atmosphere
The mean wind speed variation with altitude in the planetary boundary layer can be
represented by a simple empirical power law such as,
p
u z
 
u1  z1 
Where u is the wind speed at altitude z, u1 is the wind speed at altitude z1 and the exponent
p varies between 0.07 and 0.55 depending on the roughness of the ground surface as well as
on the temperature stability of the atmosphere. The exponent α is observed to increase with
increasing stability or with increasing surface roughness.
27 August 2023 37

Effect of terrain roughness on the wind-speed profile
Values along curves represent percentages of gradient wind value
27 August 2023 38
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Air quality modeling

 Air pollution modeling is a numerical tool used to describe
the causal relationship between emissions, meteorology,
atmospheric concentrations, deposition, and other factors.
 Air pollution measurements give important, quantitative
information about ambient concentrations and deposition,
but they can only describe air quality at specific locations
and times, without giving clear guidance on the
identification of the causes of the air quality problem.
 Air pollution modeling, instead, can give a more
complete deterministic description of the air quality
problem, including an analysis of factors and causes
(emission sources, meteorological processes, and physical
and chemical changes), and some guidance on the
implementation of mitigation measures.
27 August 2023 39
• A mathematical relationship between emissions and air

quality that incorporates the transport, dispersion and
transformation of compounds emitted to air
• The models are useful tools in design of new, large or
otherwise modification of existing processes
Unsteady state: box
grid
spectral
puff
trajectory
Steady state: Gaussian
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Dispersion of air pollutants

(Gaussian plume model)
 Determine emission and stack parameters
 Estimate pollutant concentration
 Determine plume rise
Assumptions:
 Diffusion negligible in the downwind direction
 Constant emission rate
 Uniform atmospheric stability throughout the layer into
which the contaminated gas stream is discharged
27 August 2023 41
Gaussian plume model

The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local
concentrations ρ(x,y,z) (kg/m3 ) at any point in space form
distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in
planes normal to the x direction.
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8/27/2023
27 August 2023 43
Q = rate of pollutant emission (available or determined from process

conditions) (kg/s)
x, y, z values correspond to the location where pollutant
concentration is to be estimated downwind from the source
ū = average wind speed at the stack height H
σy, σz= Spreading coefficients/diffusion coefficients
27 August 2023 44
22
9/3/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Meteorological Aspects of Air

Pollutant Dispersion
3 September 2023 2
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9/3/2023
Identify the Plume Behavior
a b
c d
3 September 2023 3
Answer
a. Lofting or coning
b. Nuetral
c. Fumigating
d. Looping
3 September 2023 4
2
9/3/2023

Mechanical Turbulence:
Is produced by shearing stress generated by air movement over the Earth’s surface-
the greater the surface roughness, the greater the turbulence. For smooth surfaces,
the air velocity profile becomes very steep near the ground. For rougher surfaces such
as those in urban areas more mechanical turbulence is generated and the velocity
profile becomes less steep and reaches deeper into the atmosphere
The mean wind speed variation with altitude in the planetary boundary layer can be
represented by a simple empirical power law such as,
p
u z
 
u1  z1 
Where u is the wind speed at altitude z, u1 is the wind speed at altitude z1 and the exponent
p varies between 0.07 and 0.55 depending on the roughness of the ground surface as well as
on the temperature stability of the atmosphere. The exponent α is observed to increase with
increasing stability or with increasing surface roughness.
3 September 2023 5

Effect of terrain roughness on the wind-speed profile
Values along curves represent percentages of gradient wind value
3 September 2023 6
3
9/3/2023

 Air pollution modeling is a numerical tool used to describe
the causal relationship between emissions, meteorology,
atmospheric concentrations, deposition, and other factors.
 Air pollution measurements give important, quantitative
information about ambient concentrations and deposition,
but they can only describe air quality at specific locations
and times, without giving clear guidance on the
identification of the causes of the air quality problem.
 Air pollution modeling, instead, can give a more
complete deterministic description of the air quality
problem, including an analysis of factors and causes
(emission sources, meteorological processes, and physical
and chemical changes), and some guidance on the
implementation of mitigation measures.
3 September 2023 7
• A mathematical relationship between emissions and air

quality that incorporates the transport, dispersion and
transformation of compounds emitted to air
• The models are useful tools in design of new, large or
otherwise modification of existing processes
Unsteady state: box
grid
spectral
puff
trajectory
Steady state: Gaussian
3 September 2023 8
4
9/3/2023
Dispersion of air pollutants

(Gaussian plume model)
 Determine emission and stack parameters
 Estimate pollutant concentration
 Determine plume rise
Assumptions:
 Diffusion negligible in the downwind direction
 Constant emission rate
 Uniform atmospheric stability throughout the layer into
which the contaminated gas stream is discharged
3 September 2023 9

The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local
concentrations ρ(x,y,z) (kg/m3 ) at any point in space form
distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in
planes normal to the x direction.
3 September 2023 10
5
9/3/2023
3 September 2023 11
Q = rate of pollutant emission (available or determined from process

conditions) (kg/s)
x, y, z values correspond to the location where pollutant
concentration is to be estimated downwind from the source
ū = average wind speed at the stack height H
σy, σz= Spreading coefficients/diffusion coefficients
3 September 2023 12
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9/3/2023
Gaussian Plume Model –

Ground Level Concentration
3 September 2023 13

3 September 2023 14
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9/3/2023

3 September 2023 15

Estimation of σy and σz
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Pasquill and Gifford’s Method
3 September 2023 17

Curves of Pasquill -Gifford
3 September 2023 18
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9/3/2023

Limitation of Pasquill-Gifford Method
(1) The estimated concentration from these charts or
equations corresponds to a sampling time of 10 min
(2) Underestimates the plume dispersion in urban areas
(3) Uncertainties increase with increasing distance from
source
For sampling time other than 10 min,
3 September 2023 19
Limitation of Gaussian Plume

Model
(1) Most accurate for distance of 100 to 2000 meters.
(2) Neglects the wind turning effect arising due to friction.
(3) Ignores absorption and desorption of pollutants
(4) Ignores reactive pollutants.
3 September 2023 20
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Problem
A chimney with a design stack height of 250 m is emitting
Sulphur dioxide at a rate of 500 g/s on a sunny day in
June with moderate wind speed (6 m/s) at stack altitude.
Estimate the SO2 concentration at (1000, 50, 0, 250)
[p=0.25]
3 September 2023
3 September 2023 22
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9/3/2023
3 September 2023 23
Effective Stack Height
3 September 2023 24
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Effective Stack Height

The value for the effective stack height is the sum of the
physical stack height'(H) and the plume rise (∆H)
Heff = H + ∆H
3 September 2023 25
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

METHODS
3 September 2023 26
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9/3/2023
CONTROL METHODS
Prevent or Minimize
• Source Correction
• Raw Material Changes
• Process Changes
• Equipment Modification or Replacement
• Effluent Treatment
• Particulate control
• Gases and odors control
3 September 2023 27
PARTICULATE EMISSION
CONTROL
Particle sizes range generally from 100 μm
down to 0.1 μm and even less
Factors to be considered
– Physical and Chemical characteristics
– Size and Concentration
– Volume to be handled
– Temperature and Humidity
– Toxicity and Inflammability
3 September 2023 28
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COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
Represents system performance
Weight , collected
Gravimetric efficiency T 
Total , entering
fraction in range i collected

Fractional efficiency i  100
mi
n
 m i i
Overall efficiency T  i 1
percent
M
mi= amount in range ‘i’ entering the collector

M= Total amount entering the collector
3 September 2023 29
Example
An air pollution control device removes a particulate that is being
emitted at a concentration of 125,000μg/m3 at an air flow rate of 180
m3/sec. What is the concentration of the emission and the efficiency of
collection? The device removes 0.48 metric tons per day.
Feed Escaped
Pollution control
device
x0  x2
Removed
At steady state the mass balance is: x1
Rate of particulates in = rate of particulates out
Rate of particles in = rate of particles removed + rate of particles escaping
180 m3/sec x 125,000 g/m3 x 10-6 g/g = 22.5 g/sec
Particles collected:
0.48 tons/day x 106 g/ton x 1 hr/3600 sec x 1 day/24 hr = 5.5 g/sec
3 September 2023 30
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Example
Mass balance:
22.5 = 5.5 + particles that escape
Particles that escape = 17 g/sec
Emission concentration:
(17 g/sec x 106 g/g)/ 180 m3/sec = 94,000 g/m3
Recovery:
R = (x1 x 100)/x0 = (5.5 x 100)/22.5 = 24%
3 September 2023 31
PARTICULATE CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
• Gravitational settling
• Settling chambers
• Centrifugal impaction
• Cyclone separators
• Inertial impaction
• Direct interception
• Fabric filters
• Diffusion
• Scrubbers
• Electro-static precipitation
• ESP
3 September 2023 32
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Particle range for different

types of equipments
3 September 2023 33
Gravitational Settling Chamber

Generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (>50μm)
Advantages:
 Low pressure drop
 Require simple maintenance
Disadvantages:
 Low efficiency for particles smaller than 50μm
These Devices are normally used as precleaners prior to passing the gas
stream through high efficiency collection devices.
3 September 2023 34
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9/3/2023

Howard type settling chamber
 Several trays
 Efficiency improved
 Gas flow velocity constant but shorter settling distance.
Gas inlet
Gas outlet
ΔH
v
H
L
3 September 2023 35
Effect of Settling Chamber

Height
3 September 2023 36
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9/3/2023

 Several trays
Gas inlet
Gas outlet
ΔH
v
H
L
3 September 2023 37

Design Concepts
Area 2W  H
Hydraulic diameter Dh  4 
Perimeter W  H
vDh 
Reynolds Number Re 

Q
Velocity inside the chamber v
nW H W= width of each plate
Q= Vol. flow rate
2Q n= # of plates
So, Reynolds Number Re 
n [W  H ]
H
But the spacing between trays H  If the dust of Hd is already present, then
n
H
Therefore
2Q H   Hd
Re  n
[ nW  H  nH d ]
3 September 2023 38
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9/3/2023

For laminar flow conditions (Re<2300) The time take by the air parcel
containing the particle to leave
the chamber
L
y L t
Time taken to settle, t  How? v
vt v
If the particle settles during this
time with velocity The
y
So, the collection efficiency,  distance, y travelled by particle is
H y= t
Lvt nWLvt
 
vH Q
3 September 2023 39
Gravitational Settling
Chambers
Performing Force Balance On the Settling Particle:
 1 
C D [ d p2 ][  g vt2 ]  d 3p [  p   g ]g
4 2 6
Then the terminal velocity is given by

For Stoke’s Law Region
4 gd p [  p   g ] gd p2 [  p   g ]
vt  
3C D  g 18 g
3 September 2023 40
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For Stokes law region, 24

CD  Rep<1
Re p
For turbulent region., C D  0.45 Rep>1000
For intermediate region.,
If the stokes law is applied, the minimum particle size that can be removed with 100%
efficiency is given by
18Q g
d p , min 
nWLg [  p   g ]
For turbulent flow, the equation for calculating the efficiency is Homework
nWLvt
  1  exp[ ] Derive this equation
Q 41
3 September 2023
21
9/10/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor

METHODS
10 September 2023 2
1
9/10/2023
CONTROL METHODS
Prevent or Minimize
• Source Correction
• Raw Material Changes
• Process Changes
• Equipment Modification or Replacement
• Effluent Treatment
• Particulate control
• Gases and odors control
10 September 2023 3

 Several trays
Gas inlet
Gas outlet
ΔH
v
H
L
10 September 2023 4
2
9/10/2023

Design Concepts
Area 2W  H
Hydraulic diameter Dh  4 
Perimeter W  H
vDh 
Reynolds Number Re 

Q
Velocity inside the chamber v
nW H W= width of each plate
Q= Vol. flow rate
2Q n= # of plates
So, Reynolds Number Re 
n [W  H ]
H
But the spacing between trays H  If the dust of Hd is already present, then
n
H
Therefore
2Q H   Hd
Re  n
[ nW  H  nH d ]
10 September 2023 5

For laminar flow conditions (Re<2300) The time take by the air parcel
containing the particle to leave
the chamber
L
y L t
Time taken to settle, t  How? v
vt v
If the particle settles during this
y time with velocity The
So, the collection efficiency,  distance, y travelled by particle is
H y= t
Lv t nWLv t
 
vH Q
10 September 2023 6
3
9/10/2023
Gravitational Settling
Chambers
Performing Force Balance On the Settling Particle:
 1 
C D [ d p2 ][  g vt2 ]  d 3p [  p   g ]g
4 2 6
Then the terminal velocity is given by

For Stoke’s Law Region
4 gd p [  p   g ] gd p2 [  p   g ]
vt  
3C D  g 18 g
10 September 2023 7
For Stokes law region, 24

CD  Rep<1
Re p
For turbulent region., C D  0.45 Rep>1000
For intermediate region.,
If the stokes law is applied, the minimum particle size that can be removed with 100%
efficiency is given by
18Q g
d p , min 
nWLg [  p   g ]
For turbulent flow, the equation for calculating the efficiency is Homework
nWLvt
  1  exp[ ] Derive this equation
Q 8
10 September 2023
4
9/10/2023
Deviations in Efficiency
Factors causing deviations in efficiency

 Hindered settling at high particle concentrations
 Non-uniform gas velocity over the settling height and width
 Particle re-entrainment
 Turbulence
10 September 2023 9
ET ZC362 Environmental Pollution Control
Advantages Disadvantages
• Low capital cost • Large size
• Low energy cost • Low collection
• Low operating cost efficiency
• Low pressure drop • Trays in multi tray
chambers may warp
10 September 2023
10 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
5
9/10/2023
Problem
A multi-tray settling chamber handles 6m3/s of air at 200C.

There are 8 trays including the bottom surface spaced
0.25m apart. The chamber is 4m long and 1 m wide. For
particles of density 2000 kg/m3 and for sizes 70 and 25 m,
calculate
• The residence time
• The distance settled
• Efficiency of collection
10 September 2023 11
Solution
Q L
v
nW H
t
v
4 gd p [  p   g ] 2Q
vt 
3C D  g Re 
n[W  H ]
y

H
6
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators
Particulate laden gas is

accelerated through a
spiral motion which
imparts centrifugal
force to the particles
Particles are hurled out

of the spinning gas by
impact on the cylinder
wall of the cyclone
Reverse Flow Cyclone

Separator
7
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators
Cyclone Separators
8
9/10/2023
Cyclone Design Considerations
Cyclone Separation Factor, S
The magnitude of centrifugal force is frequently described

in terms of the number of times this force exceeds the
force of gravity, i.e, Separation factor, (S)
Where Vθ= Tangential particle velocity

r= radius of rotation
S varies from 5 in large, low velocity units to 2500 in small,

high pressure units
9
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators
The tangential velocity of both particle and gas is same. By balancing

the radial drag force and the centrifugal force,
 v2
3 g d p v r  d 3p [  p   g ] 
6 r
From this,
d p2 [  p   g ]v2
vr 
18 g r
Cyclone Separators
By experiments,
v r n  const
For ideal gas n=1
Vθ can be expressed in terms of Vθi , inlet tangential velocity of the gas
D n Q
v  vi [ ] v i 
2r Ai
d p2 [  p   g ] Q 2 D 2 n 1
vr  { } [ ] [ 2 n 1]
18 g Ai 2 r
Where, Q= gas volumetric flow rate, D= Diameter of cyclone
 As the radial velocity increases, the efficiency also increases, But at the cost of some
pressure drop.
Cut Size (dpc)

Which is the size of those particles that are collected with 50% efficiency. Particles
larger than dpc will have a collection efficiency greater than 50% while the smaller
particles will be collected with lesser efficiency
10
9/10/2023
Efficiency of Cyclone Separators

Most Satisfactory expression for cyclone performance is Empirical. Efficiency of collection
determined from an empirical expression and Lapple’s correlation chart
dpc=
Where, b= inlet width,

vi= gas inlet velocity,
Ne= effective number of turns a gas makes in
traversing the cyclone (5-10 in most cases)
Example (Cyclone)
Determine the cut size diameter of a cyclone for the
following data
11
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators –
Pressure Drop
∆P =
K = a constant which averages 13 and ranges from 7.5 to 18.4

∆P = pressure drop
a, b, De = cyclone dimensions
νi = inlet gas velocity
ρg = gas density
 Pressure drop is proportional to inlet velocity in squares.

 This influences the economy and efficiency of the
cyclone separator
Cyclone Separators
As diameter decreases, efficiency increases

However, pressure drop also increases
Cyclones are efficient for particles larger than 10 µm
Uses
• Sawmill
• Oil refinery
• Cement plant
12
9/10/2023
Filters
• Removal of particles less than 5 m

Two types
• Deep bed filter (Packed filter)
• A packing of fibers is used to intercept the particles in the gas stream
• Used for low volume and relatively clean gas (air conditioning system)
• Fabric (Bag) Filter

• For dirty industrial gas
• Mechanism involved are

• Inertial Impaction
• Direct interception
• Diffusion
FABRIC/BAG FILTERS
Operation
 Consists of a tubular bag or an envelope
 Particle laden gas enters the bag at the bottom
 Passes through the fabric
 Particles will deposit on the fabric, in side the bag
 As particulate matter collects on the bag, collection efficiency
increases
 At some point the pressure drop across the bag reduces the
gas flow rate to an unacceptable level.
 Cleaning is done in a time interval
 Three methods of cleaning  mechanical shaking, reverse
air flow, pulse jet
 Some times the reverse pressure drop is also used
13
9/10/2023
Bag Filter
Packed Filters
INERTIAL IMPACTION
14
9/10/2023
Packed Filters
INTERCEPTION
Interception and impaction usually account for 99% of the

collection of particles larger than 1 μm
Packed Filters
DIFFUSION (Electrostatic attraction)
15
9/10/2023
Packed Filters
INERTIAL IMPACTION
2𝑦𝑜
∅𝑐 =
𝑑𝑓
𝜙𝑐= Collision Factor
𝜙𝑎= Adherence Factor
𝜂𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝜙𝑐𝜙𝑎
Packed Filters
Interception and impaction usually account for 99% of the
collection of particles larger than 1 μm
INTERCEPTION
For Potential Flow
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 + −
Potential flow is an idealized model of fluid flow that occurs in the

case of incompressible, inviscid, and irrotational flow.
16
9/10/2023
Packed Filters
DIFFUSION (Electrostatic attraction)
.
𝐶𝐷𝑓𝑅𝑒𝑓 .
𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.775
𝑃𝑒
2
CDf= Drag coefficient of the fiber
Ref = Reynolds number based on fiber diameter
Pe = Peclet number
Combined Efficiency of
Collection
In practice, the collection mechanisms of impaction,
interception and diffusion are not independent.
A reasonable estimate for combined efficiency of collection

is,
𝜂𝑓 = 1 − (1 − 𝜂𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡)(1 − 𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)(1 − 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
17
9/10/2023
Bag Filters
Advantages
Very high efficiencies
Retention of finest particles
Collection of particles in dry form
Lesser pressure drop
Disadvantages
Large size
High construction costs
Their application only to process temperature < 285 0C
SPRAY TOWERS
Operation
 Water is introduced by means of spray nozzles
 The polluted gas flow upwards and the particle collection
results because of inertial impaction and interception on the
droplet
 The maximum collection efficiency by inertial impaction has
been found to be independent of particle size
Efficiency - a complex function of
 Droplet size
 Flow velocity of gas
 Liquid:gas ratio
 Droplet trajectories
18
9/10/2023
SPRAY TOWERS
SPRAY TOWERS
For identical spherical droplets falling through a slow upward moving gas stream , the overall
collection efficiency is given by
 sc  1  (1  d ) n
Where, n = number of collecting droplets encountered by a group of particles and ηd =

individual drop collection efficiency
For spray towers the value of n can be calculated from the expression
1.5m s L  1 1 
n   
 L d  Q Asc (v td  v p ) 
Where, ms= mass flow rate of spray liquid, L=height of spray tower, d = average droplet size,
Q = volumetric flow rate of gas, ρL= spray liquid density, Asc= tower cross-sectional area, vtd
= terminal free falling velocity of the droplet, and vp= particle velocity
19
9/10/2023
CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS
 The collection efficiency for particles smaller than those

recovered in spray towers can be increased
 The simplest type of centrifugal scrubber can be

constructed by inserting banks of nozzles inside a
conventional dry cyclone
 In the absence of spray the efficiency will be the same as

that for the dry collector
CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS
Operation
 The polluted gas introduced tangentially into the
lower portion of the vertical cylinder
 Water drops are injected into the flow stream from
sprays directed outward from a central manifold
 These droplets are caught in the spinning gas
stream and are thrown upward toward the wall by
centrifugal force
 During their motion, the droplets collide with the
particles and capture them
 The scrubbing liquid along with the particles flows
down the wall to the bottom of the scrubber
 The cleaned gas exits through a demister and is
processed for the removal of any entrained water
droplets
20
9/10/2023
PACKED BEDS AND PLATE

COLUMNS
 In a typical countercurrent-flow packed scrubber the polluted
gas stream moves upward and comes in contact with the
scrubbing liquid stream which is moving downward over the
packing in a film
 The packing provides a target, which allows the gas stream
to take a curved path through the pore spaces while the
particles carried by the gas stream are captured by inertial
impaction
 Collection of particles by diffusion is also possible
 Smaller packing increases the efficiency of collection but its
shape does not appear to affect the collection efficiency
 Packed tower can be chosen for scrubbing particles that are
soluble in the scrubbing liquid; otherwise, the packing will
encounter plugging problems

COLUMNS
21
9/10/2023
Venturi Scrubber
 Venturi scrubbers offer high performance collection of fine particles,
usually smaller than 2 to 3 μm in diameter
 These scrubbers are suitable for sticky, flammable, or high
corrosive particulate matter
 The high performance of the venturi scrubbers is achieved by
accelerating the gas stream to very high velocities, of the order of
60-120 m/s
Operation
 The droplets accelerate in the throat section and due to the velocity
difference between the particles and the droplets the particles are
impacted against the slow-moving droplets
 The gas liquid mixture is then directed to a separation device such
as a cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the particulate
matter are separated from the gas stream
Venturi Scrubber
Mechanisms involved
 Diffusion
 Electrostatic-phenomenon
 Condensation
 Agglomeration
22
9/10/2023
Venturi Scrubber
Johnstone et al. correlated the collection efficiency of the venturi scrubber with the
impaction parameter (ψ) as:
  1  exp( KR  )
K = Correlation factor= f(throat geometry)

R = Liquid flow rate /m3 of gas
 = inertial impaction parameter  relates the particle and droplet sizes and relative
velocities Cρ p v r (d p ) 2
ψ C= Cunningham correction factor
18d d 
The diameter of the droplet (dd) obtained from gas atomization in the venturi throat can be
evaluated from the following equation:
16400
dd   1.45L1.5
vr
Where, dd is in μm, L is the liquid flow rate (gal/1000 ft3 of gas), and vr is the relative velocity
of gas to liquid at venturi throat in ft/sec
Problem
Calculate the venturi throat area required to achieve 99%

removal of 1.25 m radius particle having a density of
1400 kg/m3 for the following gas stream and venturi
characteristics
Gas flow rate – 10 m3/s
Gas temp – 1800C
Droplet diameter – 100 m
Liquid flow rate – 0.1 m3/s
Coefficient k = 200
23
9/17/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor

METHODS
17 September 2023 2
1
9/17/2023
Electrostatic Precipitator
17 September 2023 3
Electrostatic Precipitators
17 September 2023 4
2
9/17/2023
Collection Efficiency- ESP
If electric field strength is Ec is present, a force Fel will act on it

such that
Fel = qpEc
An opposite drag force, FD, resists Fel. When the net force is 0,
particles moves with constant drift velocity, Vm
Fel = FD
17 September 2023 5
Collection Efficiency - ESP
The Cunningham correction factor or Cunningham slip correction factor is used to account
for non-continuum effects when calculating the drag on small particles. The derivation
of Stokes' law, which is used to calculate the drag force on small particles, assumes a no-slip
condition which is no longer correct at high Knudsen number
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_ONwi7hauc
17 September 2023 6
3
9/17/2023
Collection Efficiency-ESP
For stoke law region
νpm = Constant drift velocity of particle
17 September 2023 7
Q,v
c(z) c(z+ΔZ)
ΔZ
Mass Balance Qc(z) = Qc(z+ΔZ) + c(z)vpmP ΔZ
At Z=0, C=Co
At Z=L, C = CL
17 September 2023 8
4
9/17/2023
Collection Efficiency - ESP
But PL = Ac ( Lateral Surface Area of Collector)
Q=A*v = (V/L)*v
V= Volume of Precipitator
17 September 2023
A= Cross sectional Area of precipitator 9
5
9/17/2023
Problem
Electrostatic Precipitators
Advantages
Low Pressure drop, power requirement is small compared to that in other devices
economical and simple to operate
99+ percent efficiency obtainable very small particles can be collected wet or dry
Can Handle both gases and mists for high volume flow
Operated at high temperatures and pressures.
Few moving parts
Disadvantages
Relatively high initial cost and large space
Sensitive to variable particulate loadings or flow rates
Safe guard of operating personnel from high voltage is necessary
Collection efficiency can deteriorate gradually
6
9/17/2023
Venturi Scrubber
 Venturi scrubbers offer high performance collection of fine particles,
usually smaller than 2 to 3 μm in diameter
 These scrubbers are suitable for sticky, flammable, or high
corrosive particulate matter
 The high performance of the venturi scrubbers is achieved by
accelerating the gas stream to very high velocities, of the order of
60-120 m/s
Operation
 The droplets accelerate in the throat section and due to the velocity
difference between the particles and the droplets the particles are
impacted against the slow-moving droplets
 The gas liquid mixture is then directed to a separation device such
as a cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the particulate
matter are separated from the gas stream
Venturi Scrubber
Mechanisms involved
 Diffusion
 Electrostatic-phenomenon
 Condensation
 Agglomeration
7
9/17/2023
Venturi Scrubber
Johnstone et al. correlated the collection efficiency of the venturi scrubber with the
impaction parameter (ψ) as:
  1  exp( KR  )
K = Correlation factor= f(throat geometry)

R = Liquid flow rate /m3 of gas
 = inertial impaction parameter  relates the particle and droplet sizes and relative
velocities Cρ p v r (d p ) 2
ψ C= Cunningham correction factor
18d d 
The diameter of the droplet (dd) obtained from gas atomization in the venturi throat can be
evaluated from the following equation:
16400
dd   1.45L1.5
vr
Where, dd is in μm, L is the liquid flow rate (gal/1000 ft3 of gas), and vr is the relative velocity
of gas to liquid at venturi throat in ft/sec
Problem

characteristics
Gas temp – 1800C
Coefficient k = 200
8
9/17/2023
Problem

characteristics
Gas temp – 1800C
Coefficient k = 200
Selection of a particulate
collector
The selection of a suitable control device for a specific
application requires consideration of
 Particle size
 Concentration of particles
 Desired efficiency of collection
 Costs
 Space available
 Maintenance factors
Figure gives the efficiencies of various gas cleaning devices for
three broad particulate size categories
 Coarse
 Fine
 Superfine dusts
9
9/17/2023
Selection of a particulate
collector
A) Settling Chamber
B) Simple Cyclone
C) High-efficiency
Cyclone
D) Electrostatic
Precipitator
E) Spray Tower wet
scrubber
F) Venturi Scrubber
G) Bag Filter
Use of particulate collectors in

industry
Industry or process Particulate matter Collection devices
Steel Iron oxide, dust, smoke Cyclones, fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators, wet
scrubbers
Metallurgical (non-ferrous) Smoke, metal fumes, fabric filters, electrostatic
oil, grease precipitators, wet scrubbers
Cement, Phosphate, gypsum, Process dusts fabric filters, electrostatic
alumina processing precipitators, wet scrubbers,
mechanical collectors
Kraft paper mills Chemical dusts electrostatic precipitators, venturi
scrubbers
Sulphuric, phosphoric, nitric acid Acid mist, dust electrostatic precipitators, mesh
manufacture mist eliminators
Petroleum refineries Catalyst dust, ash from High-efficiency cyclones,
sludge electrostatic precipitators,
scrubbing towers
Power generation Coal dust, fly ash Mechanical collectors,
electrostatic precipitators
10
9/17/2023
CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS
There are essentially two classes of techniques by which
gaseous pollutants may be removed from an effluent stream
1. Sorption of pollutant, through absorption in a liquid or
adsorption on a solid surface
2. Chemical alteration of the pollutant, usually through
combustion or catalytic treatment
Absorption by Liquids
 Three steps: diffusion to interface  transfer across interface
 diffusion into liquid
 A two film resistance theory, initially suggested by Whitman,
is often used to explain this process
 According to the theory, the interface offers no resistance to
mass transfer, and the mass transfer rate between the two
phases is controlled by the rates of diffusion through the
phases on each side of the interface
CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS
Direction of mass transfer
Concentration of component A
Gas Liquid
phase phase
CAi
PAG
CAL
PAi
Interface
Distance, z
Concentration Profiles
11
9/17/2023
CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS
For dilute solutions the equilibrium relation between pA and
CA can be expressed in terms of Henry’s law
p A  HC A
Where, H is the Henry’s constant, which depends on the
definition of concentration units. If the Henry’s law is
expressed in terms of mole fraction, then
pA  H ' xA
Smaller values of H’ represents higher solubility of the gas
What is the difference between Rault’s Law and Henry’s

Law?
Henry’s Vs Rault’s Law
12
9/17/2023
Absorption
The effectiveness of an absorption process for air pollution
control mostly depends on the selection of a suitable
scrubbing medium
Important properties of solvents for industrial applications
are:
 High gas solubility and high selectivity between solute
species
 Low vapour pressure
 Non-corrosiveness
 Easy regeneration and recovery
 Low costs
 Low viscosity at absorption temperature
 Nontoxicity
 Nonflammability
 Chemical stability
Absorption
Gas Absorption Equipment
Gas absorption is commonly conducted in equipment which are
designed to provide intimate contact between the two phases
Commonly used absorbers
 Packed towers
 Plate and spray towers
 Venturi scrubbers
In air pollution control, the most popular means of gas cleaning

is the packed tower; however, tray columns, spray and
venturi scrubbers are used in nearly 10% of the cases.
13
9/17/2023

COLUMNS
Types of Packings
Metal pall ring Plastic Super Intalox Saddle Raschig Rings
Lessing Ring Partition Ring

Berl Saddle
14
9/17/2023
Types of Tray
Sieve Tray
Bubble Cap
17 September 2023 Valve Tray 29

Absorption- Basic Design

Consideration
Consider a steady-state operation involving a countercurrent absorber
as shown in figure
Three variables of interest in the design Ls Gs

of a packed tower are: G2 G2
1. gas flow rate, x2 y2
X2 Y2 L = Total liquid flow rate/area
2. liquid flow rate
G = Total gas flow rate/area
3. height of tower. Plane2
y = mole fraction of solute
in GAS phase
For height dZ, the total interfacial dz x = mole fraction of solute
area open to mass transfer is: in LIQUID phase
Y = mole ratio of solute in
z GAS phase
a*V = a*(AdZ)
Plane1 X= mole ratio of solute in
Ls Gs LIQUID phase
a= interfacial area/ tower volume
A = Tower cross-sectional area L1 G1
X1 y1
X1 Y1
15
10/1/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor

METHODS
1 October 2023 2
1
10/1/2023
Absorption
The effectiveness of an absorption process for air pollution
control mostly depends on the selection of a suitable
scrubbing medium
Important properties of solvents for industrial applications
are:
 High gas solubility and high selectivity between solute
species
 Low vapour pressure
 Non-corrosiveness
 Easy regeneration and recovery
 Low costs
 Low viscosity at absorption temperature
 Nontoxicity
 Nonflammability
 Chemical stability
1 October 2023 3
Absorption
Gas Absorption Equipment
Gas absorption is commonly conducted in equipment which are
designed to provide intimate contact between the two phases
Commonly used absorbers
 Packed towers
 Plate and spray towers
 Venturi scrubbers
In air pollution control, the most popular means of gas cleaning

is the packed tower; however, tray columns, spray and
venturi scrubbers are used in nearly 10% of the cases.
1 October 2023 4
2
10/1/2023

COLUMNS
1 October 2023 5
Types of Packings
Metal pall ring Plastic Super Intalox Saddle Raschig Rings
Lessing Ring Partition Ring

Berl Saddle
1 October 2023 6
3
10/1/2023
Types of Tray
Sieve Tray
Bubble Cap
1 October 2023 Valve Tray 7

Absorption
Two Film Theory: The rate of mass transfer of solute NA per unit interfacial
area from the gas phase and across the interface must equal to that in the
liquid phase, i. e.,
N A  kG ( pG  pi )  k L (ci  cL )
It is impossible to know the A

pG C
interface partial pressures
and concentrations  the rate
equations are normally Equilibrium
expressed in terms of overall pi B curve
coefficient (i.e., KG &KL) D
based on an overall driving p*
force between the bulk
compositions, pG and cL.
These are defined by
cL ci c*
N A  K G ( pG  p  )  K L (c   cL ) The driving force in gas absorption
1 October 2023 8
4
10/1/2023
Absorption
Above equations in terms of mole fractions
N A  kG ( yG  yi )  k L ( xi  xL )
N A  K G ( yG  y  )  K L ( x   x L )
And equilibrium relationship in terms of mole fractions yi  mxi
Where, m = H’/P, and P = total pressure
Relation between overall mass transfer coefficient and individual mass transfer
coefficient
1 1 m
 
K y ky kx
1 October 2023 9

Consideration
Consider a steady-state operation involving a countercurrent absorber
as shown in figure
Three variables of interest in the design Ls Gs

of a packed tower are: G2 G2
1. gas flow rate, x2 y2
X2 Y2 L = Total liquid flow rate/area
2. liquid flow rate
G = Total gas flow rate/area
3. height of tower. Plane2
y = mole fraction of solute
in GAS phase
For height dZ, the total interfacial dz x = mole fraction of solute
area open to mass transfer is: in LIQUID phase
Y = mole ratio of solute in
z GAS phase
a*V = a*(AdZ)
Plane1 X= mole ratio of solute in
Ls Gs LIQUID phase
a= interfacial area/ tower volume
A = Tower cross-sectional area L1 G1
X1 y1
X1 Y1
1 October 2023 10
5
10/1/2023

Consideration
A solute material balance gives G1 y1  L2 x 2  G 2 y 2  L1 x1
Since G and L vary along the height of the tower, it is much simpler to express
material balance equations in terms of solute-free concentration units. Then
material balance equation becomes
Gs (Y1  Y2 )  Ls ( X 1  X 2 )
Where, Gs= molal flow rate of non-diffusing material (i.e., solvent) in gas phase/cross
sectional area of tower, Ls = molal flow rate of non diffusing material (i.e., solvent) in
liquid phase/cross sectional area of tower,
The equation for the operating line with slope
Ls Y  Y2
 1
Gs X 1  X 2
In general form, the operating line equation may be represented as
L 
Y  Y1   s ( X 1  X )
1 October 2023
 Gs  11

Consideration
X1, Y1
Operating line
Ls
slope 
Gs Equilibrium Curve
Y
Yi  f ( X i )
X2, Y2
X
Equilibrium and operating lines in a countercurrent tower
A solute material balance over the differential length dz
L 
d (Y )  d {Y1   s ( X 1  X )}  GsdY  LsdX
 Gs  12
1 October 2023
6
10/1/2023

Consideration
Now, for a differential section of the tower with height dz and
interfacial are dA, the rate of absorption is
Ls Gs
G2 G2
x2 y2
N A dA  K y ( y  y  )dA X2 Y2
Plane2
But , dA  aAdz
 N A adz  K y a ( y  y  )dz dz
z
For height dZ, the total interfacial area open to mass
transfer is: Plane1
Ls Gs
L1 G1
a*V = a*(AdZ)
X1 y1
X1 Y1
a= interfacial area/ tower volume, A = Tower cross-
sectional area
1 October 2023

Consideration
 G s dY  K y a ( y  y * )dz
 y  dy
G s dY  G (1  y)d   G
 1  y  1 y
dy
G  K y a ( y  y * )dz
1 y
Multiplying and dividing the right hand side of above equation by

(1-y)lm and assuming that the product of this and Kya is a constant, we
can integrate for the height of the tower Z
y1
G (1  y ) lm dy
Z
K y a (1  y )lm  (1  y)( y  y )
y2
*
1 October 2023 14
7
10/1/2023

Consideration
HOG = Height of Overall Transfer Unit based on gas side
y1
G (1  y )lm dy
Z
K y a (1  y ) lm  (1  y)( y  y )  H
y2
* OG N OG
NOG = # of Overall Transfer Unit required to achieve separation from

y1y2
1 October 2023 15

Consideration
If the two contacting systems are relatively dilute, and both the
operating and equilibrium lines are straight over the tower
height, then it can be shown that
y1  y 2
N OG 
[ y  y * ]lm
Where ,
[ y  y * ]1  [ y  y * ] 2
[ y  y * ]lm 
[ y  y * ]1
ln
[ y  y * ]2
1 October 2023 16
8
10/1/2023

Consideration
HOG may be estimated from individual phase transfer unit heights according to the relation
 mG 
H OG  H G   H L
 L 
 (G ' ) 
HG  ScG
( L' ) 
The heights of gas and liquid transfer units have been correlated 
 L' 
H L     Sc L
 L 
Where, HG and HL are in meters, G’ and L’ are in kg/m2-sec, μL is in kg/m-sec and the gas
and liquid Schmidt numbers are
ScG  
G   L 
  G DG  and Sc L    L DL 
DG and DL are the gas and liquid diffusivities respectively of the solute absorbed
1 October 2023 17
Problem (Homework)
Determine the height of a packed tower that is used to

reduce the conc. of H2S in air from 0.1 kg/m3 to 0.005
kg/m3 given the following data:
Incoming liquid is water free of H2S
Operating temperature – 250C
Operating pressure 101.325 kPa
Henry’s law constant = 5.522
HG = 0.444m; HL = 0.325m
Liquid flow rate = 20 kg/s
Gas flow rate = 5 kg/s
1 October 2023 18
9
10/1/2023
Solution
1 October 2023 19
Adsorption
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon by which gas or liquid molecules
are captured by and adhere to the surface of a solid adsorbent
Physical Adsorption
 The gaseous material condenses upon the surface of the solid,
accompanied by an evolution of heat
 The adsorbed material can be removed or desorbed by reducing
the pressure or by increasing the temperature. Thus, the process is
reversible
Chemisorption
 Chemical interaction between the solid and the adsorbed material
 It is irreversible process
 Heat of adsorption being much higher than that for physical
adsorption
 The molecules are held to the solid surface by chemical bonds and
the original material undergoes a chemical change
1 October 2023 20
10
10/1/2023
Adsorption
Adsorption techniques are widely used in the field of:
 Odor control for removing small quantities of pollutants
present in a large volume of air
 For collecting valuable organic substances that cannot be
picked up by scrubbing methods
Adsorption rate depends on several factors:
 Concentration of the material around the adsorbent
 Surface area of the adsorbent
 Pore volume of the adsorbent
 Temperature, molecular polarity and the chemical nature of
the adsorbent surface
1 October 2023 21
Desirable characteristics of
adsorbents
Desirable Qualities of Adsorbents: High adsorptive ability ,
Large surface per unit mass, Must not offer high
pressure drop, Adequate strength and hardness and
Free flowing.
Manchisi, James & Matinde, Elias & Rowson, Neil & Simmons, Mark & Simate, Geoffrey S. & Ndlovu, Sehliselo & Mwewa, Brian. (2020). Ironmaking and Steelmaking Slags as Sustainable
Adsorbents for Industrial Effluents and Wastewater Treatment: A Critical Review of Properties, Performance, Challenges and Opportunities. Sustainability. 12. 2118. 10.3390/su12052118.
1 October 2023 22
11
10/1/2023
Adsorption
Mechanism - Adsorption
 The diffusion of the pollutant from the bulk gas phase to the
external surface of solid
 The diffusion of the gas molecules into the pores of the solids
 And finally is the actual adsorption on the active sites in the pores
Removal of pollutants by adsorption may be carried out in a batchwise
or continuous manner of operation
Adsorption Isotherm
 Relation between amount of pollutant adsorbed and the
equilibrium pressure at constant temperature
*
aC g
W *
1  bC g
1 October 2023 23
Adsorption Isotherm
1 October 2023 24
12
10/1/2023
Adsorption Mechanism
Clean
Effluent
 The diffusion of the pollutant from
the bulk gas phase to the external
surface of solid
 The diffusion of the gas
molecules into the pores of the
solids
 And finally is the actual
adsorption on the active sites in
the pores
Dirty
Effluent
1 October 2023 25
Adsorption in Fixed Bed
LUB
Length of
Unused Bed
𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟑
MTZ
Mass Transfer Zone
1 October 2023 26
13
10/1/2023
Fixed Bed Adsorption Process
1 October 2023 27
Ideal and Actual Outlet Concentration Curves

Outlet Concentration
Time (h)
1 October 2023 28
14
10/1/2023
Mathematical Analysis of
Fixed Bed Adsorption
1. The velocity with which the

adsorption wave moves
through the bed, u is given
by
0.5
cout/
2. Length of Mass Transfer 𝑐
Zone
3. Length of Unused Bed 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡∗

(LUB)
1 October 2023 29
Adsorption
Breakthrough Time (tB)
a,b = Langmuir coefficients

Cg* = Equilibrium concentration of pollutant g/m3
Qg = Volumetric flow rate of gas
1 October 2023 30
15
10/1/2023
9-43
Determine the breakthrough time for toluene on an

adsorption bed of activated carbon that is 0.75 m thick and
5 m2 in cross section. The operating parameters for the bed
are as follows:
Gas flow rate = 1.185 kg/s
Gas temperature = 250C
Bed density = 450 kg/m3
Inlet pollutant concentration = 0.00350 kg/m3
Langmuir parameters: a = 465, b = 3000
Width of adsorption zone = 0.045m
1 October 2023 31
16
10/15/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Water Pollution
Sources and Classification of water

pollutants
15 October 2023 2
1
10/15/2023
Water in India!
• NITI Aayog reported that 600 million people in India encounter
extreme to high water stress.
• With a decadal growth of 17 %, the expanding urban population

largely contributes to water demand and water pollution from
domestic and industrial wastewater discharges.
• Extensive migration of rural population to cities has led to an

upsurge in utility services resulting in overexploitation of ground-
waters.
• Besides expanding population, industrialization accounts for about

a 4 % rise in water demand annually resulting in a substantial
increase in industrial wastewaters volume.
15 October 2023 3
N.B. Jadeja et.al., Water Security 16 (2022) 100119 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Water in India
• It is estimated that the total water demand for domestic, industrial and
agricultural sectors will rise to 103 billion cubic metres (BCM) in 2025
and 1447 BCM by 2050.
• Disproportionate distribution of natural water resources due to diverse

geographies, climate change and irregular monsoons, trade and
commerce further challenge water management in India.
• With 21 major cities nearing water depletion and various cities being
subjected to water supply cuts, India now ranks thirteen in the list of
water-stressed countries.
• India is home to 1.4 billion people and the wastewaters generated varies
from 15 to 135 L/per person/day which imposes critical challenges in
developing low-cost wastewater treatment technologies that meet the
current discharge standards.
15 October 2023 4
N.B. Jadeja et.al., Water Security 16 (2022) 100119 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
2
10/15/2023
Some Calculations!
How much wastewater (approximate) will be generated today in India?
Today’s Population: 1,432,412,510 (As per Worldometer!)
Average wastewater generated : (15+135)/2=75L/person/day
Total Wastewater generated: 1.075 x 1011 L/day

: 1.075 x 108 m3/day
: 3.92 x 1010 m3/year
Annual Precipitation : 4 x 1012 m3/year
Water required 1.03 x 1011m3/year in 2025
15 October 2023 5
Outline
– Water resources
– Origin of wastewater
– Classification of water pollutants
• Oxygen demanding waste
• Disease causing agents
• Synthetic organic compounds
• Plant nutrients
• Inorganic chemicals and minerals
• Sediments
• Radioactive substances
• Thermal discharges
• Oil
15 October 2023 6
3
10/15/2023
Water Resources
Water is vital natural resource which is essential for a

multiplicity of purposes.
Water used
 Drinking
 Domestic uses
 Industrial cooling
 Power generation
 Agriculture (irrigation)
 Transportation
 Waste disposal
 Main source of water in India is rain
15 October 2023 7
Hydrologic Cycle
15 October 2023 8
4
10/15/2023
Hydrologic Cycle
• Natural cycle : More than 97% of water in biosphere is in oceans, the
remaining 3% is found in continents and atmosphere
• More than 70% of this is in glaciers and icecaps
• Water on which human depend such as lakes, streams and ground water
accounts for less than 1% of total supply
• The hydrologic cycle of the biosphere depends on the reciprocity of
evaporation and precipitation.
• Liquid water on earth goes to the atmosphere as vapor by evaporation
and transpiration of the plants. The vapor is returned to Earth as rain or
snow over the oceans.
• Oceans lose more water by evaporation than they gain by precipitation.
• The difference is made up by runoff and seepage from the continents,
over which there is more precipitation than evaporation.
• Continents lose more than 50% of the precipitation through evaporation
and remainder is stored in lakes, rivers or ground water which is later
discharged into oceans.
15 October 2023 9
Water for Human Use
• Each year about 4,23,000 km3 water is evaporated, and

the same quantity is precipitated.
• Amount of water temporarily stored & later discharged
into oceans is 37000 km3
• This is the only water is available for human use!
• Minor modification by diverting or regulating the runoff
and storage.
15 October 2023 10
5
10/15/2023
Season–wise distribution of
rainfall in India
Duration Approximate % of the annual rainfall
January-February 2.6
March–May 10.4 Scarcity of water
June–September 73.7 …….. Flood
October–December 13.3
100%
Estimated Rainfall
 17.5% water evaporates
 20% water runs off into surface water bodies (river + pond + … )
 53.5% water percolates into the soil
15 October 2023 11
Rainwater Fate
15 October 2023 12
6
10/15/2023
Indian Context
15 October 2023 13
S.K. Jain, CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 102, NO. 7, 10 APRIL 2012, 964-67 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Sources of Water
Alternative water source for human
 Desalinated sea water (for drinking purpose)
 Reclaimed waste water (for irrigation, sanitary and fire
fighting)
Utilization of water:
 1. Irrigation:
 Water requirement for the irrigation is the highest.
 Water requirement for irrigation varies with the climate and the type of crop being
raised.
 Surface water used for irrigation may be diverted through canals.
 Dams can be used to make water available during the shortage time period.
15 October 2023 14
7
10/15/2023
Domestic water supply
 Domestic water requirement also varied from the season

to season.
 The water requirement in the cities is much higher than
villages.
 Water use in the cities is directly proportional to the
standard of living.
 The per-capita water consumption is the criteria which
define the standard of living in a particular area.
 It is very difficult to find it correctly as public do not fully
rely on the municipal water supply.
15 October 2023 15
Power Generation
 Water is converted into steam in the thermal power

plants and the turbines are rotated to produce electricity.
 The principal water demand is in the cooling
requirements in the boilers.
 The heated water some times discharged in the open
and it leads to the water loss through the evaporation.
 On a rough estimate in a 500MW power plant about 40
million litres of water would evaporate per day.
 As the electricity demand is increasing the water
wastage would increase.
15 October 2023 16
8
10/15/2023
Industrial water use
 Industry is much dependent on adequate water supplies.

 Water requirement also varied from industry to industry.
 Major water consuming industries are steel, paper and
pulp, textiles, chemicals and petroleum refining.
 With the increase of the industrialization the water
demand is also going to increase.
15 October 2023 17
Origin of Wastewater
Waste water (by the origin)
• Point sources: collected by a network of pipes or channels
and conveyed to a single point of discharge into the
receiving water
• Domestic sewage
• Industrial wastes
• Non-point sources: characterized by multiple discharge
points
• Agricultural runoff
• Urban runoff
15 October 2023 18
9
10/15/2023
Water Pollution
Domestic and industrial wastes pollute the aquatic
systems.
 75 to 80% of India’s population is exposed to unsafe
drinking water.
 Fertilizers are getting discharged into water bodies and
causing eutrophication.
 Pesticides are entering the food chain.
 Fish are being killed in millions along sea coasts.
15 October 2023 19
Waste water characteristics

• Varies widely from industry to
industry
• Because of the large number
of pollutant substances,
wastewater characteristics
are not usually considered on
a substance by substance
basis.
• Rather, substances of similar
pollution effects are grouped
together into classes of
pollutants or characteristics
• The specific characteristics
will affect the treatment Perry’Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition
techniques
15 October 2023
chosen 20
10
10/15/2023
Classification of water
pollutants
1. Oxygen demanding wastes
2. Disease–causing agents
3. Synthetic organic compounds
4. Plant nutrients
5. Inorganic chemicals and minerals
6. Sediments
7. Radioactive substances
8. Thermal discharges
9. Oil
15 October 2023 21
Classification and sources
15 October 2023 22
11
10/15/2023
Types of Water Pollutants
Disease causing Agents

 Water carries pathogenic micro-organisms, which come
from tanning and meat packaging industries. Some
bacteria are water-borne. These disease causing agents
cause cholera, typhoid, dysentery.
 Viruses are also found in water, which are responsible
for polio, infectious hepatitis and fever.
 Water also plays an indirect role in the transmission of
diseases like malaria, yellow fever.
 Presence of pathogens make the water unfit for drinking,
at high concentration, water may also be unsafe for
swimming and fishing
15 October 2023 23
Types of Water Pollutants
Synthetic Organic compounds (Pesticides, detergents)

 Pesticides and detergents are not biodegradable and may
persist for long periods reaching objectionable levels in water
or in aquatic life. Wide variety of these compounds are not
being detected.
Pesticides
 Insecticides
 Herbicides
 Fungicides
Pesticides result primarily from surface run off from agricultural
lands, water discharge by pesticide manufacturers and by
other means. Because of their world wide usage, nearly all
the rivers and oceans of the world contain pesticide residues.
15 October 2023 24
12
10/15/2023
Limiting standards for some common pesticides in drinking water

are given as:
Pesticides Max Permissible limit (mg/l)
Aldrin 0.017
Chlordane 0.003
DDT 0.042
Dieldrin 0.017
Endrin 0.001
Heptachlor 0.018
Heptachlor Epoxide 0.018
Lindane 0.056
Toxaphene 0.005
15 October 2023 25
Detergents
 The basic active ingredient in detergents is the surfactant or

surface active agent.
 It lowers the surface tension and allows dirt particles to
become linked to water. The dirt is subsequently lifted or
floated from the soiled garment during the washing process.
 Surfactant concentration as low as 1 ppm produce foam in
rivers and in sewage treatment plants. Although these
concentration are non-toxic to humans, the presence of
surfactants gives on off-taste to drinking water.
 The presence of surfactants reduces the rate of oxygen
absorption in water.
 The acceptable concentration for surfactants in water supplies
has been set at 0.5 ppm.
15 October 2023 26
13
10/15/2023
Plant Nutrients
 Nitrogen and Phosphorus are essential elements which are

required by plants and animals for maintaining their growth
and metabolism.
 Small amount of nitrates and phosphates occur in all aquatic
systems and these are sufficient to maintain a balanced
biological growth.
 Huge amount of nitrates and phosphates may enter the water
bodies directly from the manufacture and use of fertilizers,
and from the processing of biological materials such as food
and textiles, or via domestic sewage treatment plants.
 Thus water unusually large concentration of nutrients are
present in water bodies, an excess growth of algae appears.
15 October 2023 27
 This produces an unsightly green slime layer over the surface

of the water body and subsequently leads to eutrophication.
 The slime layer reduces light penetration and restricts
atmospheric reoxygenation of the water.
 The dense algal growth eventually dies and the subsequent
biodegradation produces an oxygen deficit which can result in
foul-smelling anaerobic conditions.
Inorganic chemicals and Minerals
Inorganic acids
Inorganic salts
Metal and metal compounds
15 October 2023 28
14
10/15/2023
Inorganic Acids
Source:
a)Mine drainage (mining of sulphur bearing ores
containing lead, zinc, copper and iron sulphide
(pyrite)
b)Acidic rainfall
Effects:
a)Acids cause corrosion of metals and concrete
b)Acids are fatal to fish
15 October 2023 29
Inorganic Salts
Source: Industrial effluents, salt from mines or from oil

wells, and ocean salts.
Effects:
• Salts causes hardness of water
• Hard water can cause scale formation in pipes, boiler
tubes and other industrial equipments
• Fatal to fish.
15 October 2023 30
15
10/15/2023
Metals
Cadmium
Source: waste streams from pigment works, textiles, electroplating,
chemical plants etc.
Permissible Level: 0.01 mg/l (drinking water)
Effects: It is not easily detectable in filtered water, particularly if the pH
is neutral or alkaline.
Itai-Itai disease in Japan was probably due to cadmium
Chromium
– Source: Waste water of plating operations, paint and dye
operation, wastewater from textile, ceramic and glass industry.
– Permissible level: 0.05 mg/l (Drinking water)
– Effects: Many plant species are adversely affected by chromium
15 October 2023 31
Metals
Lead
Source: Effluents from battery manufacture, printing, painting.
Permissible Level: 0.05 mg/L (Drinking water)
Effects: Is a cumulative poison and responsible for cancer.
Mercury
Source: Effluents of Pesticides, Fertilizer Paint and paper,
Chlorine industry
Permissible Limit : 0.002 mg/l (Drinking water)
Effects: Most toxic aquatic pollutant effects on photosynthesis
rate.
15 October 2023 32
16
10/15/2023
Sediments
Sediments include soil, sand and mineral particles
Source:
a) By storms and flood waters
b) Deposits of sewage sludge, pulverized coal ash,
industrial solids.
Effects:
a) Pumping equipments, power turbines are affected.
b) Reduces the amount of sunlight, food etc. for water
plants, fish and other aquatic bodies.
15 October 2023 33
Radioactive substances
Source: Wastes of uranium refining, thorium mining,
wastes from nuclear power plants, and from industrial
use of radioactive materials.
Effects: Radioactive substances can enter humans with
food and water, and get accumulated in blood, and
thyroid gland, liver, bone and muscular tissues.
15 October 2023 34
17
10/15/2023
Thermal Discharge
Source:
 Power plant industry uses large qualities of water for
cooling purposes and directly discharge to water bodies.
 Consequently, the water temperature is increased, and
hot water layer at the top and cold water layer at the
bottom are formed.
 The hot layer denies the oxygen transfer from
atmosphere to cold water.
 Thus, DO levels falls rapidly. And at high temperature the
metabolic activity of micro-organisms is increased.
 So, the increase of temperature results to decrease of
DO level and to increase of oxygen consumption.
15 October 2023 35
Thermal Discharge
Effects:
a) Fish death
b) An increase in temperature also increases the toxicity of
some chemical pollutants.
15 October 2023 36
18
10/15/2023
Oils
o Oil spills make up about 12% of the oil that enters the
ocean. The rest come from shipping travel, drains and
dumping.
o An oil spill from a tanker is a severe problem because
there is such a huge quantity of oil being spilt into one
place.
o Oil spills cause a very localised problem but can be
catastrophic to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds
and sea otters.
o Oil cannot dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge
in the water. This suffocates fish, gets caught in the
feathers of marine birds stopping them from flying
and blocks light from photosynthetic aquatic plants.
15 October 2023 37
https://www.water-pollution.org.uk/oil-pollution-in-water/ BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
19
10/22/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Water Pollution
Sources and Classification of water

pollutants
22 October 2023 2
1
10/22/2023
Oxygen Demanding Wastes

(DO & BOD)
 Dissolved oxygen (DO) is essential for sustaining the plant and
animal life in any aquatic system.
 For example, warm water fish requires a minimum DO level of at
least 5 mg/l.
 If the DO level drops below the level necessary to sustain normal
life, then the aquatic system is classified as polluted.
Process by which the DO content is affected
(a)Reaeration: Process by which oxygen transfer takes place from the
atmosphere to water.
(b)Photosynthesis
(c)Respiration
(d)Oxidation of wastes
22 October 2023 3
Oxygen Demanding Wastes

(b) Photosynthesis: Requires solar radiation
During Photosynthesis
 Green plants (algae) utilize CO2 and produce O2
 Organic materials are synthesized and produce O2
Since, photosynthesis occurs only in presence of sunlight, so the DO
level in the water increases during the day.
(c) Respiration:
 The bacterial and algal respiration is responsible for the production
of CO2 and subsequent depletion of DO.
(d) Oxidation of wastes:
 The organic substances are called oxygen demanding wastes.
When these substances enter a waterway, DO is consumed in their
breakdown by micro-organisms.
22 October 2023 4
2
10/22/2023
Dissolved Oxygen
When the DO level falls below the saturation value, oxygen
diffuses from the atmosphere at a rate which is proportional to
the deficit.
Interface
Air
water
Cs
CL
22 October 2023 5
Diurnal DO Variation
Saturation
DO
12 6 12 6 12
Midnight A.M. Noon PM Midnight
22 October 2023 6
3
10/22/2023
Diurnal DO Variation
Saturation
DO
12 6 12 6 12
Midnight A.M. Noon PM Midnight
22 October 2023 7
How DO is Measured
Dissolved Oxygen Meter:
Principle: Electrochemical sensors are used to
measure the concentration of oxygen in the
water.
Operation: The sensor consists of a cathode
and an anode placed in an electrolyte
solution. Oxygen diffuses through a gas-
permeable membrane to the cathode, where
it undergoes a reduction reaction, generating
a current proportional to the oxygen
concentration.
Advantages: Provides accurate and real-time
measurements. Portable and easy to use in
the field.
Applications: Suitable for both field and
laboratory measurements. Commonly used in
environmental monitoring and research.
22 October 2023 8
4
10/22/2023
Oxygen Transfer Rate
Oxygen (air) is sparingly (not highly) soluble in water. So,

the main resistance to mass transfer is from the liquid
side or liquid film controlling (kl = KL)
 mass of O 2 transfer 
N  Mass Flux   ,
 unit area of surface  time 
N = KL (CS – CL)
KL = Liquid Phase Mass Transfer Coefficient
CS = Conc. of DO at saturation (interface)
CL = Actual conc. of DO in the water
22 October 2023 9
Oxygen Transfer Rate
The rate of oxygen transfer (mass/time) into unit volume of

water (v) is given by:
dC L NA A
  K L C S  C L   k 2 C S  C L 
dt V V
Where,
KL A
k2  = Reaeration rate constant /reoxygenation rate constant
V
dC L
 Oxygen transfer rate
dt
D= (CS-CL)= Oxygen deficit
10
22 October 2023
5
10/22/2023
Problem 1
A water sample is collected from a river for oxygen demand

analysis. The initial dissolved oxygen in the sample is 8
mg/L, and after incubation for 5 days, the dissolved
oxygen concentration drops to 2 mg/L. Calculate the
oxygen deficit in the water sample.
22 October 2023 11
Typical values of KL
Types of Water KL (m/day)
Stagnant water 0.10-0.15

Water flowing at 0.6 m/min 0.25
Sluggish polluted river 0.5
Sluggish clean water about 5 cm 1.0
deep
Water flowing at 10m/min 2.0
Open sea water 3.0
Water flowing at 15m/min 7.0
22 October 2023 12
6
10/22/2023
Problem 2
• A water sample is collected from a clear river flowing at

10m/min for oxygen demand analysis. The initial
dissolved oxygen in the sample is 8 mg/L, and after
incubation for 5 days, the dissolved oxygen
concentration drops to 2 mg/L. Calculate the flux of O2
that would have diffused from atmosphere in a
waterbody comprising of 1000000 L of the river water.
22 October 2023 13
Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Pollution results when the oxygen demand exceeds the
available oxygen.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 Is a measure of the O2 utilized by microorganisms during
the oxidation of organic materials.
 On an average, the demand for oxygen is directly
proportional to the amount of organic waste which has to
broken down.
 Hence, BOD is a direct measure of oxygen requirements
and an indirect measure of biodegradable organic
matter.
22 October 2023 14
7
10/22/2023

When a water sample containing degradable organic matter is placed in a closed
container in the presence of bacteria, the O2 consumption follows the pattern shown
below
L = The amount of BOD remaining in time t or the conc. of the remaining

oxidizable material (mg/l)
22 October 2023 15

If a given amount of organic matter is introduced into a water sample
and its decomposition is monitored, one would observe that the rate
of oxidation of organic matter (rate of decline of BOD) can be
approximated as a first-order chemical reaction whose kinetics may
be expressed as:
dL
  k1 L
dt
L = The amount of BOD remaining in time t or the conc. of the
remaining oxidizable material (mg/l)
k1 = The reaction rate constant or deoxygenation constant, day-1
Let at t = 0, L = Lu = Ultimate BOD (the original concentration of the organic
material before any biological action has occurred), we can integrate to get
L '
k1
 exp(  k 1t )  10  k1t Where k 1 
Lu 2 . 303
22 October 2023 16
8
10/22/2023


 L  L u 10  k1 t 
If y represents the amount of BOD utilized at any time t, then
Lu = L + y
or 
y  Lu  L  Lu 1  10  k1 t 
A standard way to measure BOD is to determine the amount of
O2 required by the bacteria during the first five days of
decomposition at 200C. The result is known as the 5-day BOD
at 200C, commonly abbreviated as BOD5 that is equals

y5  Lu  L5  Lu 1  10 5 k1 
22 October 2023 17
22 October 2023 18
9
10/22/2023
Question?
If we know Lu and k1ʹ, we can predict the BOD

at any time t.
How can we get Lu and k1ʹ ???
22 October 2023 19
Thomas method
Determination of k’1 and Lu is done using Thomas method
The method is based on the similarity of two functions
1  10 
3
 k1t   2 .3   
And 2 . 3 k 1 t  1    k1 t 
  6  
1  10  2.3 k  t 1  12 2.3 k  t   16 2.3k t 

 k1 t
1 1 1
2

1
24
2.3 k1t 3  ....
 
3
  2.3    1
2.3 k1t 1  
1
 k1 t   2.3 k1t 1  2.3 k1t   2.3 k1 t  
2 1
2.3k1t 3  ....
  6    2 6 21.6 
22 October 2023 20
10
10/22/2023
Thomas method
As can be seen, the first three terms within the brackets in the
two series are identical, and the difference between the fourth
term is small. Hence, the equation (6) can be written as:
3
  2.3  
y  Lu 2.3K1t  1    k1t 
  6  
Taking the inverse and the cube root, and rearranging, we get
1
t 3 1  K   2 3 
 2.3 K 1 Lu 

  3  1
t
 3.43 Lu  3 
1
 y
22 October 2023 21
Thomas method
A plot of (t/y)1/3 vs time, t, will give a straight line whose slope,
b and intercept, a can be used to calculate K’1 and Lu.
1   K  2 3 
a  2.3 K1 Lu 

3 b 1
1 
 3.43 Lu  3 
Further simplification will yield,
b 1
k1  2.61 Lu 
a 2.3k1 a 3
If we know k1ʹ and Lu, it is possible to predict the BOD utilization
with time.
22 October 2023

y  Lu  L  Lu 1  10  k1 t  22
11
10/22/2023
Problem 3
BOD results for a sample at 200C. Determine k1’ and Lu.
t (days) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y (BOD in mg/l) 0 65 109 138 158 172
22 October 2023 23
Solution
BOD results for a sample at 200C. Determine k1’ and Lu.
t (days) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y (BOD in mg/l) 0 65 109 138 158 172
22 October 2023 24
12
10/22/2023
Typical values of K’1 and Lu
Type of Waste water K11 (day-1) Lu(mg/l)

Weak wastewater 0.152 150
Strong wastewater 0.168 250
Primary sewage effluent 0.152 75-150
Secondary sewage effluent 0.052-0.100 15-75
22 October 2023 25
Deoxygenation constant (k1`)
The deoxygenation constant is f(Temperature) like any

other reaction rate constant.
Van’t Hoff-Arrhenius equation is applicable.
22 October 2023 26
13
10/22/2023
Deoxygenation constant (k1`)
22 October 2023 27
Problem 4
Show that the ratio of 2.25 –day 35oC BOD to 5-day 20oC
BOD is almost 1.
22 October 2023 28
14
10/22/2023
Complete BOD Curve
Why two stages??

22 October 2023 29
Complete BOD Curve
 During the carbonaceous stage, ammonia is produced

by the breakdown of organic nitrogen materials, but this
process is so slow that nitrifiers do not dominate till
end of this stage.
Nitrosomonas
2NH4+ + 3O2 2NO2- + 2H2O + 4H+
Nitrobacter
2NO2- + O2 2NO3-
 Ammonia exerts a very high O2 demand, requiring more
than 3 times its own weight of oxygen for complete
oxidation.
22 October 2023 30
15
10/22/2023
Complete BOD curve – New
Allylthio Urea - Inhibitor

22 October 2023 31
Oxygen Sag Curve

• Waste discharge to water results in depletion of DO
• As DO drops below saturation level, reaeration takes place.
• The simultaneous action of deoxygenation and reaeration results in
a typical variation of DO concentration of aquatic system known as
oxygen sag curve
22 October 2023 32
16
10/29/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Water Pollution
29 October 2023 2
1
10/29/2023
Complete BOD Curve
Why two stages??

29 October 2023 3
Complete BOD Curve
 During the carbonaceous stage, ammonia is produced

by the breakdown of organic nitrogen materials, but this
process is so slow that nitrifiers do not dominate till
end of this stage.
Nitrosomonas
2NH4+ + 3O2 2NO2- + 2H2O + 4H+
Nitrobacter
2NO2- + O2 2NO3-
 Ammonia exerts a very high O2 demand, requiring more
than 3 times its own weight of oxygen for complete
oxidation.
29 October 2023 4
2
10/29/2023
Complete BOD curve – New
Allylthio Urea - Inhibitor

29 October 2023 5
Oxygen Sag Curve

• Waste discharge to water results in depletion of DO
• As DO drops below saturation level, reaeration takes place.
• The simultaneous action of deoxygenation and reaeration results in
a typical variation of DO concentration of aquatic system known as
oxygen sag curve
29 October 2023 6
3
10/29/2023
Oxygen Sag Curve:Critical k = deoxygenation rate constant, d -1
Deficit and Critical Time

1
k = re-aeration rate constant 2
Net rate of change of oxygen deficiency, dD/dt

dD/dt = k1L - k2D where L = Lue-k1t
dD/dt = k1Lue-k1t - k2D
Do = deficit at t = 0.
k1 Lu
D (e  k1t  e k 2t )  Do e  k2t
k 2  k1
At maximum deficit, i.e., D=Dc
k1
dD
 k1 Lu e  k1t  k 2 D  0 Dc  Lu e  k1t
dt k2
29 October 2023 7
Oxygen Sag Curve:Critical

Deficit and Critical Time
The critical time (tc) can be obtained by differentiating the eqn
below and setting dD/dt = 0
k1 Lu
D (e  k1t  e k 2t )  Do e  k2t
k 2  k1
1. Differentiating w.r.t t
2. LHS  0 at t=tc
1 k  D o ( k 2  k 1 )  
tc  ln  2 1  
k 2  k1  k1  k1 Lu  
How to determine k1 and k2?

29 October 2023 8
4
10/29/2023
Critical Deficit and Critical

Time
k1 = can be determined by BOD test in the laboratory (Thomas
method) and using the Bosko Equation:
 v
k1  k1, BOD   
 h
k1 = deoxygenation rate constant at 20oC, d-1
ν = average speed of stream flow, m/s
k1,BOD = BOD rate constant determined in laboratory at 20oC, d-1
h =average depth of stream,
η = bed-activity coefficient (0.1 for stagnant or deep water, 0.6 for rapidly flowing water)
k2 = f(stream characteristics). Estimated using the eqn

3.9v 0.5
k 2  1.5
h 9
29 October 2023
Mixing Concentraton
29 October 2023 10
5
10/29/2023
Mixing Concentration
Concentrations of DO and BOD after mixing are the
respective masses per unit time divided by the total flow
rate (sum of wastewater and river flow)
Qw Lw  Qr Lr
Lo 
Qw  Qr
 Q DO w  Q r DO r 
D o  DO s   w 
 Qw  Qr 
29 October 2023 11
Problem 5
A town discharges 17360 m3/day of sewage into a nearby

stream. The stream has a minimum flow of 0.4 m3/s,
depth of 2.5 m and velocity of 5 kmph. Other information
is given below:
Temp (oC) DO(mg/l) BOD5(mg/l)
Stream 20 8.5 10
Sewage 25 1.0 200
The deoxygenation constant (k1) evaluated at 20oC = 0.35

d-1 . Determine the critical deficit and its location.
29 October 2023 12
6
10/29/2023
29 October 2023 13
Solution
29 October 2023 14
7
10/29/2023
Solution
29 October 2023 15
Solution
3.9v 0.5
k2 
h1.5
 Q DO w  Q r DO r 
D o  DO s   w 
 Qw  Qr 
29 October 2023 16
8
10/29/2023
Water quality monitoring
• Helps in identifying the present and future problems of

water pollution
• Identifying the present resources of water as per various
usages
• helps in developing plans and setting priorities for water
quality management programme so as to meet future
water requirements
• helps in evaluating the effectiveness of present
management actions being taken and devising future
course of actions
29 October 2023 17
Waste Water Sampling
• The sampling method used should be one that gives a

representative picture of the quality of the waste stream;
otherwise, the time and effort involved in the analysis will
be completely wasted.
• Sampling
– The grab sample
– The composite sample
29 October 2023 18
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10/29/2023
The grab sample
• It shows only the prevailing conditions at the time of

sampling and cannot represent average conditions.
• Hence it should not be used as a basis for treatment.
• However, grab samples are useful in determining the
effects of extreme conditions of waste during the time
composite samples are being collected or when the
waste water flow is intermittent.
29 October 2023 19
Composite Sample
• It provide more meaningful data when the composition of
the waste varies with either time or flow.
• A composite sample can be obtained by collecting individual

samples at frequent intervals and mixing them together.
• These samples can be collected manually or with automatic

samplers on the basis of flow and time.
• When waste water flow and composition are relatively

uniform, grab samples of a fixed volume can be manually
taken at given time intervals and composite sample obtained.
• If flow rate varies the volume of the grab sample collected is

proportional to the flow.
29 October 2023 20
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10/29/2023
Sampling
• For physical examination, water can be collected in fully

cleaned ordinary buckets or plastic cans.
• If the water is to be collected for chemicals tests, the
container, usually glass bottles of more than 2 liter
capacity, should be thoroughly washed and cleaned; and
then the water should be collected in it
• For the collection of water for bacteriological tests, the
person who collects the water must be free from any
disease.
• The containers and bottles must be cleaned with
sulphuric acid, potassium dichromate or alkaline
permanganate, and then, they should be thoroughly
rinsed with distilled water and finally sterilization
should be done
29 October 2023 21
Some Water Quality Parameters.

Physical Chemical Biological
• Color • Acids or alkali • Algae
• Conductivity • Ammonia • Bacteria
• Odor • Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) • Pathogens
• Radioactivity • Calcium • Protozoa
• (BOD) • Chloride • Viruses
• Solar radiation intensity • Chlorophyll
• Suspended solids or • Chemical oxygen demand(COD)
sludges • Dissolved oxygen (DO)
• Temperature • Hardness
• Turbidity • Heavy metals: Chromium, Copper,
Iron, Lead, Manganese, Mercury.
• Magnesium.
• Nitrate, nitrite
• Organic compounds: Detergents,
Herbicides, Pesticides, Phenol, Oils
and greases.
• Oxidation-reduction potential
• pH
• Phosphates
• Potassium
• Sodium
• Sulfate
• Total organic carbon (TOC) 22
29 October 2023
11
10/29/2023
BOD Determination Procedure

 BOD is the amount of oxygen (Dissolved Oxygen (DO))
required for the biological decomposition of organic matter.
 The oxygen consumed is related to the amount of
biodegradable organics.
 The most widely used measure of bio-degradable organic
content of waste water is the 5-day, 20˚C BOD value.
 The brief analytical procedure is:
– Two standard 300 ml BOD bottles are filled completely
with the waste water of which the BOD is to be
measured and the bottles are sealed.
– Oxygen content of one bottle is determined immediately.
29 October 2023 23

– The other bottle is incubated at 20˚C for 5 days in total
darkness (to prevent algal growth) after which its oxygen
content is measured.
– The difference between the two DO values is the amount
of oxygen that is consumed by microorganism during the
5 days and is reported as the BOD5 value of the sample.
29 October 2023 24
12
10/29/2023

• Since the saturated value of DO for water at 200C is 9.1
mg/L only and that the oxygen demand for wastewater may
be of the order of several hundred mg/L,
• This can make the test indeterminate!
• wastewater are generally diluted so that the final DO
in BOD test is always ≥ 2 mg/L.
• Precaution is also taken so as to obtain at least 2 mg/L
change in DO between initial and final values
• BOD5 (in mg/l) = [DOi – DOf] x D
• Where D = dilution factor = (total diluted volume/sample
volume)
• NOTE: Here it is assumed that the diluted wastewater
had no oxygen demand of itself and that the dilution
wastewater used was pure.
29 October 2023 25
BOD
 Most of the times, microorganisms are added in the
dilution water (seeded water) so as to have enough
microorganisms for carrying out biodegradation of
organic waste.
 In this case, the oxygen demand of seeded water is

subtracted from the demand of mixed sample of waste
and dilution water.
 BOD5 (in mg/l) = [(DOi,s – DOf,s)-(DOi,B – DOf,B)f] x D
f= (V2-V1)/V2 , D= V2/V1
 DOi,B and DOf,B are initial and final DO concentrations of
the seeded diluted water (blank).
29 October 2023 26
13
10/29/2023
BOD Determination : Practical

Aspectes
In order to calculate the BOD, the laboratory collects the samples
of waste water and then dilutes it in a BOD incubation bottle.
The lab must measure the following data :
• D1 = oxygen diluted level in the diluted sample at t=0 (mg/l)
• D2 = oxygen diluted level in the diluted sample at t=5 days (mg/l)
• B1 = oxygen diluted level in the dilution water at t=0 (mg/l)
• B2 = oxygen diluted level in the dilution water at t=5 days (mg/l)
• V1 = volume of wastewater sampled for dilution (ml)
• V2 = volume of diluted sample (ml)
The BOD at 5 days can be calculated with the following BOD calculation formula :
BOD5 = [(D1-D2)-(B1-B2)f]/P
f = (V2-V1)/V2
P = V1/V2
29 October 2023 27
Problem 2
A factory has taken a sample of its effluents and sent it to

the lab. The lab takes 10 ml of waterwater and dilute it in
a BOD incubation bottle of 250 ml. The lab measures the
oxygen level in the diluted water and gets 10 mg/l at t=0
and 2 mg/l at t=5 days, it takes also the same measures
on the dilution water and gets 9.5 mg/l at t=0 and 8 mg/l
at t=5 days. The lab wishes to calculate the BOD5 of the
effluent.
29 October 2023 28
14
10/29/2023
Solution
D1 = oxygen diluted level in the diluted sample at t=0 = 10 mg/l

D2 = oxygen diluted level in the diluted sample at t=5 days = 2 mg/l
B1 = oxygen diluted level in the dilution water at t=0 = 9.5 mg/l
B2 = oxygen diluted level in the dilution water at t=5 days = 8 mg/l
V1 = volume of wastewater sampled for dilution = 10 ml
V2 = volume of diluted sample = 250 ml
f = (V2-V1)/V2 = (250-10)/250 = 0.96

P = V1/V2 = 10/250 = 0.04
BOD5 = [(D1-D2)-(B1-B2)f]/P = [(10-2)-(9.5-8)*0.96]/0.04 =

164.4 mg/l
29 October 2023 29
Chemical oxygen demand

• This test is carried out on the sewage to determine the extent
of readily oxidizable organic matter, which is of two types:
• Organic matter which can be biologically oxidized is
called biologically active
• Organic matter which cannot be oxidized biologically is
called biologically inactive.
• COD gives the oxygen required for the complete oxidation of
both biodegradable and non-biodegradable matter.
• COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by
a strong chemical oxidant.
• It is an indirect method to measure the amount of organic
compounds in water.
• It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates
the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.
29 October 2023 30
15
10/29/2023

• In the COD test, the oxidizing bacteria of the BOD test are
replaced by a strong oxidizing agent under acidic
conditions.
• A sample is mixed with an excess of potassium
dichromate and sulphuric acid and the mixture is heated
under total reflux conditions for a period of 2 hours.
• During digestion, the chemically oxidisable organic
material reduces a stoichiometricaly equivalent
amount of dichromate.
• The remaining dichromate is titrated with standard
ferrous ammonium sulphate solution.
• Procedure is applicable to COD values between 40-400 mg/l
Organic C+Cr2O7-  CO2+H2O+Cr2O4-
29 October 2023 31

• The amount of potassium dichromate reduced gives a
measure of the amount of oxidizable organic material.
• Dichromate has advantage over other oxidants in oxidizing
power and applicability to a wide variety of samples.
• The COD test does not distinguish between organic
materials that are biodegradable and those that are not.
• COD always oxidize things that the BOD cannot or will not
measure
• Hence gives a measure of the total oxidizable organic
material in the sample.
29 October 2023 32
16
10/29/2023

• Due to this the COD test results are higher than those of BOD
tests carried out on the same sample.
• If the inorganic substances such as chlorides and nitrites are

present in the waste water, they interfere with the COD test
since they are also oxidized by dichromate and create an
inorganic COD that leads to an error in the measurement.
• The COD test is much more useful then the BOD test for
estimating the oxygen requirements of certain industrial waste
waters.
• The general relationship between BOD and COD for sewage

and most human wastes is:
• ~1 unit of BOD≈0.64–0.68 units of COD.

29 October 2023 33
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
• Total organic carbon test is based on the oxidation of the

carbon of the organic matter to carbon dioxide, which is
measured by a non-dispersive infrared analyzer.
• Alternatively, the CO2 can be reduced to methane, which
is then measured by a flame ionisation.
• In this test, a few micro-litres (5 – 10 micro litre) of the
aqueous sample are injected into a combustion tube
containing a catalyst and heated to 900˚C in a constant
flow of air.
• Water is vaporised and the carbonaceous matter is
oxidized to CO2 and steam.
• Outside the combustion tube, the steam is condensed
and removed.
29 October 2023 34
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10/29/2023
TOC
• CO2 is swept into a non-dispersive infrared analyzer which

measures the amount of CO2.
• The concentration of CO2 is directly proportional to the
concentration of total carbon present in the original sample
and it includes both organic and inorganic carbon.
• Inorganic carbon can be measured separately using an
acid catalyst at 150˚C which is below the temperature at
which organic matter is oxidized.
• Organic carbon content can then be obtained by
subtracting the inorganic carbon from the total result.
29 October 2023 35
Determination of inorganic
substances
Hardness
• Hardness of water is due to the presence of carbonates and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium ions in the water.
• Sometimes hardness in the water can also be caused by the
presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium.
• Presence of hardness in water prevents the lathering of the
soap during cleaning of clothes, etc.
• Hardness is usually expressed in mg of calcium carbonate
per litre of water.
29 October 2023 36
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10/29/2023
Hardness
• Hardness is generally determined by Versenate Method.
• The water is titrated against EDTA salt solution using Eriochrome
Black T as indicator solution. While titrating, color changes from
wine red to blue. In general, under a normal range of pH values,
water with hardness up to 75 mg/L are considered as soft and
those with 200 mg/L and above are considered as hard. In
between, the water is considered as moderately hard.
• However, for drinking purposes, water with hardness
below 75 mg/L is generally tasteless and hence, the
prescribed hardness limit for drinking ranges between 75
to 150 mg/L.
29 October 2023 37
19
11/5/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Water Pollution
5 November 2023 2
1
11/5/2023
Determination of inorganic
substances
1. Nitrogen:
– The important chemical species containing nitrogen in
wastewater systems are ammonia, organic nitrogen,
nitrite and nitrate.
– Ammonia exists in aqueous solution as one of the
intermediate compounds formed due to micro-biological
activity.
– Nitrogen which is tied up in high energy compounds such
as amino acids and amines is known as organic nitrogen
– Usually organic nitrogen is a potential source of
ammonia because deamination reactions that occur
during the metabolism of organic compounds release
ammonium ions.
5 November 2023 3
Nitrogen
– These two forms of nitrogen are often combined in

one measure known as Kjeldahl nitrogen.
– The Kjeldahl nitrogen is determined by digesting the
sample in sulphuric acid when the organic nitrogen
is converted to ammonia.
– The total ammonia content is measured after
neutralizing the excess sulphuric acid.
5 November 2023 4
2
11/5/2023
Phosphorous
• Phosphorous exist in waste water as orthophosphate,

polyphosphate and organic phosphate.
• Orthophosphates are assimilated by bacteria during their
growth process.
• However, polyphosphate must undergo enzymatic
hydrolysis to the ortho form before they can be
assimilated.
• The organic phosphate is present in molecules such as
RNA, DNA and nucletides.
• This is also an important constituent of industrial wastes.
5 November 2023 5
Phosphorous
• Phosphorous is estimated by treating the sample with

ammonium molybdate under acidic conditions to form
molybdophosphoric acid which is reduced using vanadium
or stannous chloride or ascorbic acid when a coloured
complex is formed.
• The intensity of the colour is proportional to the phosphate
concentration in the solution.
• The vanadium method – 0.2-18 mg
• The stannous method – as low as 3 μg/l
• The ascorbic method – 20 μg/l
6
5 November 2023
3
11/5/2023
Trace elements (Heavy Metals)
The standard methods used for determination of toxic

heavy metals like cadmium, chromium, lead and zinc are
the atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) and
colorimetry.
The atomic absorption system consist of a light source
which emits light of a particular wavelength, an atomizer
burner unit for introducing the sample into the flame, a
prism to separate and isolate the emission lines and a
detector.
5 November 2023 7
5 November 2023 8
4
11/5/2023
Alkalinity
• The alkalinity in wastewaters is due to the presence of

bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides of metal ions such
as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium.
• Of these, bicarbonates are most common, since they are
formed by the action of carbon dioxide on the basic materials
such as the salts of calcium and potassium in the soil.
• Alkalinity is measured by titrating the sample with a
standard acid such as N/50 H2SO4; the results are
expressed in terms of CaCO3.
• If the pH of the original sample is higher then 8.3 the titration
is carried out using phenolphthalein indicator until it becomes
colourless.
5 November 2023 9
Dissolved solids
• The total amount of dissolved salts present in water can be

estimated by measuring the specific conductivity of water.
• The specific conductivity of water is determined by means
of a portable ionic water tester and is expressed as micro-
mho per cm at 25°C. ‘mho’ is the unit of conductivity and it
equals to 1 Ampere per volt.
• The specific conductivity of water in micro mho per cm at
25°C is multiplied by a coefficient whose value ranges from
0.5-0.8 (but generally 0.65 is used) so as to directly obtain the
dissolved salt content in mg/L.
• The actual value of this coefficient depends upon the type of
salt present in water and need other methods to evaluated it.
5 November 2023 10
5
11/5/2023
Turbidity
• Turbidity is a measure of the resistance of water
to the passage of light through it.
• It is caused due to presence of suspended and

colloidal matter in the water.
• Turbidity was previously determined by Jackson

candle Turbidity units (JTU). This unit is now
replaced by more appropriate unit called
Nephelometric Turbidity unit (NTU)
• NTU is the turbidity produced by one milligram of

formazin polymer in one litre of distilled water
• WHO (World Health Organization) stipulates that

the turbidity level of drinking water should not
exceed 5 NTU and ideally should be below 1
NTU
5 November 2023 11
Colour
• Color in water is not harmful but objectionable

• Color is reported as Apparent or true color
• Apparent color is the color of the whole water sample
and
• consists of color from both dissolved and suspended
components.
• True color is measured after filtering the water sample to
remove all suspended material
5 November 2023 12
6
11/5/2023
Colour
• Colour is measured by comparison with known standards.

• Coloured water made with potassium chloroplatinate when
tinted with cobalt chloride closely resembles colour of many
natural waters which are yellow brownish in appearance.
• A stock solution containing 500 mg/l of potassium
chloroplatinate with cobalt chloride added as a tinting material
is usually prepared and this is assigned colour of 500 units.
• Then a series of working standards are prepared from it by
dilution.
• The intensity of colour in water is measured against these
standards by direct visual comparison.
5 November 2023 13
Bacteriological measurements
From public health standpoint the bacteriological quality of

water is as important as the chemical quality.
The most popular method is based on determining the
content of indicator organisms in it.
The principle indicator organism used are the coliform
group of bacteria.
This group is normally non pathogenic present in polluted
waters when pathogens are or might be present.
The coliform group of bacteria has the ability to ferment
lactose or lauryl tryptose broth and produce gas.
5 November 2023 14
7
11/5/2023
Bacteriological measurements
Two methods are generally used for obtaining the number

density of coliform organism in the test sample.
1. Membrane filter technique
– Here known volume of the water sample is passed
through the filter that has the very small pore size.
– The coliform bacteria are captured by the filter and
the filter is exposed to the nutrients which promote
the growth of coliform while inhibiting the growth of
others.
– After 24-48 hours the colonies of the coliform
bacteria are counted.
5 November 2023 15
The most probable number
The most probable number of coliform organism is a

statistical estimate of their density and is based on the
examination of a number of portions of different sizes of
the water sample for the presence of coliforms.
From a knowledge of the number of portions of different

sizes giving positive or negative results for coliforms the
MPN can be determined.
5 November 2023 16
8
11/5/2023
Waste Water Treatment
5 November 2023 17
Outline
– Basic processes of water treatment
– Primary treatment
• Pretreatment
• Sedimentation
• Flotation
– Secondary (Biological) Treatment
• Activated sludge Process
• Trickling Filters
5 November 2023 18
9
11/5/2023
Degrees of treatment
5 November 2023 19
Basic Processes of Water

Treatment
Screening, Sedimentation, floatation
Physical and filtration
Precipitation, Coagulation and

Chemical disinfections
Air stripping, Carbon adsorption,

Treatment Physical &
Oxidation and reduction, Ion
Chemical exchange, and membrane Processes
Biofiltration and Activated Sludge

Biological Process
5 November 2023 20
10
11/5/2023
Primary Treatment
Primary Treatment Process
Pretreatment Sedimentation Flotation
Discrete Settling Flocculent Settling Zone Settling
Pretreatment
Is used to remove large floating and suspended solids. This
process consists of screening and then grit removal
5 November 2023 21
Pretreatment
Manually–raked bar screen
Mechanically-raked bar screen 22

5 November 2023
11
11/5/2023
Pretreatment
Alternative of Screening: Comminutor
5 November 2023 23
Pretreatment
5 November 2023 24
12
11/5/2023
Pretreatment
Bar rack (on right) in service. Comminuter (on left) out of service.
5 November 2023 25
Grit Chamber
 After screening, the wastewater enters into a grit chamber

for the removal of inorganic grit, consisting of sand, gravel
and pebbles.
 These chambers are generally designed as long chambers

and the velocities of waste flow is reduced to ~3cm/sec,
which allows settling of the grit material.
 The grit can be removed by scrappers.
 Grit chambers are provided to protect pumps from abrasion

and to reduce the formation of heavy deposits in pipes and
channels.
5 November 2023 26
13
11/5/2023
Grit Chamber
Aerated Vortex
5 November 2023 27
Grit Chamber
Velocity controlled grit chamber. Left chamber in service. Right chamber out of service.
5 November 2023 28
14
11/5/2023
Grit Chamber Design

Solution steps
 Calculate terminal settling velocity (stoke’s law)
 Determine the depth through which the particle has to fall

 Cross Sectional area of Flow A= Q/Veffluent
 Height of Chamber = A/W = Area/Width = particle needs
to fall this height
 Determine whether time for vertical motion (H/V) < time for
horizontal motion (L/Veffluent). If yes, it will be captured.
5 November 2023 29
Grit Chamber Design
A grit particle of diameter 0.2 mm and density of 1500

kg/m3 is to be captured in horizontal grit chamber of
length 18 m and width 1.0 m. The waste water approach
velocity carrying the grit particle is 0.3 m/s and the flow
rate is 0.15 m3/s. We would like to know whether the
particle will be settled in the grit chamber or not? The
density of waste water =1000 kg/m3 and its viscosity is
0.001 kg/m-s.
5 November 2023 30
15
11/5/2023
Sedimentation
 The solids are removed by gravitational settling under

quiescent conditions.
 The sludge formed at the bottom of the tank is removed

as underflow either by vacuum suction or by raking it to a
discharge point.
 Sedimentation tanks are round or rectangular
5 November 2023 31
Sedimentation Tank
Horizontal flow
(rectangular basin)
Up flow (circular basin)
5 November 2023 32
16
11/5/2023
Primary Treatment: Sedimentation
Primary Treatment Process
Pretreatment Sedimentation Flotation
Discrete Settling Flocculent Settling Zone Settling
5 November 2023 33
Types of Settling
Type Characteristics Example
TYPE 1 settling of discrete particles in dilute suspensions removal of grit and sand in
(discrete • particles have no tendency to flocculate wastewater treatment
particle • they settle as individual entities and there is no
settling) significant interaction with neighboring particles
TYPE 2 settling of flocculent particles in dilute suspensions removal of SS in primary
(flocculent as particle settle and coalesce with other sedimentation tanks of
settling) particles, the sizes of particles and their settling WWTP, settling of
velocity increases chemically coagulated
waters
TYPE 3 settling of intermediate concentration of flocculent biological floc removal in
(hindered particles secondary settling basins
settling) or • particles are so close together that interparticle of WWTP
(zone settling) forces are able to hold them in fixed positions
relative to each other and the mass of particles
settles as a zone at a constant velocity
TYPE 4 settling of particles that are of such a high occurs in the bottom of
(compression concentration that the particles touch each other deep secondary clarifiers,
settling) and settling can occur only by compression in sludge thickening
which takes place from the weight of particles facilities 34
5 November 2023
17
11/5/2023
Sedimentation Tank
5 November 2023 35
Sedimentation Tank
 Within sedimentation,
the flow goes through a
very large area  slow
velocity
 To remove the water
from the basin quickly,
the water is directed
into a pipe or small
channel
 A series of troughs or
weirs are provided
5 November 2023 36
18
11/5/2023
Clarifier Design
Clarifiers are settling tanks built with mechanical means
for continuous removal of solids being deposited by
sedimentation. A clarifier is generally used to remove
solid particulates or suspended solids from liquid for
clarification and (or) thickening
5 November 2023 37
Clarifier Design
A particle in suspension is accelerated until a limiting terminal
settling velocity (vt) is reached. The sedimentation tanks are
designed in such a way that all particles with settling velocity
greater than and equal to vt will be removed.
Critical Particle: will be one
that enters at the top of the
settling zone A, and settles
with a velocity just sufficient
to reach the sludge zone at
point B. The particle falls
through a depth H with
retention time to
H
to 
vt 38
5 November 2023
19
11/5/2023
Clarifier Design
In the same time, the particle travels a distance L with a
horizontal velocity vh and therefore
L
t0 
vh
Again Q Where, Q = inflow rate, W = width of the

vh 
HW tank
H L

vt vh
Hvh Q Q
vt   
L LW As Surface Area of Tank
5 November 2023 39
Clarifier Design
Where, As = WL = Surface Area of the settling zone
 vt is the terminal settling velocity of the slowest-settling
particles that could be removed completely in an ideal
sedimentation basin
 The important design parameter Q/As is called overflow
rate or surface loading rate
 vt is independent of the depth but it is directly related to
the surface area.
 In waste water treatment, the sedimentation tank is fed
with suspension of particles of varying sizes.
5 November 2023 40
20
11/5/2023
Clarifier Design
Suppose that a particle of terminal velocity vs is introduced

at point A, where vs< vt. This particle will not be removed
during the time provided for settling since it does not
reach the bottom of the settling zone (path AB’)
5 November 2023 41
Clarifier Design
However, if it is introduced at a distance less than or equal to h
from the bottom, where h = vs to, it will be removed (path A’B).
Hence, the fraction of the particles having settling velocity vs that
can be removed is given by,
v
x t  s
v t
For a given inflow rate Q, where Q  vt A
Of total particles settled, only fraction(1-xt) has the velocity

greater than and equal to vt
The fraction of particles which were removed and have velocities
vs< vt will be xt
v
0 v st dx
5 November 2023 42
21
11/5/2023
Clarifier Design
The overall fraction (R) removed from the suspension, will be
x
1 t
R  [1  xt ]   vs dx
vt 0
The second term in equation can be determined by graphical
integration of a settling analysis curve, such as the shaded portion
of the given figure with vs<stated value
Fraction of particles
xt
x
vs vt
Settling velocity
5 November 2023 43
Example (Discrete Settling)
A certain municipality plans to use water from a river. Since

the river is very turbid, pre sedimentation is necessary.
The results of a column test is as follows:
Time 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420
(min)
Conc 299 190 179 169 157 110 79 28
(mg/l)
What is the percentage removal of particles if the hydraulic
loading rate is 25 m3/m2-day? The column is 4 m deep
x
1 t
R  [1  xt ]   vs dx
vt 0
5 November 2023 44
22
11/15/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Water Pollution
15 November 2023 2
1
11/15/2023
Example (Discrete Settling)
A certain municipality plans to use water from a river. Since

the river is very turbid, pre sedimentation is necessary.
The results of a column test is as follows:
Time 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420
(min)
Conc 299 190 179 169 157 110 79 28
(mg/l)
What is the percentage removal of particles if the hydraulic
loading rate is 25 m3/m2-day? The column is 4 m deep
x
1 t
R  [1  xt ]   vs dx
vt 0
15 November 2023 3
Solution
Time 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

(min)
Conc 299 190 179 169 157 110 79 28
(mg/l)
15 November 2023 4
2
11/15/2023
Solution
15 November 2023 5
Solution
0.70
those particles which
Fraction Remaining=
0.60
0.50
have Vs<Vt
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Settling Velocity (Vs)
15 November 2023 6
3
11/15/2023
Solution
15 November 2023 7
Flocculent Settling
 Takes place when the settling velocity of the particles

increases due to coalescence with other particles.
 A small particle that starts at the surface, end up as a
larger particle when it hits the bottom.
 The opportunity for coalescence increases with the
increase in bed depth, and as a result the particle
removal efficiency depends on both the overflow and the
bed depth.
 Velocity of the floc changes as the size changes
 The path followed by flocculent particles, unlike that of
discrete particles shown in figure:
15 November 2023 8
4
11/15/2023
Type 2 – Flocculent Settling

Chemical precipitates formed in coagulation and
other destabilization processes tend to agglomerate
while settling as a result of interparticle collisions
→ sizes change
→ shape change
→specific gravity change (as a result of entrapment

of water in interstitial spaces)
15 November 2023 9
As their size increases, they settle at a faster

velocity
 STOKE’s law not applicable
 impossible to develop a general formula
for determining settling velocities of
flocculent particles.
To determine the settling characteristics

 batch settling column test suspension of
flocculent particles must be performed
15 November 2023 10
5
11/15/2023

Batch Settling Column Test
 Min . Diameter of column~
about 150 - 200 mm (to
minimize sidewall effects)
 Height of column depth of

the proposed tank
 Sampling port are provided at

equal intervals in height
15 November 2023 11

Procedure:
1. Suspension to be tested is placed in the column
2. Mixed completely to ensure uniform distribution of particles
3. At time t=0, a portion of the sample is withdrawn in order to
determine the initial concentration
4. The suspension is allowed to settle
5. At periodic time intervals, samples are removed through the ports
located in different heights. For each sample withdrawn at each
depth and for each time, the fraction remaining in suspension at
each time interval is measured
6. Percent removals, Xij = (1- Cij/Co) x 100 = mass fraction
removed (at ith depth at jth time interval)
7. Percent removal lines (Isoremoval lines) are drawn by
interpolation.
15 November 2023 12
6
11/15/2023

Readings
Isoremoval
Lines
15 November 2023 13

Total removal at any chosen time = % removal of completely
removed fraction + % removal of partially removed fractions
Initially;
A vertical line from the chosen time is projected upward.
% read at chosen time
= % of particles that are
completely removed.
% read at chosen time

% of particles having Average
Design settling ≥ settling
velocity velocity
15 November 2023 14
7
11/15/2023
Median lines are drawn between the

percent removal lines
Ave. depth reached read from the

intersection point of vertical line and
drawn median line
15 November 2023 15
Problem
15 November 2023 16
8
11/15/2023
Solution
Calculate % removed for each height at each concentration
• Plot the above in the graph and then plot the IRL’s.
• Draw the detention time vertical line at t=105 min
15 November 2023 17
Solution
15 November 2023 18
9
11/15/2023
Solution
15 November 2023 19
Type 3 - Zone Settling
Ultimate
Concentration
15 November 2023 20
10
11/15/2023
Settling Curve for Concentrated

Suspensions
15 November 2023 21
Critical Sludge Concentration
The critical concentration, C2 is obtained by bisecting the angle formed by the

tangents to the hindered settling and compression portions of the settling curve
15 November 2023 22
11
11/15/2023
Design Parameters
Clarifier Area (Ac) Between Ac and At, the larger area
will be the column area!!!
Ac = Q/vh
Q = Overflow rate Slope = vh
Thickening Area (At)

At = Qitu/Ho
Qi = Inflow rate
Time to obtain desired
underflow Concentration (tu)
Final Height of Sludge Zone (Hu)
HoCo = HuCu Ho= Initial height of interface in column
Co= Initial concentration of solids
Hu = (HoCo)/Cu Cu= Desired underflow concentration
23
15 November 2023
Flotation
 Particles of density very close to that of water are very
difficult to settle in normal sedimentation tanks and take a
long time for separation. This type of operation can be
performed by flotation.
 In this case, the separation can be speeded up by

aerating the effluent whereby air bubbles are attached to
the suspended matter.
 This has the effect of increasing the buoyancy of the

particles; as a result, the particles float to the surface
where they can be readily removed.
15 November 2023 24
12
11/15/2023
Flotation
 Used in place of sedimentation for finely divided
suspended solids & oil matter
 Used for treating effluents from tannery, metal
finishing, cold rolling & pharmaceutical industries
 Particles having density closer to water, take long time
to settle in sedimentation tanks
 Hence due to buoyancy effect particles float on the top
of liquid
 Hence chemical coagulants such as aluminum and
ferric salts and chemical coagulants are added
 2 methods of flotation are available:
Dispersed air flotation
Dissolved air flotation
15 November 2023 25
Flotation
Classification of Flotation
1. Dispersed Air Floatation
 Air is dispersed through diffuser or impeller.

 Bubbles are of 1mm diameter and they usually cause
turbulence which breaks up the floc particles.
 Since the floc breaks up , it is usually not a favored
technique.
15 November 2023 26
13
11/15/2023
Flotation
2. Dissolved Air Flotation
 Air is intimately brought into contact with the waste water

at a pressure of several atmospheres and air is
dissolved.
 Pressure on the liquid is reduced to atmosphere level
through a back pressure valve, thereby releasing micron-
sized bubbles.
 Suspended solids are floated by these minute air
bubbles.
15 November 2023 27
Secondary Treatment -
Introduction
Primary Treatment: Takes care of those materials that
could be removed by physical or mechanical action.
Organic matter in waste water exists in colloidal and

dissolved form  Primary Treatment Ineffective
Organic matter presence increases the oxygen demand.
15 November 2023 28
14
11/15/2023
Secondary (Biological)
treatment
Removal of colloids and dissolved organic matter
This operation leads to the natural biodegradation of organic
matter by aerobic bacteria.
The principal requirements of a biological waste treatment
process are an adequate amount of bacteria that feed on the
organic material present in wastewater, oxygen, and some
means of achieving contact between the bacteria and the
organics.
 Role of microorganisms :
 Decomposition of solid waste
 Bacterial population dynamics
 Growth kinetics
15 November 2023 29
Growth Kinetics- Substrate

Utilization Rate (rsu=dS/dt)
• lag phase: dX/dt & dS/dt ≈ 0
• Exponential growth phase dX/dt & dS/dt ≠0.
• dS/dt and dX/dt obtained just after the
onset of exponential growth phase, one can
compute the yield coefficient Y and the
specific growth rate µ as
The yield coefficient, commonly referred to as the substrate-to-biomass yield, is used to

convert between cell growth rate dX/dt and substrate utilization rate dS/dt.
Y and µ are used to develop microbial growth kinetic relationship.

15 November 2023 30
15
11/15/2023
Growth Kinetics
rg =
o
-rsu = O
if S << KS First Order w.r.t S
if S >> KS Zero Order w.r.t S
15 November 2023 31
Activated Sludge Process
Wastewater after primary treatment enters an aeration tank

where the organic matter is brought into intimate contact
with the sludge from the secondary settler or classifier.
This sludge is heavily populated with microorganisms

which are in active state of growth.
The microorganisms (in the aeration tank) utilize the

oxygen in the air and convert the organic matter into
stabilized, low-energy compounds such as NO3, SO4,
CO2, and synthesize new bacterial cells.
15 November 2023 32
16
11/15/2023
15 November 2023 33
Basic Theory and Design of

 In the activated sludge system, the major design parameter is
the amount of organic matter (food) added relative to the
microorganisms (activated sludge) available.
 This ratio is known as the food to microorganisms (F/M)
ratio.
 Accurate measurement of either F or M is difficult and, hence,
the ratio is usually expressed as the amount of BOD utilized
per unit mass of active biological solids.
 The combination of the liquid and microorganisms in the
aeration tank is known as “Mixed Liquor”, and the suspended
solids are called “Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids” (MLSS).
15 November 2023 34
17
11/15/2023
Material Balance Around

Activated Sludge System
15 November 2023 35

Assumptions:
(i) No microbial solids (microorganism) in the raw
wastewater influent.
(ii) The influent substrate conc.,So, remains constant with
time.
(iii) The contents in the aeration tank are completely
mixed.
(iv) The system operates under steady state conditions.
15 November 2023 36
18
11/15/2023

15 November 2023 37

Assumptions!!
15 November 2023 38
19
11/15/2023

Substrate Balance
15 November 2023 39

15 November 2023 40
20
11/15/2023

Hydraulic Retention Time Mean Cell residence time
V VX
 c 
Q Q w X r  [Q  Q w ] X e
X = microbial concentration in the aeration tank

15 November 2023 41

e (μm/Y) = k
= max specific
e
substrate
Also, utilization rate
1
K s[  K ]
 d
Se  c
1
Yk  [  K ]
 c
d
15 November 2023 42
21
11/15/2023
Estimation of Biokinetic
Parameters (Y,k,Ks,Kd)
Y = mx
15 November 2023 43
Y = mx
(𝑺𝒐 −𝑺) 𝟏 𝑲𝒅
= +
𝑿𝜽 𝒀𝜽𝒄 𝒀
15 November 2023 44
22
11/15/2023
(𝑺𝒐 −𝑺) 𝟏 𝑲𝒅
= +
𝑿𝜽 𝒀𝜽𝒄 𝒀
(1/Y)
(Kd/Y)
15 November 2023 45
Problem
A completely mixed activated sludge process is to be used to

treat wastewater flow of 500 mg/hr having an soluble BOD5 of
250 mg/l. The concentration of soluble BOD5 escaping the
treatment is 10 mg/l. Given is the following data:
Y=0.5, k=5 day-1, Kd=0.06 day-1, Ks= 100 mg/l and the
condition that the concentration of MLVSS (= X) = 2000mg/l.
Calculate
1. The treatment efficiency
2. The mean cell residence time
3. The hydraulic retention time
4. The volume of the aeration tank
15 November 2023 46
23
11/15/2023
15 November 2023 47
24

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7/30/2023

Environmental Pollution Control

Prof. Krishna C. Etika

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Contact List of Topic Sub-Topics Referenc

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

The natural world or physical surroundings in general, either as

"The area surrounding a place or thing; the environs,

Are Human’s Part of Environment???? 8

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Reality Check! https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-

All of India’s 1.4 billion

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Arsenic has been found in water in parts of 209 districts in

Also, there are 14,079 iron-affected, 671 fluoride-affected,

Read more at:https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/arsenic-found-in-ground-

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Annual Frontier Report, 2022’

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• Systematic pollution of our environment is one of the

• There is need of technical manpower who could develop

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• The application of science and engineering principles,

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Impact of Man on the

The Hydrologic Cycle

The Nutrient Cycles- Carbon,Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

Consequences of Population Growth-Exponential Growth

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• The Environment which Supports Life and sustains

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• The biotic category is subdivided into three functional

• Example : Operating ecosystem: Pond

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

• Other consumers are insects, frogs and man

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

• Dynamic equilibrium of formation, transformation and

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

• Apart from daily consumption and production of carbon, earth

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen