Environment Control 1 To 8

7/30/2023
Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411
Prof. Krishna C. Etika

BITS Pilani Associate Professor
Pilani Campus Department of Chemical Engineering
B.I.T.S-Pilani, Pilani Campus
Lecture-1
30-07-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
1
7/30/2023
Introduction
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control
Handout
Topics Lecture No
Impact of Man on the Environment: An Overview 1
Air Pollution: Sources and Effects 2
Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollutant Dispersion 3-4
Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement 5
Air Pollution Control Methods & Equipment 6-7
Review 8
Water Pollutants 9
Wastewater Sampling and Analysis 10
Waste Water Treatment 11-13
Hazardous Waste Management 14
Noise Pollution 15
Review 16
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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
2
7/30/2023
Handout
Evaluation Component Name Type (Open Weight Duration Day, Date,
(Quiz, Lab, Project, Mid- book, Session, Time
term exam, End semester Closed
exam, etc.) book,
Online, etc.)
EC - 1 Quiz I September 10,
Online 5% 10 min
2023
Quiz II October 14,
Online 10% 20 min
2023
Quiz III November 12,
Online 10% 20 min
2023
EC - 2 Mid-Semester Test Sunday,
Closed
35% 2 hours 24/09/2023
Book
(Evening)
EC - 3 Comprehensive Exam Sunday,
Open Book 40% 2 ½ hours 26/11/2023
(Evening)
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Contact List of Topic Sub-Topics Referenc

Hour Title e
 The Biosphere T1- Ch.1
 The Hydrologic Cycle
 The Nutrient Cycles- Carbon,
Impact of
Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Man on the
1-2 sulphur
Environment:
 Consequences of Population
An Overview
Growth-Exponential Growth
 Self-Study: Environment
Trends
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Introduction
What is an Environment?
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Introduction
The term environment is a broad term with many different
definitions, and the term is used differently by different
people. Thus it makes it difficult to define exactly what the
environment is??
The natural world or physical surroundings in general, either as

a whole or within a particular geographical area, esp. as
affected by human activity.
"The area surrounding a place or thing; the environs,

surroundings, or physical context."
Are Human’s Part of Environment???? 8

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Reality Check! https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-

spotlight/india/#:~:text=Lucknow%2C%20the%20capital%20of%20India's,Delhi%20is%20also%20highly
%20polluted.
All of India’s 1.4 billion

people live in areas where
the annual average
particulate pollution level
exceeds the WHO guideline.
Ninety-four percent live in
areas where it exceeds
India’s own air quality
standard.
“India is today the world’s second most polluted country. Air pollution shortens the average
Indian life expectancy by 6.3 years, relative to what it would be if the World Health Organization
(WHO) guideline was met; 3.4 years relative to what it would be if pollution were reduced to
meet the country’s own national standard. Some areas of India fare much worse than average,
with 30
airJuly
pollution
2023
shortening lives by more than 10 years in Delhi and its surrounding region.”
9
Reality Check!
Arsenic has been found in water in parts of 209 districts in

25 states and Union territories, while uranium has been
found in parts of 152 districts across 18 states.
Also, there are 14,079 iron-affected, 671 fluoride-affected,

814 arsenic-affected, 9,930 salinity-affected, 517 nitrate-
affected and 111 heavy metal-affected habitations in the
country.
Read more at:https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/arsenic-found-in-ground-

water-in-parts-of-209-districts-uranium-in-parts-of-152-districts-
govt/articleshow/93279825.cms
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Reality Check!
“Air and noise pollution should now be considered as
one of the major factors causing cardiac irregularities. As
cardiologists, we are used to thinking about many
traditional risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, or
diabetes. This study and others suggest that we should
start considering additional risks.”
Annual Frontier Report, 2022’

published by the United Nations Thirteen cities from South Asia feature in the
Environment Program. list. Five of them from India: Kolkata at 89 dB,
Asansol (89 dB), Jaipur (84 dB), and Delhi (83
The report ranks 61 cities around the world dB)
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Reality Check!
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Introduction
• Systematic pollution of our environment is one of the

biggest hazards faced by humanity today
• Task of preserving the purity of environment is of utmost
significance
• Two most pressing demands are (1) protection of
environment (2) efficient use of natural resources
• There is need of technical manpower who could develop

and implement effective means for protecting the
environment
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Environmental engineering
• The application of science and engineering principles,

under constraint, to the protection and enhancement of
the quality of the environment and to the enhancement
and protection of public health and welfare
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Impact of Man on the

Environment: An Overview
The Biosphere
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Nutrient Cycles- Carbon,Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

sulphur
Consequences of Population Growth-Exponential Growth
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BIOSPHERE
• The Environment which Supports Life and sustains

various human activities is known as biosphere
• Extends to about 20 km from the bottom of ocean to the
highest point in the atmosphere where life can be
sustained without protective devices
• Essentials for Life: Light, Heat, water, food and habitats
are supplied by the biosphere
• Biosphere is divided into smaller units or ecosystems
• All ecosystems can be divided into two parts
• Biotic (living) and abiotic (non living) components
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BIOSPHERE – Variety of
known living species
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BIOSPHERE
• The biotic category is subdivided into three functional

groups
• Producers (autotropic-self nourishing): Green Plants and algae
• Consumers (heterotrophic-other nourishing): animal life : fish, insects, birds, they
depend on consumption of Producers
• Decomposers (heterotrophic organisms): bacteria, algae that breaks down
complex compounds from waste materials
• Example : Operating ecosystem: Pond

• Abiotic substances – water, nutrients, oxygen and CO2
• Producers: large rooted plants and free floating minute plants (store energy and
liberate O2)
• Primary Consumers: Benthos or bottom forms and zooplankton with little or no
swimming ability. Phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton which in turn
eaten by large aquatic life such as fish.
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BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

(contd)
• Other consumers are insects, frogs and man

• All these forms produce organic waste and dead organisms.
• The decomposers bacteria and fungi utilize organic carbon and
generate CO2 Used By Algae
• The availability of the Nutrients carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen is
sufficiently small so as to limit the production of algae and maintain
dynamic equilibrium.
• The chemical elements circulate between the organisms and the
environment through pathways comprising of the natural cycles
• 1) hydrologic cycle
• 2) Biochemical cycles
• Carbon
• Phosphorus
• Nitrogen and sulphur
• These cycles operate in a balanced state with little variation thereby
contributing to the stability of atmosphere materials
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(contd)
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Hydrologic Cycle
• Natural cycle : More than 97% of water in biosphere is in oceans, the remaining
3% is found in continents and atmosphere
• More than 70% of this is in glaciers and icecaps
• Water on which human depend such as lakes, streams and ground water
accounts for less than 1% of total supply
• The hydrologic cycle of the biosphere depends on the reciprocity of evaporation
and precipitation. Liquid water on earth goes to the atmosphere as vapor by
evaporation and transpiration of the plants. The vapor is returned to Earth as
rain or snow over the oceans and oceans lose more water by evaporation than
they gain by precipitation. The difference is made up by runoff and seepage
from the continents, over which there is more precipitation than evaporation.
Continents lose more than 50% of the precipitation through evaporation and
remainder is stored in lakes, rivers or ground water which is later discharged
into oceans.
• Each year 4,23000 km3 water is evaporated, same quantity precipitated
• Amount of water temporarily stored & later discharged is 37000 km3
• This water is available for human use
• Minor modification by diverting or regulating the runoff and storage
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(diagram)
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Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)
• Dynamic equilibrium of formation, transformation and

decomposition of carbon compounds
• The producers through photosynthesis reduce carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere to organic carbon
• This then passes through consumers and decomposers,
which reenters the atmosphere through respiration and
decomposition
• Even though the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is of major
concern, the atmospheric reservoir for carbon is the smallest
and oceans hold the largest amount as a vast “sink” for CO2
• Typical reservoirs of carbon
• Oceans -40000 (billion tonnnes)
• Fossil fuels, rocks and minerals -5000 to 10000
• Soil- 2000
• Atmosphere- 750
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• Oceans store 50 times as much as the atmosphere
• Human activity releases roughly 7 billion tons of carbon
• Out of 7 billion tones 3 billion tons accumulate in the atmosphere
and the rest is taken up by ocean and terrestrial plants
• The exact mechanism by which the sea water interacts with the
air above it to remove CO2 is not clearly understood but the
oceanic reservoir tends to regulate the CO2 concentration.
• Even though the ~3 billion tons added to the atmosphere each
year is tiny fraction of the total held by the atmosphere, it
assumes significance because the natural processes and the
environment maintain dynamic equilibrium whereas human
activity put burden.
• Any global event that alter the exchange of CO2 between the
atmosphere and the ocean can significantly affect the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
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• Apart from daily consumption and production of carbon, earth

has significant reserves (limestone, fossil fuels (coal and
petroleum)
• Due of combustion some of bound carbon returns to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide or carbonic acid
• Plants grow faster in CO2 enriched atmosphere but is offset
by the denudation of forests, as a result detectable increase
of CO2 has been Observed
• Atmospheric CO2 concentration stable at 280 +/- 10 ppm till
onset of industrial revolution
• By 1959 CO2 concentration stable at 316 ppm, 1998: 367
(17% increase) and has reached 380 ppm by 2004 . Human
activities has disturbed the carbon cycle
30 July 2023 27
Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen

cycle)
• Nitrogen is gaseous form – 79% in atmosphere
• Cannot be used directly by most forms of life
• It must be fixed before utilization by plants and animals
• By fixation, nitrogen is converted to nitrates and ammonia
• Physicochemical and biological means
• Biological ( free living bacteria Azetobacter , clostridium or leguminuous
plants like Rhizaobium and blue green algae)
• They are key for atmospheric movement nitrogen
• The nitrates are assimilated to form amino acids , urea and other organic
residues in the producer, consumer and decomposer cycle.
• Amino acids and urea---converted to ammonia through “ammonification”
• To complete the cycle the denitrifying bacteria convert the ammonia into
nitrates and nitrates and then back to nitrogen
• Thus Total amount of nitrogen= total amount required to the atmosphere
as gas
• Human’s interference with the natural cycle by industrially fixing
nitrogen(fertilizers)
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Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen

cycle)
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Nutrients Cycle ( Phosphorus

cycle)
• Phosphorus plays important role in the growth of living tissue
• Metabolic process of energy transfer does not form gaseous
compounds at normal T, P
• Reservoirs in land are, rock and natural phosphate deposits
• Much of it is fixed in soil or absorbed on to soil particles
• Some of it lost to water bodies such as lake and streams and
eventually ends up in the ocean where phosphorus is
deposited partly in shallow sediments and partly in deep zone
• Land plants take up inorganic phosphate salts from soil and
convert them to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine
diphosphate (ADP)
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Nutrients Cycle ( Phosphorus

cycle)
• ATP and ADP are utilized by plants as energy carriers for their metabolic
reactions
• Organic phosphates are transferred to consumers and decomposers and
subsequently available as inorganic phosphates for recycling via bacterial
decomposition
• The inorganic phosphates that are leached from the land into the fresh water
systems are taken up rather rapidly by phytoplankton and are converted to
organophosphates. This phosphorus is ingested by zooplankton which are
consumed by other organisms . After their death the phosphates are released
into water by bacterial decompositon.
• Ocean cycle-Phosphates from unlighted depths to the photosynthetic zone
where it goes through phytoplankton, zooplankton and animal stages.
• Zooplankton-Excreate : Of that half is in inorganic form and rest organic
• Some of the phosphorus return to the land through fish harvesting. More
phosphorus is lost than it it is being added. Some concern there-Growth
determining nutrient
• Lack of it caused infertility in soil , fertilizer is used frequently , therefore the
phosphorous cycle is substantially affected
• Phosphorus pollution has contributed to the eutrophication of many water
bodies and may also affect natural food chains
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Nutrients Cycle (Sulphur

cycle)
• Basic constituent of proteins in plants and animals
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2)and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) are important gaseous forms
• Sulphate ion ( SO42-) is the common form found in water and soil
• Sulphate ion is reduced after being absorbed from the soil by plants and bacteria
and utimately incorporated as sulphydryl group (-SH) in proteins. Some sulphates
are reduced under anaerobic conditions directly to sulphides, including H2S or to
elemental sulphur by a class of bacteria known as desulfovibrio found in ocean
bottom
• Thus the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) escapes as a gas into the atmosphere and
replenishes the sulphur lost as precipitaion.
• In the presence of oxygen, H2S is rapidly oxidised to sulphates by bacteria of
genus Thiobacillus
• Even in absence of oxygen several types of bacteria oxidise H2S to elemental
sulphur
• Atmosphere receives sulphur through bacterial emission (H2S), fossil fuel burning
(SO2)sea salts (SO42-)and some volcanic emissions ( H2S, SO2, SO42-)
• The sulphates and acid then precipitates with rain
• Sulphur cycle is overloaded due to burning of fossil fuels at an ever increasing
rates
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Nutrients Cycle (Sulphur

cycle)
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8/6/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411

Lecture-2
06-08-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
1
8/6/2023
Handout
Topics Lecture No
Impact of Man on the Environment: An Overview 1
Air Pollution: Sources and Effects 2
Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollutant Dispersion 3-4
Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement 5
Air Pollution Control Methods & Equipment 6-7
Review 8
Water Pollutants 9
Wastewater Sampling and Analysis 10
Waste Water Treatment 11-13
Hazardous Waste Management 14
Noise Pollution 15
Review 16
6 August 2023 3
Consequences of Population
Growth
• Factor degrading environment is population growth
• Famine and pestilence kept population under control
• With the advent of chemical compounds to restore and
enhance soil fertility and to help protect domesticated
species man was able to extend food producing capacity
significantly
• Modern medicine have helped reduce human mortality
• Therefore it is important to assess growth population to
understand impact of population on environments
– Reasons for lower death rate (food production, cheap
energy sources, industrial revolution)
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Consequences of Population
Growth
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Exponential Growth
k = population growth rate
Doubling Time (Td) for Exponential Growth: Time taken to double the population, i.e.,
r = percent rate of growth

= (100 x k)
= (b-d+m)
b=percent birth rate
d=percent death rate
m=percent migration rate6
6 August 2023 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
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Problem 1
6 August 2023 7
Solution
Given,
Po = 1 billions
to = 2000
t= 2020
k = 1.6% = 0.016
P=?
P = 1x exp (0.016 x (2020-2000)

= 1.377 billions
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Solution
Given,
Po = 1.377 billions
to = 2020
t= 2050
k = 1.2% = 0.012
P=?
P = 1.377x exp(0.012 x (2050-2020)

= 1.974 billions
6 August 2023 9
Population Growth Rate India
If we assume that population growth rate will be

the average of last five years in the future
Then k = 0.86% = 0.0086
Doubling time: 0.693/0.86 = 80 years (Year 2103)

Estimated Population: 2.856 Billion
If k = 1.7% = 0.017
Doubling time: 41 years (Year 2064!)
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World Population & Energy

Consumption
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Effect of Population on Energy

Consumption
“Nature has enough for
satisfying everybody’s Desire for more and
need but not for more comfort
anybody’s greed”.
Nature has created the In the last 300 years we

coal and petroleum in have consumed most of
millions of years and we the coal and almost all
have exhausted them in of the petroleum
hundreds of years. products. Two main reasons for this
growth in energy
consumption
Per capita energy

Exponential growth of
consumption rate which
world’s population
is also exponential
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ENERGY CONSUMTION AND

DEMAND
Previously only marginal utilization of energy was realized.
The present industrial civilization became possible only
when supply of fossil fuels was tapped by mining of coal
about 900 years ago and oil 150 years ago.
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DEMAND
Improvements in technology for discovery and utilization of
fossil fuels.
Two main reasons for this growth in energy consumption
• Exponential growth of world’s population
• Total energy consumption of the world
• Per capita energy consumption rate which is also

exponential
l = per capita energy consumption growth rate = j - k 14

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DEMAND
 NOTE: EVEN IF per capita energy consumption growth
rate = 0, even then,
 World Energy Consumption Growth Rate will rise

exponentially! Why?
 What does that mean? How can per capita energy

consumption growth rate be ZERO??
 Exponential rise in demand for energy will put lot of

extra burden on fossil fuels – More Pollution and
Environmental Impact.
WE MUST CONTROL THE POLLUTION
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Pollution Mitigation
Pollution
Mitigation
Pollution Pollution
Prevention Control
Measures taken after

Avoiding or minimizing
wastes have been
the generation of
produced to limit the
wastes that produce
damage they may
pollutants
cause
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Pollution Prevention
increasing efficiency in energy use
use of environmentally benign fuel sources.
Modifying a production process to produce less

waste
Using non-toxic or less toxic chemicals as cleaners,

degreasers and other maintenance chemicals
Implementing water and energy conservation

practices
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https://www.epa.gov/p2/learn-about-pollution-prevention#p2 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Weather Vs Climate
What is the difference between weather

and climate?
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Weather Vs Climate
o Weather : atmospheric conditions that occur locally
over short periods of time—from minutes to hours
or days. Example: rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods,
or thunderstorms.
o Climate: the long-term (usually at least 30 years)

regional or even global average of temperature,
humidity, and rainfall patterns over seasons, years,
or decades.
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Climate Change
o Climate change is a long-term change in the average

weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local,
regional and global climates. These changes have a
broad range of observed effects that are synonymous
with the term.
o Is it Real???
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Climate Change
https://climate.nasa.gov/
6 August 2023 21
Climate Change
o Global temperatures are now at their highest since

records began. In fact, 17 of the 18 warmest years on
record have all taken place since 2001.
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Climate Change: Causes

Human activities are driving the global
warming trend observed since the mid-
20th century.
o The greenhouse effect is essential to life on Earth, but
human-made emissions in the atmosphere are trapping and
slowing heat loss to space.
o Five key greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon

dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and
ozone (O3).
o Is it only the GHGs or the Sun has become

hotter?
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Climate Change: Causes
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Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect: some of the infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the
atmosphere, but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas
molecules and clouds. The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s surface and the lower
atmosphere.
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Greenhouse Effect
o Do all gas molecules absorb and re-emit infrared

energy?
Molecules that have just two atoms

vibrate by simply moving closer together
and then further apart. The nitrogen (N2)
and oxygen (O2) molecules vibrate in this
simple mode.
 Molecules with more (and more complex!) vibration modes are more likely to interact
with passing waves of electromagnetic radiation.
 This is why carbon dioxide absorbs and emits infrared (IR) radiation, while nitrogen and
oxygen molecules do not.
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Global Warming Potential

(GWP)
o The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was developed to
allow comparisons of the global warming impacts of
different gases.
o It is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1

ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time (100
years), relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon
dioxide (CO2).
o The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms
the Earth compared to CO2 over that time period.
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Global Warming Potential

Methane (CH4) is estimated to have a GWP of 27-30 over
100 years
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 273 times that of CO2 for a
100-year timescale
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Why Not Reduce Water

Vapor?
Because….
o A 100 year GWP for H2O is 10−3 to 5 × 10−4
o It does not regulate earth’s temperature in a way that

other CHGs do
o It is condensable below a certain temperature
o However, the presence of other CHGs are increasing the

water vapor concentration leading to increased warming.
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Ozone Depletion
 Ozone layer in the stratosphere serves as a shield protecting

the earth surface from the sun’s deadly ultraviolet radiation .
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) when used in air conditioner and

refrigeration were valued for their stable and non toxic
properties. However,
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Environmental engineering
• The application of science and engineering principles,

under constraint, to the protection and enhancement of
the quality of the environment and to the enhancement
and protection of public health and welfare
6 August 2023 31
Major Pollution Issues
Water
Pollution
Solid
Air
Waste
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Air Pollution
What is “Air Pollution”
Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in
such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man
and his environment.
– These substances include
• Gases ( sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons etc)
• Particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols)
• Radioactive materials and many others
A particular substance is termed as a pollutant only when its

concentration is relatively high compared with the background
value and causes adverse effects
Example : if SO2 if present in atmosphere greater than the background
value of 2 x 10-4 ppm and causes measurable effects on
humans, animals, plants etc
Pollutants are naturally present in low (background) concentration.

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Background Concentration of
Pollutants
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Air Quality Index
o The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2,
CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly
averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards
are prescribed.
o Based on the measured ambient concentrations,

corresponding standards and likely health impact, a sub-index
is calculated for each of these pollutants.
o The worst sub-index reflects overall AQI.
o Associated likely health impacts for different AQI categories

and pollutants have been also been suggested, with primary
inputs from the medical expert members of the group.
6 August 2023 35
Air Quality Index

The AQI values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as
associated likely health impacts for the identified eight pollutants are as follows:
* CO in mg/m3 , and other pollutants in µg/m3; 24h-hourly average values for PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3, and Pb, and 8-hourly values for CO and O3.
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Air Quality Index
Based on the measured ambient concentrations of a pollutant, sub-index is calculated,

which is a linear function of concentration
(e.g. the sub-index for PM2.5 will be 51 at concentration 31 µg/m3, 100 at
concentration 60 µg/m3, and 75 at concentration of 45 µg/m3).
The worst sub-index determines the overall AQI.

6 August 2023 37
Calculation of AQI
Ip = [IHi – ILo / BPHi – BPLo] (Cp – BPLo) + ILo
Ip = index of pollutant p
Cp = truncated concentration of pollutant p
BPHi = concentration breakpoint i.e. greater than or equal to Cp
BPLo = concentration breakpoint i.e. less than or equal to Cp
IHi = AQI value corresponding to BPHi
ILo = AQI value corresponding to BPLo
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Problem 2
Calculate AQI on the basis of PM2.5 If the current concentration
of PM2.5 is 110 ug/m3

6 August 2023 39
Solution
Ip = ?
Cp = 110 ug/m3
BPHi = 120
BPLo = 91
IHi = 201
ILo = 300
Ip= [(300-201)/ (120-91)] (110-91) + 201 = 265.86
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Scales of Concentration
Concentration of the pollutants in atmosphere can be
expressed as
• Mass concentration
– 𝓶𝒑: mass of the pollutant
– 𝓶𝒂 : mass of the pure air in given air-pollutant mixture
• Volume concentration
– 𝒚𝒑: volume concentration
– 𝒗𝒑 : volume of pollutant
– 𝒗𝒑 : volume of pure air
• Volume concentration in ppm

• Mass-volume concentration
• 𝜌𝒑: Micrograms of pollutants per cubic meters air 𝛍𝒈/𝒎3

6 August 2023 41
A number of relationship can be developed among these
concentrations
Assuming ideal Gas Law for pollutants we get the following
M𝒑 molecular weight of pollutant , T is temperature in K and 8.314 x

10-2 is universal gas constant expressed as m3-bar/kg-mol-K
T= 25oC, Pressure = 1.0133 bars the equation reduces to
Substituting we get
𝜌𝒑
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Problem 2
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END OF LECTURE
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Solution
Given Data
yppm=35
yp = 35x10-6 m3 of CO/m3 of Air
But we need to determine the mass fraction,
How to determine the mass of 35x10-6 m3 of CO ?
6 August 2023 45
Solution
Assume CO is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of CO
= 28 g/mol
 mCO = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 35 x 10-6 m3, M = 28 g/mol,
R= 8.314 x 10-2m3-bar/kg-mol-K = 0.008312 x 10-2m3-bar/g-mol-K
, T = 298 K
6 August 2023 46
23
8/6/2023
Solution
Assume Air is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of Air
= 29 g/mol
 mair = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 1 m3, M = 29 g/mol,
, T = 298 K
6 August 2023 47
Solution
6 August 2023 48
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8/6/2023
Problem 4
Example
CO is present in standard atmospheric air (25 oC , 1 atm)
at a concentration of 50 ppm. Compute 𝒚𝒑, 𝜌𝒑, 𝒑 values
 Solution
Given data:
Concentration of CO = 50 ppm
Volume concentration, yp = yppm x 10-6 = 50 x 10-6 = 5 x
10-5
Mass volume concentration, ρp
M P y ppm (10 3 ) 28(50)10 3
P    57.26  10 3 μg/m 3  57.26  10 6 kg/m 3
24.45 24.45
6 August 2023 49
Example
The mass concentration wp, can be calculated as follows:
Divide mass concentration to volume concentration equation
wp mp  v a  v p 
  
yp v p  ma  m p 
But the term (ma+mp/va+vp) can be written as

ma  m p ma mp
 (1  y a )  yp
va  vp va vp
Taking the density of air, ρa, as equal to ma/va, and density of pollutant, ρp =
(mP/vP)yp; we get
p 57.26  10 6
wp    0.000048
 a (1  y p )   p 1.185(1  0.00005)  57.26  10 6
6 August 2023 50
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Air pollutant classification

Based on physical state
– Pollutants that are gases or particulates
– Gases, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
– Particulates represent any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual
aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 m in diameter) but smaller
than about 500 micrometers
Based on formation
– Primary pollutants
• Emitted directly from the sources
• Include ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist, spray, etc
• Include inorganic gases such that SO2, H2S, olefinic,
aromatic hydrocarbons, CO,CO2, H2F, etc
– Secondary pollutants
• Formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among
primary pollutants and normal atmosphere constituents
• Include SO3, NO2, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, various
sulphates & nitrates salts
Based on source
– Natural & anthropogenic sources
– Natural sources include: wind blown dust, volcanic ash and gases etc…
– Anthropogenic sources include: industry, agriculture etc…
6 August 2023 51
Properties of air pollutants
Particulate matters
– Refers to all atmospheric substances that are not gases
– Can be suspended particles or solid particles or mixtures of two
– Can be composed of inert of extremely reactive materials (100 µm or 0.1 µm or
less)
– Classification include:
• Dust
• Smoke
• Fumes
• Mist
• Fog
• Aerosols
6 August 2023 52
26
8/6/2023
Particulate matters
• Dust: particle size 1-200 𝛍m
• Natural disintegration of rock, grinding, spraying
• Large settling velocity, removed by gravity
• Smoke: fine particles 0.01-1 𝛍m
• Combustion and other chemical processes
• Can be liquid or solid and have different colours
• Fumes: particle size 0.1-1 𝛍m
• Solid particles released from chemical or metallurgical processes
• Mist: smaller than 10 𝛍m
• Liquid droplets formed by condensation in the atmosphere or from industrial processes
• Fog: mist in which liquid is water
• Aerosol: smaller than 1 𝛍m
• All air born suspensions solid or liquid
6 August 2023 53
Oxides of sulphur
– Most important emitted oxide is SO2
– Oxidised slowly in clean air to SO3
– Both SO2 & SO3 relatively quickly washed out of the atmosphere by rain
Nitrogen oxides
– Out of six or seven oxides of nitrogen NO2, NO & N2O are found in appreciable
quantities in atmosphere
– All the oxides are major concern as they are pollutants
Carbon monoxides
– Constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere
– Has a B.Pt of -192 0C
– Affinities towards hemoglobin in blood stream & is dangerous asphyxiant
– Main sources of CO in urban air are smoke, exhaust fumes, from devices
burning coal, gas or oil
6 August 2023 54
27
8/6/2023
Effects of air pollutants
Human effects
• Acute effects
• Short term exposure to air pollutants at high
concentrations
• Chronic effects
• Continuous exposure to air pollutants at low
concentrations
• Effects occur by continuous irritation by pollutants
which interact with environmental or biological
factors
6 August 2023 55
Respiratory effects
Pollutants enter the body in number of ways
Cause eye and skin irritation
Certain particulates swallowed as a result of internal
respiratory cleaning action
Particulate matter inhaled may be deposited in
various regions of the respiratory system depending
on particle size
6 August 2023 56
28
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Particulate matter
Toxic effect of particles can be grouped into three categories
Interference of inert particles with the cleaning mechanisms
of the respiratory tract
Particles act as carriers of adsorbed toxic because of their
physical or chemical characteristics
Particles may be intrinsically toxic because of their physical
or chemical characteristics
6 August 2023 57
Lead
It is neurotoxic whose poisoning results in convulsions, severe
and irreversible brain damage, and death
Inhaled lead is far more serious than ingested lead
Particles emitted by automobile are retained within lungs and
absorbed by body with an efficiency of 40%
Body maintains about 15-25 µg of lead per 100g of whole
blood
6 August 2023 58
29
8/6/2023
Cadmium
It is potential health hazard due to its presence in urban
atmosphere and cigarette smoke
Natural Cd levels in air vary from 0.002 µg/m3 to much
higher values of about 0.3 µg/m3 found near zinc smelters
Exposure to fumes or oxides of Cd is known to cause
cardiovascular diseases
Cd can interfere with the proper zinc and copper metabolism
in the body
6 August 2023 59
Nickel
Nickel carbonyl is emitted into the atmosphere and it is formed in
tobacco smoke
Within lung, carbonyl complex breaks down and deposits
finely divided nickel which is main cause of cancer in lungs
Nickel carbonyl cause changes in alveoli of lungs resulting in
respiratory damage symptoms
6 August 2023 60
30
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Mercury
Present in atmosphere because of its relatively high vapor
pressure
Gaseous mercury is washed from air by rain
Inorganic mercury is converted into its methyl or dimethyl
compounds by the action of bacteria
Mercury poisoning include neurological damage,
chromosomal aberrations and even death
6 August 2023 61
Oxides of nitrogen
 Major oxides of nitrogen which affect human health are nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 NO2 is insoluble and upon inhalation can reach moisture filled
alveoli of lungs
 It is converted to nitrous and nitric acids which are highly
irritating and cause damage to lungs
 Long term exposure to concentrations of order of 1 ppm could
lead to biochemical alterations in blood
6 August 2023 62
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Sulphur Dioxide
Aggravates existing respiratory diseases
Broncho constriction when exposed for a few minutes to
levels of 1.6 ppm
Formation of H2SO4, sulphate aerosols SO3 etc in the atm.
CO
CO+Hb  COHb
Has 210 times greater affinity to hemoglobin than O2
Tissues are deprived of O2
6 August 2023 63
Air pollution effects on vegetation

affects the leaf structure
Caused damage such as necrosis, chlorosis, epinasty
Cement dust affect the vegetation
Chemicals such as arsenic and fluorides when deposited on
leaves poison animals
6 August 2023 64
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Behaviour and Fate of

Pollutants
Natural Pathways of exchange of pollutants from atmosphere to
earth surface (Scavenging Processes).
Particulates :
• Wet removal by precipitation
• Dry removal by sedimentation, impaction and diffusion
Gases:
• Chemical reaction in the atmosphere to produce
aerosols and absorption on aerosols with subsequent
removal
• Absorption or reaction at land and ocean surfaces
6 August 2023 65
Wet precipitation
Wet precipitation has two distinct mechanisms- “rainout” and

“washout”
Rainout:
 Various processes taking place inside clouds
 Contaminants serve as condensation nuclei on which droplets
condense
 Effective for particle size less than 0.1 m
Washout:
 Removal of pollutants below the cloud level by falling rain
 Effective in removing particles >2 m
6 August 2023 66
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Dry deposition
(Accounts for about 20% of total particulate matter removal from

the atmosphere)
 Sedimentation
 Inertial impaction
 Diffusion
Sedimentation:
Particulate matter smaller than 0.1 m often coagulates through
mutual collisions and forms larger aggregates which are
effectively removed by gravitational settling. The rate of
settling of the particles depends on their settling velocities
according to the stokes’ law: gd 2  
vt 
p
   a 1 
2C 
 d p
18 a
p
 p 
6 August 2023 67
Dry deposition
vt = terminal settling velocity; dp = particle diameter; p and a = density of
particle and air, respectively; a = viscosity of air; P = air pressure; C =
constant
 Rate of sedimentation is strongly influenced by the particle size
 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have short
residence time in the atmosphere
Inertial impaction
Windborne particles strike on obstacle and are deposited
Diffusion
Small particles migrate to land and ocean surfaces
 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have short
residence time in the atmosphere
6 August 2023 68
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Interaction at the Earth’s surface
 Absorption
 Adsorption
 Biological action in Soil
6 August 2023 69

ABSORPTION
At the ocean surface SO2 first diffuses through the gas phase, crosses
the gas-liquid interface, and finally diffuses into the bulk of the
ocean where it is absorbed. NO2 also absorbed by ocean and other
surface waters.
ADSORPTION
SO2 first diffuses to the external surface of the solid, penetrates into the
pores of the solid, and is subsequently adsorbed on the pore site
BIOLOGICAL ACTION IN SOIL

Soil contains certain bacteria which can make use of CO in their
metabolism, producing either CO2 or CH4.
2CO  O2  2CO2
CO  3H 2  CH 4  H 2O
6 August 2023 70
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Chemical Reaction in the

Atmosphere
SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which combines with atmospheric
moisture to form H2SO4 mist(Slow process)
2 SO2  O2  2SO3
H 2O  SO3  H 2 SO4 (Removed by wet precipitation)
Metal salt particles serve as nucleation sites for droplet formation and
react with H2SO4 to produce sulphates, which are also removed by wet
precipitation
2 NaCl  H 2 SO4  Na2 SO4  2 HCl
Direct conversion of NO2 to HNO3 in presence of moisture (slow

process).
3NO2  H 2O  2 HNO3  NO
6 August 2023 71
Air pollution laws and

standards
The air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981
An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the
aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and
assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.
It extends to the whole of India.
Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution
State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution to be, State Boards for the Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution
6 August 2023 72
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The air act, 1981

Functions of Central Board
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of
the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
• Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms
and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
• Organize through mass media a comprehensive program regarding the
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution
and the measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and
prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
• Lay down standards for the quality of air.
• Collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution
Ref: http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/air/air1.html
6 August 2023 73
The air act, 1981

Functions of State Boards
• To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
and to secure the execution thereof.
• To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution
• To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
• To collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged or to be
engaged in programs relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
organize mass-education program relating thereto;
• To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider
necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
• To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
in such areas
• To lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for
the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants
into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air
pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an
aircraft
• To advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location
for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
• To Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
6 August 2023 74
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The air act, 1981
The state PCBs are empowered to

Close, prohibit or regulate any industry, operation or
process
Grant consent within four months after receiving an
application and if the application is rejected, allow the
industry to appeal to the appellate authority for grant of
consent
Bar any legal proceedings or law suits against the
government or the officials of the Board for actions taken
in pursuance of the act
6 August 2023 75
Standards
• Legal standards for ambient air quality are prescribed by

the govt
• Purpose of these standards is to reduce the pollutants to
a certain level which would avoid undesirable effects
• In India, various areas of a state are classified by the
concerned PCBs into three categoris
• Industrial and mixed use areas
• Residential and rural areas
• Sensitive areas
6 August 2023 76
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National Ambient Air Quality

Standards
Ref: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards.php
6 August 2023 77

Standards
6 August 2023 78
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8/13/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411

Re-CAP
13 August 2023 2
1
8/13/2023

DEMAND
Improvements in technology for discovery and utilization of
fossil fuels.
Two main reasons for this growth in energy consumption
• Exponential growth of world’s population
• Total energy consumption of the world
• Per capita energy consumption rate which is also

exponential
l = per capita energy consumption growth rate = j - k 3

13 August 2023
Weather Vs Climate
o Weather : atmospheric conditions that occur locally
over short periods of time—from minutes to hours
or days. Example: rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods,
or thunderstorms.
o Climate: the long-term (usually at least 30 years)

regional or even global average of temperature,
humidity, and rainfall patterns over seasons, years,
or decades.
13 August 2023 4
2
8/13/2023
Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect: some of the infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the
atmosphere, but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas
molecules and clouds. The effect of this is to warm the Earth’s surface and the lower
atmosphere.
13 August 2023 5
Air Pollution
What is “Air Pollution”
Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in
such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man
and his environment.
– These substances include
• Gases ( sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons etc)
• Particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols)
• Radioactive materials and many others
A particular substance is termed as a pollutant only when its

concentration is relatively high compared with the background
value and causes adverse effects
Example : if SO2 if present in atmosphere greater than the background
value of 2 x 10-4 ppm and causes measurable effects on
humans, animals, plants etc
Pollutants are naturally present in low (background) concentration.

13 August 2023 6
3
8/13/2023
Air Quality Index
o The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2,
CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly
averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards
are prescribed.
o Based on the measured ambient concentrations,

corresponding standards and likely health impact, a sub-index
is calculated for each of these pollutants.
o The worst sub-index reflects overall AQI.
o Associated likely health impacts for different AQI categories

and pollutants have been also been suggested, with primary
inputs from the medical expert members of the group.
13 August 2023 7
Air Quality Index

The AQI values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as
associated likely health impacts for the identified eight pollutants are as follows:
* CO in mg/m3 , and other pollutants in µg/m3; 24h-hourly average values for PM10,
PM2.5, NO2, SO2, NH3, and Pb, and 8-hourly values for CO and O3.
13 August 2023 8
4
8/13/2023
Calculation of AQI
Ip = index of pollutant p
Cp = truncated concentration of pollutant p
BPHi = concentration breakpoint i.e. greater than or equal to Cp
BPLo = concentration breakpoint i.e. less than or equal to Cp
IHi = AQI value corresponding to BPHi
ILo = AQI value corresponding to BPLo
13 August 2023 9
Lecture-3
13-08-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
5
8/13/2023
expressed as


13 August 2023 11
concentrations

10-2 is universal gas constant expressed as m3-bar/kg-mol-K
Substituting we get
𝜌𝒑
13 August 2023 12
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Problem 3
13 August 2023 13
Solution
Given Data
yppm=35
yp = 35x10-6 m3 of CO/m3 of Air
But we need to determine the mass fraction,
How to determine the mass of 35x10-6 m3 of CO ?
13 August 2023 14
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8/13/2023
Solution
Assume CO is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of CO
= 28 g/mol
 mCO = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 35 x 10-6 m3, M = 28 g/mol,
, T = 298 K
13 August 2023 15
Solution
Assume Air is an “Ideal Gas” and Use Ideal Gas Law
PV= n RT
PV = (m/M)xRT
M= Molecular Weight of Air
= 29 g/mol
 mair = (PVM) / RT
P = 1 bar, V= 1 m3, M = 29 g/mol,
, T = 298 K
13 August 2023 16
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8/13/2023
Solution
13 August 2023 17
Problem 4
Example
CO is present in standard atmospheric air (25 oC , 1 atm) at
a concentration of 50 ppm. Compute 𝒚𝒑, 𝜌𝒑, 𝒑 values
 Solution
Given data:
Concentration of CO = 50 ppm
Volume concentration, yp = yppm x 10-6 = 50 x 10-6 = 5 x
10-5
Mass volume concentration, ρp
M P y ppm (10 3 ) 28(50)10 3
P    57.26  10 3 μg/m 3  57.26  10 6 kg/m 3
24.45 24.45
13 August 2023 18
9
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Example
The mass concentration wp, can be calculated as follows:
Divide mass concentration to volume concentration equation
wp mp  v a  v p 
  
yp v p  ma  m p 
But the term (ma+mp/va+vp) can be written as

ma  mp ma m
 (1  yp )  p yp
va  vp va vp
Taking the density of air, ρa, as equal to ma/va, and density of pollutant, ρp =
(mP/vP)yp; we get
p 57.26  10 6
wp    0.000048
 a (1  y p )   p 1.185(1  0.00005)  57.26  10 6
13 August 2023 19
Air pollutant classification

Based on physical state
– Pollutants that are gases or particulates
– Gases, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
– Particulates represent any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which
the individual aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about
0.0002 m in diameter) but smaller than about 500 micrometers
Based on formation
– Primary pollutants
• Emitted directly from the sources
• Include ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist, spray, etc
• Include inorganic gases such that SO2, H2S, olefinic, aromatic
hydrocarbons, CO,CO2, H2F, etc
– Secondary pollutants
• Formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among primary
pollutants and normal atmosphere constituents
• Include SO3, NO2, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, various sulphates &
nitrates salts
Based on source
– Natural & anthropogenic sources
– Natural sources include: wind blown dust, volcanic ash and gases etc…
– Anthropogenic sources include: industry, agriculture etc…
13 August 2023 20
10
8/13/2023
Particulate matters
– Refers to all atmospheric substances that are not gases
– Can be suspended particles or solid particles or mixtures of two
– Can be composed of inert of extremely reactive materials (100 µm or 0.1 µm or
less)
– Classification include:
• Dust
• Smoke
• Fumes
• Mist
• Fog
• Aerosols
13 August 2023 21
Particulate matters
• Dust: particle size 1-200 𝛍m
• Natural disintegration of rock, grinding, spraying
• Large settling velocity, removed by gravity
• Smoke: fine particles 0.01-1 𝛍m
• Combustion and other chemical processes
• Can be liquid or solid and have different colours
• Fumes: particle size 0.1-1 𝛍m
• Solid particles released from chemical or metallurgical processes
• Mist: smaller than 10 𝛍m
• Liquid droplets formed by condensation in the atmosphere or from industrial processes
• Fog: mist in which liquid is water
• Aerosol: smaller than 1 𝛍m
• All air born suspensions solid or liquid
13 August 2023 22
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Oxides of sulphur
– Most important emitted oxide is SO2
– Oxidised slowly in clean air to SO3
– Both SO2 & SO3 relatively quickly washed out of the atmosphere by rain
Nitrogen oxides
– Out of six or seven oxides of nitrogen NO2, NO & N2O are found in appreciable
quantities in atmosphere
– All the oxides are major concern as they are pollutants
Carbon monoxides
– Constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere
– Has a B.Pt of -192 0C
– Affinities towards hemoglobin in blood stream & is dangerous asphyxiant
– Main sources of CO in urban air are smoke, exhaust fumes, from devices
burning coal, gas or oil
13 August 2023 23
Air Pollutants
Classification
• Particulate matter (All atmospheric substances which are
not gaseous)
• Dust – 1-200 m, solid Ca, Al, Si compounds,
• Smoke – 0.01-1 m, liquid or solid Organic compounds
• Fumes – 0.1-1 m, solid Cd, Pb, Hg, Ni
• Mist/Fog - <10 m, liquids
• Gaseous pollutants
• SOx (SO2, SO3)
• NOx (N2O, NO, NO2)
• CO
• Hydrocarbon
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Particulate Matter (PM)
13 August 2023 25
Human effects
• Acute effects
• Short term exposure to air pollutants at high
concentrations
• Chronic effects
• Continuous exposure to air pollutants at low
concentrations
• Effects occur by continuous irritation by pollutants
which interact with environmental or biological
factors
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 Respiratory effects
 Pollutants enter the body in number of ways
 Cause eye and skin irritation
 Certain particulates swallowed as a result of internal
respiratory cleaning action
 Particulate matter inhaled may be deposited in various
regions of the respiratory system depending on particle
size
13 August 2023 27
Oxides of nitrogen
 Major oxides of nitrogen which affect human health are
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 NO2 is insoluble and upon inhalation can reach moisture
filled alveoli of lungs
 It is converted to nitrous and nitric acids which are highly
irritating and cause damage to lungs
 Long term exposure to concentrations of order of 1 ppm
could lead to biochemical alterations in blood
13 August 2023 28
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Sulphur Dioxide
 Aggravates existing respiratory diseases
 Broncho constriction when exposed for a few minutes to
levels of 1.6 ppm
 Formation of H2SO4, sulphate aerosols SO3 etc in the
atm.
CO
CO+Hb  COHb
Has 210 times greater affinity to hemoglobin than O2
Tissues are deprived of O2
13 August 2023 29
Particulate matter
Toxic effect of particles can be grouped into three
categories
Interference of inert particles with the cleaning
mechanisms of the respiratory tract
Particles act as carriers of adsorbed toxic because of
their physical or chemical characteristics
Particles may be intrinsically toxic because of their
physical or chemical characteristics
13 August 2023 30
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Lead
 It is a neurotoxic whose poisoning results in
convulsions, severe and irreversible brain damage, and
death
 Inhaled lead is far more serious than ingested lead
 Particles emitted by automobile are retained within
lungs and absorbed by body with an efficiency of 40%
 Body maintains about 15-25 µg of lead per 100g of
whole blood
13 August 2023 31
Cadmium
 It is potential health hazard due to its presence in urban
atmosphere and cigarette smoke
 Natural Cd levels in air vary from 0.002 µg/m3 to much
higher values of about 0.3 µg/m3 found near zinc
smelters
 Exposure to fumes or oxides of Cd is known to cause
cardiovascular diseases
 Cd can interfere with the proper zinc and copper
metabolism in the body
13 August 2023 32
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8/13/2023

Nickel
 Nickel carbonyl is emitted into the atmosphere and it is
formed in tobacco smoke
 Within lung, carbonyl complex breaks down and deposits
finely divided nickel which is main cause of cancer in lungs
 Nickel carbonyl cause changes in alveoli of lungs resulting
in respiratory damage symptoms
13 August 2023 33

Mercury
 Present in atmosphere because of its relatively high
vapor pressure
 Gaseous mercury is washed from air by rain
 Inorganic mercury is converted into its methyl or
dimethyl compounds by the action of bacteria
 Mercury poisoning include neurological damage,
chromosomal aberrations and even death
13 August 2023 34
17
8/13/2023

Air pollution effects on vegetation
 Affects the leaf structure
 Causes damage such as necrosis, chlorosis, epinasty
 Chemicals such as arsenic and fluorides when deposited
on leaves poison animals
Peroxyacyl nitrates or PANs, which are also referred to as acyl peroxy nitrates or APN, are
a component of photochemical smog, produced in the atmosphere when oxidized volatile
organic compounds combine with nitrogen dioxide
13 August 2023 35
Behaviour and Fate of Pollutants

Natural Pathways of exchange of pollutants from atmosphere
to earth surface (Scavenging Processes).
Particulates :
• Dry removal by sedimentation, impaction and diffusion
Gases:
• Chemical reaction in the atmosphere to produce aerosols
and absorption on aerosols with subsequent removal
• Absorption or reaction at land and ocean surfaces
13 August 2023 36
18
8/13/2023
Wet precipitation
Wet precipitation has two distinct mechanisms- “rainout” and

“washout”
Rainout:
 Various processes taking place inside clouds
 Contaminants serve as condensation nuclei on which
droplets condense
 Effective for particle size less than 0.1 m
Washout:
 Removal of pollutants below the cloud level by falling rain
 Effective in removing particles >2 m
13 August 2023 37
Dry deposition
(Accounts for about 20% of total particulate matter removal from the
atmosphere)
 Sedimentation
 Diffusion
Sedimentation:
Particulate matter smaller than 0.1 m often coagulates through mutual
collisions and forms larger aggregates which are effectively removed by
gravitational settling. The rate of settling of the particles depends on their
settling velocities according to the stokes’ law:

gd p2 2C 
vt    a 1  
 d p
18 a
p
 p 
vt = terminal settling velocity; dp = particle diameter; p and a = density of particle and
air, respectively; a = viscosity of air; P = air pressure; C = constant
13 August 2023 38
19
8/13/2023
Dry deposition

 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have
short residence time in the atmosphere
Inertial impaction
Windborne particles strike on obstacle and are deposited
Diffusion
Small particles migrate to land and ocean surfaces
 Particles larger than 10 m have high settling rates and hence have
short residence time in the atmosphere
13 August 2023 39
 Absorption
 Adsorption
 Biological action in Soil
13 August 2023 40
20
8/13/2023

ABSORPTION
At the ocean surface SO2 first diffuses through the gas phase, crosses
the gas-liquid interface, and finally diffuses into the bulk of the
ocean where it is absorbed. NO2 also absorbed by ocean and other
surface waters.
ADSORPTION
SO2 first diffuses to the external surface of the solid, penetrates into the
pores of the solid, and is subsequently adsorbed on the pore site
BIOLOGICAL ACTION IN SOIL

Soil contains certain bacteria which can make use of CO in their
metabolism, producing either CO2 or CH4.
2CO  O2  2CO2
CO  3H 2  CH 4  H 2O
13 August 2023 41
Chemical Reaction in the

Atmosphere
SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which combines with atmospheric
moisture to form H2SO4 mist(Slow process)
2 SO2  O2  2SO3
H 2O  SO3  H 2 SO4 (Removed by wet precipitation)
Metal salt particles serve as nucleation sites for droplet formation and
react with H2SO4 to produce sulphates, which are also removed by wet
precipitation
2 NaCl  H 2 SO4  Na2 SO4  2 HCl
Direct conversion of NO2 to HNO3 in presence of moisture (slow

process).
3NO2  H 2O  2 HNO3  NO
13 August 2023 42
21
8/13/2023
Air pollution laws and

standards
The air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981
• An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of
air pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out
the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and
assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.
• It extends to the whole of India.
• Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution
• State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution to be, State Boards for the Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution
13 August 2023 43
The air act, 1981

Functions of Central Board
• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of
the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution
• Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and
• Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms
and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
• Organize through mass media a comprehensive program regarding the
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution
and the measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and
prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
• Lay down standards for the quality of air.
• Collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution
13 August 2023 44
22
8/13/2023
The air act, 1981

Functions of State Boards
• To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
and to secure the execution thereof.
• To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution
• To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
• To collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged or to be
engaged in programs relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
organize mass-education program relating thereto;
• To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider
necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
• To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
in such areas
• To lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for
the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants
into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air
pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an
aircraft
• To advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location
for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
• To Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
13 August 2023 45
The air act, 1981
The state PCBs are empowered to

Close, prohibit or regulate any industry, operation or
process
Grant consent within four months after receiving an
application and if the application is rejected, allow the
industry to appeal to the appellate authority for grant of
consent
Bar any legal proceedings or law suits against the
government or the officials of the Board for actions taken
in pursuance of the act
13 August 2023 46
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8/13/2023
Standards
• Legal standards for ambient air quality are prescribed by

the govt
• Purpose of these standards is to reduce the pollutants to
a certain level which would avoid undesirable effects
• In India, various areas of a state are classified by the
concerned PCBs into three categoris
• Industrial and mixed use areas
• Residential and rural areas
• Sensitive areas
13 August 2023 47

Standards
13 August 2023 48
Ref: http://www.cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards.php BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
24
8/13/2023

Standards
13 August 2023 49
NAAQS by USEPA 2006

Pollutant Primary Stds. Averaging Times Secondary Stds.
Carbon Monoxide 9 ppm (10 mg/m3) 8-hour None
35 ppm (40 mg/m3) 1-hour None
Lead 1.5 µg/m3 Quarterly Average Same as Primary

Nitrogen Dioxide 0.053 ppm (100 µg/m3) Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Same as Primary
Particulate Matter (PM10) Revoked Annual (Arith. Mean)
150 µg/m3 24-hour
Particulate Matter (PM2.5) 15.0 µg/m3 Annual (Arith. Mean) Same as Primary
35 µg/m3 24-hour
Ozone 0.08 ppm 8-hour Same as Primary
0.12 ppm 1-hour(Applies only in limited areas) Same as Primary
Sulfur Oxides 0.03 ppm Annual (Arith. Mean) -------
0.14 ppm 24-hour -------
------- 3-hour 0.5 ppm (1300 µg/m3)
13 August 2023 50
25
8/13/2023
WHO Air Quality Guidelines

Value
Pollutant Averaging time AQG value
Particulate matter
PM2.5 1 year 10 µg/m3
24 hour(99th percentile) 25 µg/m3
PM10 1 year 20 µg/m3

24 hour(99th percentile) 50 µg/m3
Ozone, O3 Ozone, O3 100 μg/m3

8 hour, daily maximum
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2
1 year 40 μg/m3
1 hour 200 μg/m3
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 24 hour 20 μg/m3

10 minute 500 μg/m3
Source: WHO, 2005. WHO air quality guidelines global update 2005, WHOLIS number E87950
http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/147851/E87950.pdf
13 August 2023 51
26
8/20/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411

Re-CAP
20 August 2023 2
1
8/20/2023
expressed as


20 August 2023 3
concentrations

10-2 is universal gas constant expressed as L-bar/mol-K
Substituting we get
𝜌𝒑
20 August 2023 4
2
8/20/2023
Lecture-3
13-08-2023
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Air Pollution Sampling

• Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment:
particulate matters (suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and
respirable suspended particulate matter i.e. RSPM), carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
and photochemical oxidants (O3, PAN, H2O2).
• Sampling and measurement of air pollutants, generally known as air

quality monitoring.
• There are two quite different situations in which the air quality
measurement is undertaken.
1. The ambient air quality measurement where the pollutant levels in the
ambient atmosphere are measured.
2. The measurement of the pollutants emitted from a source such as
smoke stack and is known as stack sampling.
o Stack sampling provides information on the nature and quantities
of various pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere.
20 August 2023 6
3
8/20/2023
Air pollution sampling
20 August 2023 7
Air quality
Monitoring
Measurements of Ambient Air Quality

Emissions - Measures the
quality of all the air
(Stack Sampling) in a particular place.
20 August 2023 8
4
8/20/2023
Air quality Monitoring

 Most air pollution monitoring equipment performs the act of
sampling and analysis in one action = real time
measurement
 Older equipment = intermittent sampling (time lag between

when the sample was obtained and when data was
available)
 Almost all gaseous pollutants are monitored by real time

analysis - Particulate pollutants are still mostly monitored
by intermittent sampling, even though real time methods
are available
20 August 2023 9
Ambient Air Sampling
20 August 2023 10
5
8/20/2023

Basic considerations for sampling
• Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and
conditions to be studied.
• Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis. Most
pollutants = very low levels and require a large volume of gas
for accurate measurement
• The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency
of collection.
• Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in
pollution levels i.e. whether 1-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly,
24-hourly sampling.
• Continuous sampling is preferred.
• Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.
pollutants in very small quantities are easy to contaminate. Purge
sampling containers if grab samples are used
20 August 2023 11

• Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
• Grab Sampling
• Absorption in Liquids
• Adsorption on Solids
• Freeze-out Sampling
• Collection of Particulate Pollutants
• Sedimentation (Dust fall Jar)
• High-volume Filtration (The Hi-vol. Sampler)
• Tape Sampler
• Impingement
• Electrostatic Precipitation
• Thermal Precipitation
20 August 2023 12
6
8/20/2023
Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants

Grab Sampling
 Sample is collected by filling an evacuated flask or
inflatable bag.
 Plastic bags are widely used for grab sampling.
 Bag sampling is subject to losses caused by moisture
condensation or diffusion through walls of the bag
 Losses can be minimized by performing analysis
immediately following collection
20 August 2023 13
Grab Sampling
20 August 2023 14
7
8/20/2023

Absorption in liquids
 Absorption separates desired pollutants from air either
through direct solubility in absorbing medium or by
chemical reaction
 Different devices are used which provide a high degree
gas liquid contact
 Most commonly used collector is impinger.
 In impinge, the gas stream is impinged at high velocity
onto a flat surface thus providing good contact between
the gas and liquid.
20 August 2023 15

Adsorption in solids
 Based on principle that gases can be adsorbed on
surface of solid materials
 After adsorption, sample gases are desorbed for
analysis. This may be accomplished by heating.
 Most organic vapors are analyzed by gas
chromatograph (GC) techniques
20 August 2023 16
8
8/20/2023
20 August 2023 17

Freeze-out sampling
 A series of cold traps, which are maintained at
progressively lower temperature, are used to draw the
air sample where by the pollutants are condensed.
 The samples are brought to the laboratory and are
analysed with gas chromatograph etc.
20 August 2023 18
9
8/20/2023
Collection of particulate pollutants

• Particulate pollutants in atmosphere are grouped into
two categories
• Settle out due to force of gravity
• That remain suspended as aerosols
20 August 2023 19

Sedimentation (Dust fall jar)
 It is effective for collective larger than 10 micron
 Collector consist of plastic jar of about 20 to 35
cm height and 10 – 15 cm diameter at the
base.
 Sample is deposited over a period of one
month and material is dried and weighed
 Dust particles larger then 10 micron seldom
travel more than 1 km. So, dust fall jars must
be spaced near to the emission source.
20 August 2023 20
10
8/20/2023

High-Volume filtration
 Most commonly used particle sampling method
 It is for the particles of size less then 10 micron.
 In this method a known volume of air sampled through a filter
medium and increase in the weight due to trapped particles is
measured (Gravimetric analysis).
 Air-flow is measured by a small flow meter (calibrated in m3
air/minute)
 A glass filter has a collection efficiency of even 99 percent.
 particulate concentration measured is referred to as the
Total Suspended Particles (TSP), = combination of settleable
particles and suspended particles.
expressed as g/m3 for a 24-hour period – normally as part of 6
day cycle
20 August 2023 21
High Volumer Sampler
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/management/monitoring/air/air-
monitoring/measuring/samplers
20 August 2023 22
11
8/20/2023

Paper Tape Sampler
 Draw ambient air through a cellulose tape filter
 Sampling time 10 min to 2 hr
 Air is passed through a nozzle and particulates are collected
on the paper tape forming a spot
 Spots are evaluated by analyzing the light that can be
transmitted through the spot.
20 August 2023 23
COH Degree of Pollution

0-0.9 Light
1-1.9 Medium
2-2.9 Heavy
3-3.9 Very heavy
4-4.9 Extremely heavy
20 August 2023 24
12
8/20/2023

Impingment
 Here the separation of the dust
particles takes place with the
collision against the flat surface.
 Wet impingement is used to
collect particulate in liquid phase.
 These devices have an
advantage of collecting the
sample directly without the need
of filtration.
Andersen cascade impactor
20 August 2023 25
Stack Sampling
20 August 2023 26
13
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
• The major problem in stack sampling: obtaining a
representative sample.
• If a representative sample is not obtained then the
concentration and composition of the actual gas
stream will be different, and serious errors would
result in the analysis.
• The important factors in obtaining a representative

sample: a) selection of the sampling site and b) number
of sampling points required.
20 August 2023 27
Stack Sampling
• The gas stream in a stack is normally

under turbulent flow conditions and
any flow disturbance would cause
non-uniform and unstable gas flow
profiles and non-uniform particle
concentration patterns.
• The sampling site should be located

at least eight stack or duct
diameters downstream and two
diameters upstream from any
source of flow disturbance such
as, bends, fittings, or constrictions.
20 August 2023 28
14
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
• In some stacks, it is not always possible to ensure uniform

flow, so concentration patterns and, hence, multiple
samples are required to obtain a representative sample
• The actual sampling must be performed at a number of
traverse points in the stack
• Other problems associated with stack sampling are the
high temperatures and high velocities of the gases
encountered inside the stack
• High temperature - difficulties in collecting the sample -
require a number of additional measurements: moisture
content, pressure, temperature, the flow rate of the gases
and their compositions.
20 August 2023 29
Stack Sampling
Sampling System
• Stack sampling is carried out by diverting a part of the gas stream
through a sampling “train” of which a general arrangement is
shown below.
General arrangement of sampling train
6
1 2
3 4 7
5
1. Nozzle
2. Sampling Probe
3. Particulate collector
4. Cooling and/or gas collector
5. Gas flow meter
6. Flow control valve
7. To vacuum pump
20 August 2023 30
15
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Traverse Points
For the sample to become representative, it should be
collected at various points across the stack.
The number of traverse points may be selected as given
below:
https://cpcb.nic.in/openpdffile.php?id=UmVwb3J0RmlsZXMvTmV3SXRlbV8xMTBfaHppbmNpbmVyYXRvci5wZGY=
20 August 2023 31
Stack Sampling
The sampling site should be

located: at least 8 stack/duct
diameters downstream and 2
diameters upstream from any
source of disturbance.
If not possible then
For rectangular C/S, larger

dimension is the duct diameter.
https://cpcb.nic.in/openpdffile.php?id=UmVwb3J0RmlsZXMvTmV3SXRlbV8xMTBfaHppbmNpbmVyYXRvci5wZGY=
20 August 2023 32
16
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
• In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal
annular areas across two perpendicular diameters
• In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided in to 12 to 25

equal areas and the centers for each area are fixed
20 August 2023 33
Stack Sampling
20 August 2023 34
17
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Particulate Sampling
• The common technique employed for sampling particulate-laden
gas streams is the so called “isokinetic technique”.
• Under isokinetic conditions, the static pressure at the tip of the
probe must be equal to the static pressure in the free stream at
the same cross-section.
• This implies that when two pressures are equalized then the
corresponding velocities must be equal
Isokinetic
20 August 2023
35
Stack Sampling
• When a sharp-edged probe is introduced into a single-phase fluid stream, the
flow pattern = simple pitot tube.
• The velocity inside the probe is zero and the pressure at the tip of the probe
becomes equal to the stagnation pressure.
• If the gas velocity (up) < free stream velocity (u), is maintained inside the probe,
then the gas flow pattern at the tip of the probe may be represented by given
figure.
• In this case the static pressure at the tip of the probe is greater than the free
stream static pressure at the same cross section
Sub-isokinetic
20 August 2023 36
18
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
 If the gas velocity (up), > free stream velocity (u), is maintained inside
the probe, then the gas flow pattern at the tip of the probe may be
represented by given figure.
 In this case the static pressure at the tip of the probe is less than the
free stream static pressure, and too much gas will be sampled in
proportion to the probe area.
Super-Isokinetic
20 August 2023 37
Stack Sampling
 If sampling velocity > isokinetic rate, the sampling will have a lower mass
concentration of particulate material than the main stream because of greater
percentage of fine particles.
 If the sampling velocity < isokinetic rate, the particulate sample has a higher mass
concentration than actually present, with lower concentration of fine particles.
20 August 2023 38
19
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Isokinetic sampling can be achieved by two ways:
 By computing the point velocity of the free stream
with a pitot tube located as near to the sampling
probe as much as possible without interfering with
the free stream, and then adjusting the sampling
velocity
 By using a null-type sampling probe
20 August 2023 39
Stack Sampling
• Null type sampling probe: the static pressures measured
between the inner and outer probe walls is balanced
• This (assumes) that the velocity within the probe is equal to
the free stream velocity
• In practice numerous problems are encountered while
trying to maintain true isokinetic conditions because a null
pressure balance does not necessarily indicate a
matched velocity conditions
• The difference in turbulence for duct and probe flow, the
nozzle shape, its surface nonuniformities, possible plugging
of the inner static tap by fine particles, and the location of
the static holes- all these may contribute to nonisokinetic
conditions
20 August 2023 40
20
8/20/2023
Stack Sampling
Gaseous Sampling
• The basic routine for obtaining a gas sample from stack emission
is similar to that employed in sampling of particulate matter
• The sampling is much easier because it is not necessary to
sample at isokinetic conditions
• The sample can be withdrawn from the stack at a constant rate
independent of the flow rate in the stack
Precautions for obtaining a representative sample
• Particulate matter must be filtered upstream of the collection
system to prevent downstream line plugging as well as to
minimize losses of gaseous pollutants due to reaction with
particulates on cooling
• If moisture is present in stack gases it could get condensed in the
sampling line and dissolve the gaseous constituents of interest
• Suction through the nozzle draws a known volume of the gas
from the stack into a collection device which removes the
constituent gas of interest and the remaining gas is measured
with a flow meter located downstream of the collection device 41
20 August 2023
Analysis of Air Pollutants
20 August 2023 42
21
8/20/2023
SO2 Measurement
– UV fluorescence analyser
– flame photometric detector (with or without gas
chromatograph)
– electrochemical (coulimetric detector)
20 August 2023 43
SO2 Measurement
• The measurement of ambient SO2 levels by the UV fluorescence
SO2 analyzer
• Principle: SO2 molecules absorb UV light at the wavelength of 214
nm.
• The absorbed UV energy excites the outer electrons to the next
state.
• The excited electrons then return to the original state and emit
photons at the wavelength of 390 nm.
• The intensity of fluorescence is proportional to the SO2
concentration
• Fluorescence SO2 analyzer consists of a hydrocarbon “kicker”,
fluorescence chamber, light source, photoelectric detector,
electronics, etc
SO2 + hν (UV) SO2*
SO2* SO2 + light
20 August 2023 44
22
8/20/2023
SO2 Measurement
20 August 2023 45
NOx Measurement
• Atmospheric nitrogen and any nitrogen in fuel is converted into its oxides,
mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) during combustion. The
NO oxidizes in presence of O3 (ozone) to form NO2 in the atmosphere.
– NO is an odorless and colourless gas.
– NO2 is a reddish, brown, pungent, acidic gas.
• NO2 is 4 times more dangerous than NO.
– NO2 can irritate the lungs, increase susceptibility and severity of asthma
and lowers resistance to infections such as the flu. Children exposed to
NO2 are at increased risk of respiratory infection.
• The nitrogen oxides are responsible for acid rains that affect the terrestrial
and aquatic life.
• Nitrogen oxides are critical components of photochemical smog - it is
nitrogen dioxide that produces the yellowish brown colour of the smog and
significantly affects visibility.
20 August 2023 46
23
8/20/2023
NOx Measurement
• Determined using chemiluminescence

• Specific for NO, but total oxides of nitrogen determined
by passing sample over a catalyst to convert NO2 → NO
• Suitable for ambient air containing NOx (NO and NO2) at
levels less than 1 mL/m3
• Reaction of NO with ozone in a dark enclosed chamber
to produce light - detected by a pmt
• Provided the ozone is present in excess the light output
is directly proportional to the concentration of NO
NO + O3 NO2* + O2
NO2* NO2 + h (light)
20 August 2023 47
NOx Measurement
20 August 2023 48
24
8/20/2023
CO Measurement
• non-dispersive infra red (NDIR) devices, suitable for

detection from 0-500ppm by volume
• sample through a flow cell in the instrument where it is
irradiated with infrared radiation
• essentially just a modified dual beam infrared
spectrophotometer
20 August 2023 49
CO Measurement
20 August 2023 50
25
8/20/2023
Measurement of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC)
• Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs are organic chemicals that
easily vaporize at room temperature. They are called organic because
they contain the element carbon in their molecular structures. VOCs
have no colour, smell, or taste. VOCs include a very wide range of
individual substances, such as hydrocarbons (for example benzene
and toluene), halocarbons and oxygenates.
• Some VOCs are quite harmful, including benzene, polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 1,3 butadiene.
• Benzene may increase susceptibility to leukaemia, if exposure

is maintained over a period of time.
• PAHs can cause cancer.
• An apparent correlation between butadiene exposure and a

higher risk of cancer.
20 August 2023 51
 A Photo-Ionization Detector measures VOCs and other toxic gases in
low concentrations from ppb (parts per billion) up to 10,000 ppm.
 A Photo Ionization Detector (PID) uses an Ultraviolet (UV) light source
(Photo= light) to break down chemicals to positive and negative ions
(Ionization) that can easily be counted with a Detector.
 Ionization occurs when a molecule absorbs the high energy UV light,

which excites the molecule and results in the temporary loss of a
negatively charged electron and the formation of positively charged ion.
The gas becomes electrically charged. In the Detector these charged
particles produce a current that is then amplified and displayed on the
meter.
 The ions quickly recombine after the electrodes in the detector to
“reform” their original molecule. PIDs are non-destructive; they do not
“burn” or permanently alter the sample gas, which allows them to be
used for sample gathering.
20 August 2023 52
26
8/20/2023
Photo-Ionization Detector (PID)
20 August 2023 53
27
8/27/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
BITS Pilani Department of Chemical Engineering
Pilani Campus B.I.T.S-Pilani, Pilani Campus
Meteorological Aspects of Air

Pollutant Dispersion
27 August 2023 2
1
8/27/2023
Some Examples
27 August 2023 3
Inversion at Four Corners power plant
27 August 2023 4
2
8/27/2023
Inversion in Los Angeles, CA
27 August 2023 5
The Great Smog of 1952

A severe air-pollution event that affected London
during December 1952.
A period of cold weather, combined with an
anticyclone and windless conditions, collected
airborne pollutants—mostly arising from the use
of coal—to form a thick layer of smog over the
city.
It lasted from Friday 5 December to Tuesday 9
December 1952, and then dispersed quickly
when the weather changed.
This smog killed approximately 12,000 people

and shocked the world into starting the
environmental movement.
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Introduction to Dispersion
 Air pollutants emitted from anthropogenic sources are

transported and diluted in the atmosphere
 Otherwise pollutant concentration reach dangerous
levels near the source of emission
 Effective dispersion of pollutants depend on
Degree of stability
Turbulence
Degree of stability depend on environmental lapse rate
27 August 2023 7
Temperature Lapse Rates

Lapse Rate (Γ) : rate at which temperature changes with
height in the atmosphere.
Environmental Lapse Rate: The environmental lapse rate
is the cooling or warming as measured by a weather
balloon.
The relationship between the temperature and the altitude can
be obtained by considering air to be an ideal gas.
The change of pressure in the vertical direction may be
represented by the relation:
Where, P = atmospheric pressure, H = altitude, ρ = atmospheric

density
27 August 2023 8
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Also, the ideal gas relation
Where, R = gas constant, T = absolute temperature

General expression for the variation of pressure with altitude
By assuming isothermal atmosphere and integrating the above Eqn.
Where, Po is the pressure at ground level (1.013 bars)

The above equation gives an exponentially decreasing pressure with altitude which is a
typical characteristic of compressible fluids such as air. 9
27 August 2023

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): rate of change of temperature
with height as a parcel of dry air rises or sinks without exchange of heat with
the surroundings (adiabatic heat exchange).
• As the air parcel rises in the atmosphere, it goes through a region of
decreasing pressure and expands. As it expands, it does work on the
surroundings. Since the process is usually rapid, there is no heat transfer
between the air parcel and the surrounding air.
For the case of an adiabatic process the first law of thermodynamics yields,
 dW  dU
• Since work done by the parcel of dry air, energy is lost to the surroundings
 Internal energy of the air parcel decrease Temperature of the air parcel
decrease.
• The decrease in temperature of a rising, expanding air parcel is an important
feature of vertical air motion.
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The work done on the surroundings is equal to pdV and change in internal energy
becomes equal to CvdT, where Cv is the specific heat at constant volume. By substituting
these terms pdV  C dT  0 V
per unit mass of the air parcel
pdv  cv dT  0
Where v is the specific volume and Cv is the specific heat per unit mass
For a ideal gas, we can write:

R
(Cv  )dT  vdp How??
After rearranging equation, we obtain
MW
dT v  MW

dp MW  Cv  R
The variation of temperature with altitude can be written as a product of two terms:
dT dT dp
 .
27 August 2023
dh dp dh 11
dT MW  g

dh MW  Cv  R
The above expression gives the temperature lapse rate for dry parcel of air moving
upwards adiabatically and is known as dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Now Calculate the DALR
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DALR Calculation
Specific heat capacity: the amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of a unit of mass by one Kelvin.
Molar specific heat capacity: amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 mol of the gas by 1 ◦C at the constant volume.
Molar Specific Heat Capacity for monatomic ideal gas is 3R/2 and the value for diatomic
ideal gas is 5R/2
27 August 2023 13
Temperature Lapse Rate
 dT  9.86 o C
  
 dh  adia 1000 meters
Thus, the dry adiabatic lapse rate, Γ is given by
 dT  10 o C
    
 dh  adia 1 km
27 August 2023 14
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In the presence of moisture in the atmosphere, a rising parcel of air may cool until the
partial pressure of water vapor equals the saturation vapor pressure of water. In such
circumstances, some of the water vapor will condense if sufficient nucleation sites are
present and release the latent heat. If λ is the latent heat per gram of water, then the
release of this heat is given by,
dQ    mdw
Where m is the mass of dry air in the parcel and dw is the ratio of the amount of water vapor
which is condensing to the mass of dry air. Adding this term to the right hand side of equation
(8) and proceeding further we get the lapse rate in a saturated condition:
dT g  dw
 
dz C p C p dz
Above equation is referred to as the wet adiabatic lapse rate equation although the process
is not strictly adiabatic.
27 August 2023 15
Dry adiabatic lapse rate vs Wet adiabatic lapse rate

 The temperature decrease upon increase in altitude is less
for moist air than that for dry air
 The wet adiabatic lapse rate is not a constant, dependent on
altitude.
 In warm tropical air the wet adiabatic lapse rate is
approximately one-third of the dry adiabatic lapse rate
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Atmospheric Stability
The tendency of the atmosphere to resist or enhance vertical
motion is termed stability. It is related to both wind speed and
the change of air temperature with height (lapse rate).
A comparison of the adiabatic lapse rate with the environmental lapse
rate gives an idea of the stability of the atmosphere.
If an air parcel is displaced from its original height it can:

Return to its original height - Stable
Accelerate upward because it is buoyant - Unstable
Stay at the place to which it was displaced
27 August 2023
- Neutral 17
Atmospheric Stability (Neutral)
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Atmospheric Stability (Unstable)
27 August 2023 19
Atmospheric Stability (stable)
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Match it to text!!
Absolute instability
If the environmental lapse rate is greater
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate
Absolute stability
If the environmental lapse rate is less
than the wet adiabatic lapse rate
Conditional stability
If the environmental lapse rate is
between the dry adiabatic lapse rate
and wet adiabatic lapse rate
27 August 2023 21
Inversion
The extreme case of a stable
atmosphere, called an
inversion, occurs when
temperature increases with
altitude. Such a lapse rate is
known as negative lapse rate.
Under these conditions, the
atmosphere is very stable and
practically no mixing of
pollutants takes place
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Different Temperature Lapse

Rates
DALR : Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
WALR: Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
SALR: Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate
CS: Conditional Stability
27 August 2023 23
Problem
Following observations have been made for the temperature of the
atmosphere with respect to elevation to find the stability of the
atmosphere:
Is the atmosphere?
a. Stable
b. Unstable
c. Neutral
d. Extremely stable
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Problem 2
 A rising plume of stack gas has a temperature of 10000C

at 200m. Assuming a dry adiabatic lapse rate determine
the temperature at 800m
27 August 2023 25
Plume Behaviour
1. Coning Plume :
• Formed when horizontal wind velocity exceeds 32 km/h and
cloud blocks solar radiation during the day and terrestrial
radiation during the night.
• There is little vertical mixing.
• The environment is slightly stable under sub-adiabatic
conditions (WALR<ELR<ALR).
• The plume shape is vertically symmetrical about the plume
line.
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Plume Behaviour
2. Fanning Plume
• Formed at extreme inversion conditions owing to a negative lapse
rate.
• When the environment is under conditions of inversion, a stable
environment occurs just above the stack, and the plume moves
horizontally rather than upwards.
• Occurs more frequently when there is less turbulence.
• For high stack, fanning is considered a favorable meteorological
condition as it doesn’t cause ground pollution.
27 August 2023 27
Plume Behaviour
3. Looping Plume
• The wavy looping plume arises in a super-adiabatic environment
(ELR>>ALR), resulting in a very unstable atmosphere due to rapid
mixing.
• In an unstable atmosphere, rapid vertical air motions occur both
upward and downward, resulting in a looping plume.
• As a result, large pollution concentrations may arise near the
ground.
• It is preferable to create high stacks where the environment is
normally hyper adiabatic to scatter these contaminants.
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Plume Behaviour
4. Neutral Plume
• In neutral atmospheric circumstances (ELR=ALR), a
neutral plume forms.
• A neutral plume rises vertically in an upward direction.
• The plume will continue to rise until it reaches a height
where the density and temperature of the surrounding air
are equal.
27 August 2023 29
Plume Behaviour
5. Lofting Plume
• Lofting plume is produced by a strong super adiabatic lapse
rate immediately above the stack and a negative lapse
rate (inversion) immediately below the stack opening.
• The downward movement is stopped by inversion.
• This results in a very rapid and turbulent upward mixing of the
plume. But the downward mixing is less.
• As a result, the dispersion of pollutants becomes quick, and
pollutants cannot come down to the ground.
• Such a plume is good for dispersing air contaminants and
providing significant protection to living beings.
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Plume Behaviour
6. Fumigating Plume
• The fumigant plume is the exact opposite of the lofting plume.
• Formed when there is a negative lapse rate (inversion) just above
the stack and a strong super adiabatic lapse rate below the stack.
• Pollutants cannot escape above the stack under these conditions,
thus they settle towards the ground due to turbulence and mixing.
• As a result, the dispersion of contaminants in a fumigant plume is
exceedingly poor.
27 August 2023 31
Plume Behaviour
7. Trapping Plume
• When an inversion layer exists above and below the stack, the
plume does not rise or fall.
• Rather, it is constrained or trapped between the two inversion
levels, resulting in a trapping plume.
• This plume isn’t optimal for pollution dispersion since it can’t go
past a particular height.
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Identify the Plume Behavior
a b
c d
27 August 2023 33
Answer
a. Lofting or coning
b. Nuetral
c. Fumigating
d. Looping
27 August 2023 34
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Wind Velocity and Turbulence

Differential solar heating of the Earth’s surface produces pressure and
temperature gradient. As a result, the atmosphere is practically in
continuous motion with air movements being always turbulent.
Thermal Turbulence: The motion of air near the surface of the Earth is
retarded by friction, which varies with surface roughness. The
planetary boundary layer, in which friction is significant, extends to
about 1 km above the Earth’s surface. The wind velocity profile
within the layer is not only influenced by the surface roughness but
also by the time of day. During the day, solar heating causes
thermal turbulence or eddies and these eddies set up convective
currents so that turbulent mixing is increased. This results in a more
flat velocity profile in the day than that at night.
Thermal turbulence also depends on the thermal stability of the
atmosphere. It is maximum on a clear sunny day in the afternoon
and minimum at night or in the early morning.
27 August 2023 35
Wind Velocity profiles during

day and night
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Mechanical Turbulence:
Is produced by shearing stress generated by air movement over the Earth’s surface-
the greater the surface roughness, the greater the turbulence. For smooth surfaces,
the air velocity profile becomes very steep near the ground. For rougher surfaces such
as those in urban areas more mechanical turbulence is generated and the velocity
profile becomes less steep and reaches deeper into the atmosphere
The mean wind speed variation with altitude in the planetary boundary layer can be
represented by a simple empirical power law such as,
p
u z
 
u1  z1 
Where u is the wind speed at altitude z, u1 is the wind speed at altitude z1 and the exponent
p varies between 0.07 and 0.55 depending on the roughness of the ground surface as well as
on the temperature stability of the atmosphere. The exponent α is observed to increase with
increasing stability or with increasing surface roughness.
27 August 2023 37

Effect of terrain roughness on the wind-speed profile
Values along curves represent percentages of gradient wind value
27 August 2023 38
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Air quality modeling

 Air pollution modeling is a numerical tool used to describe
the causal relationship between emissions, meteorology,
atmospheric concentrations, deposition, and other factors.
 Air pollution measurements give important, quantitative
information about ambient concentrations and deposition,
but they can only describe air quality at specific locations
and times, without giving clear guidance on the
identification of the causes of the air quality problem.
 Air pollution modeling, instead, can give a more
complete deterministic description of the air quality
problem, including an analysis of factors and causes
(emission sources, meteorological processes, and physical
and chemical changes), and some guidance on the
implementation of mitigation measures.
27 August 2023 39
• A mathematical relationship between emissions and air

quality that incorporates the transport, dispersion and
transformation of compounds emitted to air
• The models are useful tools in design of new, large or
otherwise modification of existing processes
Unsteady state: box
grid
spectral
puff
trajectory
Steady state: Gaussian
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Dispersion of air pollutants

(Gaussian plume model)
 Determine emission and stack parameters
 Estimate pollutant concentration
 Determine plume rise
Assumptions:
 Diffusion negligible in the downwind direction
 Constant emission rate
 Uniform atmospheric stability throughout the layer into
which the contaminated gas stream is discharged
27 August 2023 41
Gaussian plume model

The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local
concentrations ρ(x,y,z) (kg/m3 ) at any point in space form
distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in
planes normal to the x direction.
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8/27/2023
27 August 2023 43
Q = rate of pollutant emission (available or determined from process

conditions) (kg/s)
x, y, z values correspond to the location where pollutant
concentration is to be estimated downwind from the source
ū = average wind speed at the stack height H
σy, σz= Spreading coefficients/diffusion coefficients
27 August 2023 44
22
9/3/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor
Meteorological Aspects of Air

Pollutant Dispersion
3 September 2023 2
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9/3/2023
Identify the Plume Behavior
a b
c d
3 September 2023 3
Answer
a. Lofting or coning
b. Nuetral
c. Fumigating
d. Looping
3 September 2023 4
2
9/3/2023

Mechanical Turbulence:
Is produced by shearing stress generated by air movement over the Earth’s surface-
the greater the surface roughness, the greater the turbulence. For smooth surfaces,
the air velocity profile becomes very steep near the ground. For rougher surfaces such
as those in urban areas more mechanical turbulence is generated and the velocity
profile becomes less steep and reaches deeper into the atmosphere
The mean wind speed variation with altitude in the planetary boundary layer can be
represented by a simple empirical power law such as,
p
u z
 
u1  z1 
Where u is the wind speed at altitude z, u1 is the wind speed at altitude z1 and the exponent
p varies between 0.07 and 0.55 depending on the roughness of the ground surface as well as
on the temperature stability of the atmosphere. The exponent α is observed to increase with
increasing stability or with increasing surface roughness.
3 September 2023 5

Effect of terrain roughness on the wind-speed profile
Values along curves represent percentages of gradient wind value
3 September 2023 6
3
9/3/2023

 Air pollution modeling is a numerical tool used to describe
the causal relationship between emissions, meteorology,
atmospheric concentrations, deposition, and other factors.
 Air pollution measurements give important, quantitative
information about ambient concentrations and deposition,
but they can only describe air quality at specific locations
and times, without giving clear guidance on the
identification of the causes of the air quality problem.
 Air pollution modeling, instead, can give a more
complete deterministic description of the air quality
problem, including an analysis of factors and causes
(emission sources, meteorological processes, and physical
and chemical changes), and some guidance on the
implementation of mitigation measures.
3 September 2023 7
• A mathematical relationship between emissions and air

quality that incorporates the transport, dispersion and
transformation of compounds emitted to air
• The models are useful tools in design of new, large or
otherwise modification of existing processes
Unsteady state: box
grid
spectral
puff
trajectory
Steady state: Gaussian
3 September 2023 8
4
9/3/2023
Dispersion of air pollutants

(Gaussian plume model)
 Determine emission and stack parameters
 Estimate pollutant concentration
 Determine plume rise
Assumptions:
 Diffusion negligible in the downwind direction
 Constant emission rate
 Uniform atmospheric stability throughout the layer into
which the contaminated gas stream is discharged
3 September 2023 9

The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local
concentrations ρ(x,y,z) (kg/m3 ) at any point in space form
distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in
planes normal to the x direction.
3 September 2023 10
5
9/3/2023
3 September 2023 11
Q = rate of pollutant emission (available or determined from process

conditions) (kg/s)
x, y, z values correspond to the location where pollutant
concentration is to be estimated downwind from the source
ū = average wind speed at the stack height H
σy, σz= Spreading coefficients/diffusion coefficients
3 September 2023 12
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9/3/2023
Gaussian Plume Model –

Ground Level Concentration
3 September 2023 13

3 September 2023 14
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9/3/2023

3 September 2023 15

Estimation of σy and σz
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Pasquill and Gifford’s Method
3 September 2023 17

Curves of Pasquill -Gifford
3 September 2023 18
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9/3/2023

Limitation of Pasquill-Gifford Method
(1) The estimated concentration from these charts or
equations corresponds to a sampling time of 10 min
(2) Underestimates the plume dispersion in urban areas
(3) Uncertainties increase with increasing distance from
source
For sampling time other than 10 min,
3 September 2023 19
Limitation of Gaussian Plume

Model
(1) Most accurate for distance of 100 to 2000 meters.
(2) Neglects the wind turning effect arising due to friction.
(3) Ignores absorption and desorption of pollutants
(4) Ignores reactive pollutants.
3 September 2023 20
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Problem
A chimney with a design stack height of 250 m is emitting
Sulphur dioxide at a rate of 500 g/s on a sunny day in
June with moderate wind speed (6 m/s) at stack altitude.
Estimate the SO2 concentration at (1000, 50, 0, 250)
[p=0.25]
3 September 2023
3 September 2023 22
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9/3/2023
3 September 2023 23
Effective Stack Height
3 September 2023 24
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Effective Stack Height

The value for the effective stack height is the sum of the
physical stack height'(H) and the plume rise (∆H)
Heff = H + ∆H
3 September 2023 25
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

METHODS
3 September 2023 26
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9/3/2023
CONTROL METHODS
Prevent or Minimize
• Source Correction
• Raw Material Changes
• Process Changes
• Equipment Modification or Replacement
• Effluent Treatment
• Particulate control
• Gases and odors control
3 September 2023 27
PARTICULATE EMISSION
CONTROL
Particle sizes range generally from 100 μm
down to 0.1 μm and even less
Factors to be considered
– Physical and Chemical characteristics
– Size and Concentration
– Volume to be handled
– Temperature and Humidity
– Toxicity and Inflammability
3 September 2023 28
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COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
Represents system performance
Weight , collected
Gravimetric efficiency T 
Total , entering
fraction in range i collected

Fractional efficiency i  100
mi
n
 m i i
Overall efficiency T  i 1
percent
M
mi= amount in range ‘i’ entering the collector

M= Total amount entering the collector
3 September 2023 29
Example
An air pollution control device removes a particulate that is being
emitted at a concentration of 125,000μg/m3 at an air flow rate of 180
m3/sec. What is the concentration of the emission and the efficiency of
collection? The device removes 0.48 metric tons per day.
Feed Escaped
Pollution control
device
x0  x2
Removed
At steady state the mass balance is: x1
Rate of particulates in = rate of particulates out
Rate of particles in = rate of particles removed + rate of particles escaping
180 m3/sec x 125,000 g/m3 x 10-6 g/g = 22.5 g/sec
Particles collected:
0.48 tons/day x 106 g/ton x 1 hr/3600 sec x 1 day/24 hr = 5.5 g/sec
3 September 2023 30
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Example
Mass balance:
22.5 = 5.5 + particles that escape
Particles that escape = 17 g/sec
Emission concentration:
(17 g/sec x 106 g/g)/ 180 m3/sec = 94,000 g/m3
Recovery:
R = (x1 x 100)/x0 = (5.5 x 100)/22.5 = 24%
3 September 2023 31
PARTICULATE CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
• Gravitational settling
• Settling chambers
• Centrifugal impaction
• Cyclone separators
• Inertial impaction
• Direct interception
• Fabric filters
• Diffusion
• Scrubbers
• Electro-static precipitation
• ESP
3 September 2023 32
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Particle range for different

types of equipments
3 September 2023 33
Gravitational Settling Chamber

Generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (>50μm)
Advantages:
 Low pressure drop
 Require simple maintenance
Disadvantages:
 Low efficiency for particles smaller than 50μm
These Devices are normally used as precleaners prior to passing the gas
stream through high efficiency collection devices.
3 September 2023 34
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9/3/2023

Howard type settling chamber
 Several trays
 Efficiency improved
 Gas flow velocity constant but shorter settling distance.
Gas inlet
Gas outlet
ΔH
v
H
L
3 September 2023 35
Effect of Settling Chamber

Height
3 September 2023 36
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9/3/2023

 Several trays
Gas inlet
Gas outlet
ΔH
v
H
L
3 September 2023 37

Design Concepts
Area 2W  H
Hydraulic diameter Dh  4 
Perimeter W  H
vDh 
Reynolds Number Re 

Q
Velocity inside the chamber v
nW H W= width of each plate
Q= Vol. flow rate
2Q n= # of plates
So, Reynolds Number Re 
n [W  H ]
H
But the spacing between trays H  If the dust of Hd is already present, then
n
H
Therefore
2Q H   Hd
Re  n
[ nW  H  nH d ]
3 September 2023 38
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9/3/2023

For laminar flow conditions (Re<2300) The time take by the air parcel
containing the particle to leave
the chamber
L
y L t
Time taken to settle, t  How? v
vt v
If the particle settles during this
time with velocity The
y
So, the collection efficiency,  distance, y travelled by particle is
H y= t
Lvt nWLvt
 
vH Q
3 September 2023 39
Gravitational Settling
Chambers
Performing Force Balance On the Settling Particle:
 1 
C D [ d p2 ][  g vt2 ]  d 3p [  p   g ]g
4 2 6
Then the terminal velocity is given by

For Stoke’s Law Region
4 gd p [  p   g ] gd p2 [  p   g ]
vt  
3C D  g 18 g
3 September 2023 40
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For Stokes law region, 24

CD  Rep<1
Re p
For turbulent region., C D  0.45 Rep>1000
For intermediate region.,
If the stokes law is applied, the minimum particle size that can be removed with 100%
efficiency is given by
18Q g
d p , min 
nWLg [  p   g ]
For turbulent flow, the equation for calculating the efficiency is Homework
nWLvt
  1  exp[ ] Derive this equation
Q 41
3 September 2023
21
9/10/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor

METHODS
10 September 2023 2
1
9/10/2023
CONTROL METHODS
Prevent or Minimize
• Source Correction
• Raw Material Changes
• Process Changes
• Equipment Modification or Replacement
• Effluent Treatment
• Particulate control
• Gases and odors control
10 September 2023 3

 Several trays
Gas inlet
Gas outlet
ΔH
v
H
L
10 September 2023 4
2
9/10/2023

Design Concepts
Area 2W  H
Hydraulic diameter Dh  4 
Perimeter W  H
vDh 
Reynolds Number Re 

Q
Velocity inside the chamber v
nW H W= width of each plate
Q= Vol. flow rate
2Q n= # of plates
So, Reynolds Number Re 
n [W  H ]
H
But the spacing between trays H  If the dust of Hd is already present, then
n
H
Therefore
2Q H   Hd
Re  n
[ nW  H  nH d ]
10 September 2023 5

For laminar flow conditions (Re<2300) The time take by the air parcel
containing the particle to leave
the chamber
L
y L t
Time taken to settle, t  How? v
vt v
If the particle settles during this
y time with velocity The
So, the collection efficiency,  distance, y travelled by particle is
H y= t
Lv t nWLv t
 
vH Q
10 September 2023 6
3
9/10/2023
Gravitational Settling
Chambers
Performing Force Balance On the Settling Particle:
 1 
C D [ d p2 ][  g vt2 ]  d 3p [  p   g ]g
4 2 6
Then the terminal velocity is given by

For Stoke’s Law Region
4 gd p [  p   g ] gd p2 [  p   g ]
vt  
3C D  g 18 g
10 September 2023 7
For Stokes law region, 24

CD  Rep<1
Re p
For turbulent region., C D  0.45 Rep>1000
For intermediate region.,
If the stokes law is applied, the minimum particle size that can be removed with 100%
efficiency is given by
18Q g
d p , min 
nWLg [  p   g ]
For turbulent flow, the equation for calculating the efficiency is Homework
nWLvt
  1  exp[ ] Derive this equation
Q 8
10 September 2023
4
9/10/2023
Deviations in Efficiency
Factors causing deviations in efficiency

 Hindered settling at high particle concentrations
 Non-uniform gas velocity over the settling height and width
 Particle re-entrainment
 Turbulence
10 September 2023 9
ET ZC362 Environmental Pollution Control
Advantages Disadvantages
• Low capital cost • Large size
• Low energy cost • Low collection
• Low operating cost efficiency
• Low pressure drop • Trays in multi tray
chambers may warp
10 September 2023
10 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
5
9/10/2023
Problem
A multi-tray settling chamber handles 6m3/s of air at 200C.

There are 8 trays including the bottom surface spaced
0.25m apart. The chamber is 4m long and 1 m wide. For
particles of density 2000 kg/m3 and for sizes 70 and 25 m,
calculate
• The residence time
• The distance settled
• Efficiency of collection
10 September 2023 11
Solution
Q L
v
nW H
t
v
4 gd p [  p   g ] 2Q
vt 
3C D  g Re 
n[W  H ]
y

H
6
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators
Particulate laden gas is

accelerated through a
spiral motion which
imparts centrifugal
force to the particles
Particles are hurled out

of the spinning gas by
impact on the cylinder
wall of the cyclone
Reverse Flow Cyclone

Separator
7
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators
Cyclone Separators
8
9/10/2023
Cyclone Design Considerations
Cyclone Separation Factor, S
The magnitude of centrifugal force is frequently described

in terms of the number of times this force exceeds the
force of gravity, i.e, Separation factor, (S)
Where Vθ= Tangential particle velocity

r= radius of rotation
S varies from 5 in large, low velocity units to 2500 in small,

high pressure units
9
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators
The tangential velocity of both particle and gas is same. By balancing

the radial drag force and the centrifugal force,
 v2
3 g d p v r  d 3p [  p   g ] 
6 r
From this,
d p2 [  p   g ]v2
vr 
18 g r
Cyclone Separators
By experiments,
v r n  const
For ideal gas n=1
Vθ can be expressed in terms of Vθi , inlet tangential velocity of the gas
D n Q
v  vi [ ] v i 
2r Ai
d p2 [  p   g ] Q 2 D 2 n 1
vr  { } [ ] [ 2 n 1]
18 g Ai 2 r
Where, Q= gas volumetric flow rate, D= Diameter of cyclone
 As the radial velocity increases, the efficiency also increases, But at the cost of some
pressure drop.
Cut Size (dpc)

Which is the size of those particles that are collected with 50% efficiency. Particles
larger than dpc will have a collection efficiency greater than 50% while the smaller
particles will be collected with lesser efficiency
10
9/10/2023
Efficiency of Cyclone Separators

Most Satisfactory expression for cyclone performance is Empirical. Efficiency of collection
determined from an empirical expression and Lapple’s correlation chart
dpc=
Where, b= inlet width,

vi= gas inlet velocity,
Ne= effective number of turns a gas makes in
traversing the cyclone (5-10 in most cases)
Example (Cyclone)
Determine the cut size diameter of a cyclone for the
following data
11
9/10/2023
Cyclone Separators –
Pressure Drop
∆P =
K = a constant which averages 13 and ranges from 7.5 to 18.4

∆P = pressure drop
a, b, De = cyclone dimensions
νi = inlet gas velocity
ρg = gas density
 Pressure drop is proportional to inlet velocity in squares.

 This influences the economy and efficiency of the
cyclone separator
Cyclone Separators
As diameter decreases, efficiency increases

However, pressure drop also increases
Cyclones are efficient for particles larger than 10 µm
Uses
• Sawmill
• Oil refinery
• Cement plant
12
9/10/2023
Filters
• Removal of particles less than 5 m

Two types
• Deep bed filter (Packed filter)
• A packing of fibers is used to intercept the particles in the gas stream
• Used for low volume and relatively clean gas (air conditioning system)
• Fabric (Bag) Filter

• For dirty industrial gas
• Mechanism involved are

• Inertial Impaction
• Direct interception
• Diffusion
FABRIC/BAG FILTERS
Operation
 Consists of a tubular bag or an envelope
 Particle laden gas enters the bag at the bottom
 Passes through the fabric
 Particles will deposit on the fabric, in side the bag
 As particulate matter collects on the bag, collection efficiency
increases
 At some point the pressure drop across the bag reduces the
gas flow rate to an unacceptable level.
 Cleaning is done in a time interval
 Three methods of cleaning  mechanical shaking, reverse
air flow, pulse jet
 Some times the reverse pressure drop is also used
13
9/10/2023
Bag Filter
Packed Filters
INERTIAL IMPACTION
14
9/10/2023
Packed Filters
INTERCEPTION
Interception and impaction usually account for 99% of the

collection of particles larger than 1 μm
Packed Filters
DIFFUSION (Electrostatic attraction)
15
9/10/2023
Packed Filters
INERTIAL IMPACTION
2𝑦𝑜
∅𝑐 =
𝑑𝑓
𝜙𝑐= Collision Factor
𝜙𝑎= Adherence Factor
𝜂𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝜙𝑐𝜙𝑎
Packed Filters
Interception and impaction usually account for 99% of the
collection of particles larger than 1 μm
INTERCEPTION
For Potential Flow
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 + −
Potential flow is an idealized model of fluid flow that occurs in the

case of incompressible, inviscid, and irrotational flow.
16
9/10/2023
Packed Filters
DIFFUSION (Electrostatic attraction)
.
𝐶𝐷𝑓𝑅𝑒𝑓 .
𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.775
𝑃𝑒
2
CDf= Drag coefficient of the fiber
Ref = Reynolds number based on fiber diameter
Pe = Peclet number
Combined Efficiency of
Collection
In practice, the collection mechanisms of impaction,
interception and diffusion are not independent.
A reasonable estimate for combined efficiency of collection

is,
𝜂𝑓 = 1 − (1 − 𝜂𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡)(1 − 𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)(1 − 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
17
9/10/2023
Bag Filters
Advantages
Very high efficiencies
Retention of finest particles
Collection of particles in dry form
Lesser pressure drop
Disadvantages
Large size
High construction costs
Their application only to process temperature < 285 0C
SPRAY TOWERS
Operation
 Water is introduced by means of spray nozzles
 The polluted gas flow upwards and the particle collection
results because of inertial impaction and interception on the
droplet
 The maximum collection efficiency by inertial impaction has
been found to be independent of particle size
Efficiency - a complex function of
 Droplet size
 Flow velocity of gas
 Liquid:gas ratio
 Droplet trajectories
18
9/10/2023
SPRAY TOWERS
SPRAY TOWERS
For identical spherical droplets falling through a slow upward moving gas stream , the overall
collection efficiency is given by
 sc  1  (1  d ) n
Where, n = number of collecting droplets encountered by a group of particles and ηd =

individual drop collection efficiency
For spray towers the value of n can be calculated from the expression
1.5m s L  1 1 
n   
 L d  Q Asc (v td  v p ) 
Where, ms= mass flow rate of spray liquid, L=height of spray tower, d = average droplet size,
Q = volumetric flow rate of gas, ρL= spray liquid density, Asc= tower cross-sectional area, vtd
= terminal free falling velocity of the droplet, and vp= particle velocity
19
9/10/2023
CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS
 The collection efficiency for particles smaller than those

recovered in spray towers can be increased
 The simplest type of centrifugal scrubber can be

constructed by inserting banks of nozzles inside a
conventional dry cyclone
 In the absence of spray the efficiency will be the same as

that for the dry collector
CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBERS
Operation
 The polluted gas introduced tangentially into the
lower portion of the vertical cylinder
 Water drops are injected into the flow stream from
sprays directed outward from a central manifold
 These droplets are caught in the spinning gas
stream and are thrown upward toward the wall by
centrifugal force
 During their motion, the droplets collide with the
particles and capture them
 The scrubbing liquid along with the particles flows
down the wall to the bottom of the scrubber
 The cleaned gas exits through a demister and is
processed for the removal of any entrained water
droplets
20
9/10/2023
PACKED BEDS AND PLATE

COLUMNS
 In a typical countercurrent-flow packed scrubber the polluted
gas stream moves upward and comes in contact with the
scrubbing liquid stream which is moving downward over the
packing in a film
 The packing provides a target, which allows the gas stream
to take a curved path through the pore spaces while the
particles carried by the gas stream are captured by inertial
impaction
 Collection of particles by diffusion is also possible
 Smaller packing increases the efficiency of collection but its
shape does not appear to affect the collection efficiency
 Packed tower can be chosen for scrubbing particles that are
soluble in the scrubbing liquid; otherwise, the packing will
encounter plugging problems

COLUMNS
21
9/10/2023
Venturi Scrubber
 Venturi scrubbers offer high performance collection of fine particles,
usually smaller than 2 to 3 μm in diameter
 These scrubbers are suitable for sticky, flammable, or high
corrosive particulate matter
 The high performance of the venturi scrubbers is achieved by
accelerating the gas stream to very high velocities, of the order of
60-120 m/s
Operation
 The droplets accelerate in the throat section and due to the velocity
difference between the particles and the droplets the particles are
impacted against the slow-moving droplets
 The gas liquid mixture is then directed to a separation device such
as a cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the particulate
matter are separated from the gas stream
Venturi Scrubber
Mechanisms involved
 Diffusion
 Electrostatic-phenomenon
 Condensation
 Agglomeration
22
9/10/2023
Venturi Scrubber
Johnstone et al. correlated the collection efficiency of the venturi scrubber with the
impaction parameter (ψ) as:
  1  exp( KR  )
K = Correlation factor= f(throat geometry)

R = Liquid flow rate /m3 of gas
 = inertial impaction parameter  relates the particle and droplet sizes and relative
velocities Cρ p v r (d p ) 2
ψ C= Cunningham correction factor
18d d 
The diameter of the droplet (dd) obtained from gas atomization in the venturi throat can be
evaluated from the following equation:
16400
dd   1.45L1.5
vr
Where, dd is in μm, L is the liquid flow rate (gal/1000 ft3 of gas), and vr is the relative velocity
of gas to liquid at venturi throat in ft/sec
Problem
Calculate the venturi throat area required to achieve 99%

removal of 1.25 m radius particle having a density of
1400 kg/m3 for the following gas stream and venturi
characteristics
Gas flow rate – 10 m3/s
Gas temp – 1800C
Droplet diameter – 100 m
Liquid flow rate – 0.1 m3/s
Coefficient k = 200
23
9/17/2023

ETZC362/PEZC411
Associate Professor

METHODS
17 September 2023 2
1
9/17/2023
Electrostatic Precipitator
17 September 2023 3
Electrostatic Precipitators
17 September 2023 4
2
9/17/2023
Collection Efficiency- ESP
If electric field strength is Ec is present, a force Fel will act on it

such that
Fel = qpEc
An opposite drag force, FD, resists Fel. When the net force is 0,
particles moves with constant drift velocity, Vm
Fel = FD
17 September 2023 5
Collection Efficiency - ESP
The Cunningham correction factor or Cunningham slip correction factor is used to account
for non-continuum effects when calculating the drag on small particles. The derivation
of Stokes' law, which is used to calculate the drag force on small particles, assumes a no-slip
condition which is no longer correct at high Knudsen number
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_ONwi7hauc
17 September 2023 6
3
9/17/2023
Collection Efficiency-ESP
For stoke law region
νpm = Constant drift velocity of particle
17 September 2023 7
Q,v
c(z) c(z+ΔZ)
ΔZ
Mass Balance Qc(z) = Qc(z+ΔZ) + c(z)vpmP ΔZ
At Z=0, C=Co
At Z=L, C = CL
17 September 2023 8
4
9/17/2023
Collection Efficiency - ESP
But PL = Ac ( Lateral Surface Area of Collector)
Q=A*v = (V/L)*v
V= Volume of Precipitator
17 September 2023
A= Cross sectional Area of precipitator 9
5
9/17/2023
Problem
Electrostatic Precipitators
Advantages
Low Pressure drop, power requirement is small compared to that in other devices
economical and simple to operate
99+ percent efficiency obtainable very small particles can be collected wet or dry
Can Handle both gases and mists for high volume flow
Operated at high temperatures and pressures.
Few moving parts
Disadvantages
Relatively high initial cost and large space
Sensitive to variable particulate loadings or flow rates
Safe guard of operating personnel from high voltage is necessary
Collection efficiency can deteriorate gradually
6
9/17/2023
Venturi Scrubber
 Venturi scrubbers offer high performance collection of fine particles,
usually smaller than 2 to 3 μm in diameter
 These scrubbers are suitable for sticky, flammable, or high
corrosive particulate matter
 The high performance of the venturi scrubbers is achieved by
accelerating the gas stream to very high velocities, of the order of
60-120 m/s
Operation
 The droplets accelerate in the throat section and due to the velocity
difference between the particles and the droplets the particles are
impacted against the slow-moving droplets
 The gas liquid mixture is then directed to a separation device such
as a cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the particulate
matter are separated from the gas stream
Venturi Scrubber
Mechanisms involved
 Diffusion
 Electrostatic-phenomenon
 Condensation
 Agglomeration
7
9/17/2023
Venturi Scrubber
Johnstone et al. correlated the collection efficiency of the venturi scrubber with the
impaction parameter (ψ) as:
  1  exp( KR  )
K = Correlation factor= f(throat geometry)

R = Liquid flow rate /m3 of gas
 = inertial impaction parameter  relates the particle and droplet sizes and relative
velocities Cρ p v r (d p ) 2
ψ C= Cunningham correction factor
18d d 
The diameter of the droplet (dd) obtained from gas atomization in the venturi throat can be
evaluated from the following equation:
16400
dd   1.45L1.5
vr
Where, dd is in μm, L is the liquid flow rate (gal/1000 ft3 of gas), and vr is the relative velocity
of gas to liquid at venturi throat in ft/sec
Problem

characteristics
Gas temp – 1800C
Coefficient k = 200
8
9/17/2023
Problem

characteristics
Gas temp – 1800C
Coefficient k = 200
Selection of a particulate
collector
The selection of a suitable control device for a specific
application requires consideration of
 Particle size
 Concentration of particles
 Desired efficiency of collection
 Costs
 Space available
 Maintenance factors
Figure gives the efficiencies of various gas cleaning devices for
three broad particulate size categories
 Coarse
 Fine
 Superfine dusts
9
9/17/2023
Selection of a particulate
collector
A) Settling Chamber
B) Simple Cyclone
C) High-efficiency
Cyclone
D) Electrostatic
Precipitator
E) Spray Tower wet
scrubber
F) Venturi Scrubber
G) Bag Filter
Use of particulate collectors in

industry
Industry or process Particulate matter Collection devices
Steel Iron oxide, dust, smoke Cyclones, fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators, wet
scrubbers
Metallurgical (non-ferrous) Smoke, metal fumes, fabric filters, electrostatic
oil, grease precipitators, wet scrubbers
Cement, Phosphate, gypsum, Process dusts fabric filters, electrostatic
alumina processing precipitators, wet scrubbers,
mechanical collectors
Kraft paper mills Chemical dusts electrostatic precipitators, venturi
scrubbers
Sulphuric, phosphoric, nitric acid Acid mist, dust electrostatic precipitators, mesh
manufacture mist eliminators
Petroleum refineries Catalyst dust, ash from High-efficiency cyclones,
sludge electrostatic precipitators,
scrubbing towers
Power generation Coal dust, fly ash Mechanical collectors,
electrostatic precipitators
10
9/17/2023
CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS
There are essentially two classes of techniques by which
gaseous pollutants may be removed from an effluent stream
1. Sorption of pollutant, through absorption in a liquid or
adsorption on a solid surface
2. Chemical alteration of the pollutant, usually through
combustion or catalytic treatment
Absorption by Liquids
 Three steps: diffusion to interface  transfer across interface
 diffusion into liquid
 A two film resistance theory, initially suggested by Whitman,
is often used to explain this process
 According to the theory, the interface offers no resistance to
mass transfer, and the mass transfer rate between the two
phases is controlled by the rates of diffusion through the
phases on each side of the interface
CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS
Direction of mass transfer
Concentration of component A
Gas Liquid
phase phase
CAi
PAG
CAL
PAi
Interface
Distance, z
Concentration Profiles
11
9/17/2023
CONTROL OF GASEOUS
EMISSIONS
For dilute solutions the equilibrium relation between pA and
CA can be expressed in terms of Henry’s law
p A  HC A
Where, H is the Henry’s constant, which depends on the
definition of concentration units. If the Henry’s law is
expressed in terms of mole fraction, then
pA  H ' xA
Smaller values of H’ represents higher solubility of the gas
What is the difference between Rault’s Law and Henry’s

Law?
Henry’s Vs Rault’s Law
12
9/17/2023
Absorption
The effectiveness of an absorption process for air pollution
control mostly depends on the selection of a suitable
scrubbing medium
Important properties of solvents for industrial applications
are:
 High gas solubility and high selectivity between solute
species
 Low vapour pressure
 Non-corrosiveness
 Easy regeneration and recovery
 Low costs
 Low viscosity at absorption temperature
 Nontoxicity
 Nonflammability
 Chemical stability
Absorption
Gas Absorption Equipment
Gas absorption is commonly conducted in equipment which are
designed to provide intimate contact between the two phases
Commonly used absorbers
 Packed towers
 Plate and spray towers
 Venturi scrubbers
In air pollution control, the most popular means of gas cleaning

is the packed tower; however, tray columns, spray and
venturi scrubbers are used in nearly 10% of the cases.
13
9/17/2023

COLUMNS
Types of Packings
Metal pall ring Plastic Super Intalox Saddle Raschig Rings
Lessing Ring Partition Ring

Berl Saddle
14
9/17/2023
Types of Tray
Sieve Tray
Bubble Cap
17 September 2023 Valve Tray 29

Absorption- Basic Design

Consideration
Consider a steady-state operation involving a countercurrent absorber
as shown in figure
Three variables of interest in the design Ls Gs

of a packed tower are: G2 G2
1. gas flow rate, x2 y2
X2 Y2 L = Total liquid flow rate/area
2. liquid flow rate
G = Total gas flow rate/area
3. height of tower. Plane2
y = mole fraction of solute
in GAS phase
For height dZ, the total interfacial dz x = mole fraction of solute
area open to mass transfer is: in LIQUID phase
Y = mole ratio of solute in
z GAS phase
a*V = a*(AdZ)
Plane1 X= mole ratio of solute in
Ls Gs LIQUID phase
a= interfacial area/ tower volume
A = Tower cross-sectional area L1 G1
X1 y1
X1 Y1
15

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7/30/2023

Environmental Pollution Control

Prof. Krishna C. Etika

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Contact List of Topic Sub-Topics Referenc

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

The natural world or physical surroundings in general, either as

"The area surrounding a place or thing; the environs,

Are Human’s Part of Environment???? 8

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Reality Check! https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/country-

All of India’s 1.4 billion

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Arsenic has been found in water in parts of 209 districts in

Also, there are 14,079 iron-affected, 671 fluoride-affected,

Read more at:https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/arsenic-found-in-ground-

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Annual Frontier Report, 2022’

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• Systematic pollution of our environment is one of the

• There is need of technical manpower who could develop

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• The application of science and engineering principles,

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Impact of Man on the

The Hydrologic Cycle

The Nutrient Cycles- Carbon,Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

Consequences of Population Growth-Exponential Growth

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• The Environment which Supports Life and sustains

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

• The biotic category is subdivided into three functional

• Example : Operating ecosystem: Pond

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

• Other consumers are insects, frogs and man

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

BIOSPHERE – Pond Example

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

• Dynamic equilibrium of formation, transformation and

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle (carbon cycle)

• Apart from daily consumption and production of carbon, earth

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen

ETZC362/PEZC411 Environmental Pollution Control

Nutrients Cycle ( Nitrogen