CHAPTER 10

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR

VEHICLE FUELING

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Adam Weisz-Margulescu, P. Eng.

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FuelMaker Corporation

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Air quality is a major public concern. Motor vehicles are a major source of air
pollutants that have negative effects on the environment. Faced with unacceptable
air quality and growing public concern, governments and industry have taken a
number of initiatives to reduce motor vehicle emissions. The trend is clear: in order
to achieve acceptable air quality motor vehicle emissions standards will become
more stringent. The natural gas vehicle industry has become the leader in the drive
for clean air. At the same time, due to stringent indoor clean air mandates, fuel
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pricing and supply problems, the natural gas forklift market has become the fastest
growing market niche in the natural gas vehicle industry.
Until the development of appliances for compressing natural gas to pressures
required for fueling vehicles, the slow-growth in public fueling infrastructure has
made it difficult for motor vehicles to readily access natural gas fuel. The high cost
of natural gas fueling equipment is prohibitive for a small number of vehicles.
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These compact units give a small fleet operator the ability to perfectly size their
fueling requirements to the exact number of vehicles they service. At the same
time, the cost of the fuel station and conversion will be recovered through the fuel
price differential. These appliances can be used as an independent slow-fill gas
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refueling appliance to provide compression for up to two vehicles simultaneously,

or they can be configured with multiple number of vehicle refueling appliances
coupled together to provide fuel to the fast-fill storage system. The storage system
in turn will provide fast-fill to the natural gas vehicle. For fleets that park their
vehicles indoor, an indoor remote panel is used (Fig. 10.1).
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10.1 REFUELING APPLIANCE

The refueling unit is generally a self-contained, oil-free outdoor appliance that will
fill a 26.4 U.S. gallon gas cylinder to a pressure of 3000 psig @ 68⬚F within 8

10.1

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10.2 CHAPTER TEN

Outdoor Time-Fill

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Fast-Fill Storage

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Indoor Remote
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FIGURE 10.1 CNG fueling systems.

hours, which corresponds to an average flow rate of 1.8 SCFM. The flow rate is
roughly the energy equivalent to about 1.1 U.S. gallons of gasoline per hour, de-
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pending on the energy content of natural gas. Average power consumption is only
about 1.3 kW using an electrical supply of 230/208 Volts @ 60 Hz (Fig. 10.2).
The appliance is connected to low-pressure gas system from 7 in. water column to
2 psig at rated flow. It is usually supplied with one fibre-reinforced high pressure
fill hose (second hose can be connected) connected to the unit via a breakaway
fitting which allows the hose to be disconnected without damage should the user
drive the vehicle away without disconnecting. The refueling nozzle supplied is

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 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR VEHICLE FUELING 10.3

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FIGURE 10.2 A refueling appli-

ance.

suitable for natural gas ‘‘slow-fill’’ applications. At the completion of each refu-
elling cycle, the high pressure gas contained downstream of the compressor is
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returned to a blowdown vessel, thus reducing the pressure in the fill hose to ap-
proximately 29 psig.
A typical appliance is composed of the following modules (Fig. 10.3):

1. Compression
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2. Controls
3. Electronics

The compression module and control module form one compact, integrated unit
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(Fig. 10.4). The gas flow with the unit ‘‘on’’ is illustrated in Fig. 10.5. When the
unit is turned ‘‘off’’ the gas is recirculated as shown in Fig. 10.6.
The blowdown vessel is part of the controls module and will accommodate the
volume of gas contained by the fill hose, refueling nozzle, and the space between
the vehicle receptacle and check valve only. This limits the maximum length of
the fill hose. The maximum length of the fill hose is limited by the NFPA 52 Code
as well, to 25 ft.

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10.4 CHAPTER TEN

ENCLOSURE

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ELECTRONICS MODULE

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COMPRESSION MODULE

CONTROLS MODULE

dM BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL

FIGURE 10.3 Modules within the refueling appliance.

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COMPRESSOR
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ELECTRIC
MOTOR
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BLOW-DOWN CONTROLS
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VESSEL

FIGURE 10.4 Compression and control module.

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 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR VEHICLE FUELING 10.5

BREAKAWAY
FILL NOZZLE COUPLING
MANIFOLD
BLOCK

VENT COMPRESSION
MODULE
INLET FILTER

REDUNDANT PRESSURE

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RELIEF VALVE

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COMBI VALVE

MOTOR MOTOR
ROTOR STATOR
HIGH PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER

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LOW PRESSURE
SWITCH
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE

dM BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL

INLET PRESSURE
HIGH PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

FIGURE 10.5 Pressure within control unit when on.

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The electro-mechanical controls are mounted on the convection plate, which

represents the interface between the blowdown vessel and the compressor (Fig.
10.7). The low pressure switch is set to shut down the unit if the inlet pressure
drops below 5 in. of water column (Fig. 10.8). The low pressure relief valve will
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release the pressure into the vent line in case the blow-down vessel is over-
pressurized (Fig. 10.9). The high pressure transducer monitors the high pressure
output from the compressor (Fig. 10.10). It is calibrated for 2900 psig. The pressure
is temperature compensated. The temperature sensor is mounted in the inlet air
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stream and determines the allowable fill pressure for a particular ambient temper-
ature. The temperature/pressure compensation feature attempts to fill the storage
tank with a constant mass of gas, regardless of the ambient temperature. This
prevents the vehicle tank from being over-pressurized if the ambient temperature
rises. The convection plate temperature sensor will shut down the unit at 167⬚F
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and the motor temperature switch will turn off the motor at 275⬚F.
The electronics module controls the operation of the unit. The schematic diagram
is shown in Fig. 10.11. Some parameters can be changed by the installer or service
personnel in the field via a programming device available. The electronics module
is interfaced with the user panel. Starting, stopping and monitoring of the unit takes
place at the user panel. It has separate Start and Stop buttons and three indicator
lights.

Copyright © 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

10.6 CHAPTER TEN

BREAKAWAY
FILL NOZZLE COUPLING
MANIFOLD
BLOCK

VENT COMPRESSION
MODULE
INLET FILTER

REDUNDANT PRESSURE

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RELIEF VALVE

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COMBI VALVE

MOTOR MOTOR
ROTOR STATOR
HIGH PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER

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LOW PRESSURE
SWITCH
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE

dM BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL

INLET PRESSURE
HIGH PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

FIGURE 10.6 Pressure within control unit when off.

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10.2 COMPRESSOR

The compression module as shown in Fig. 10.12 is a reciprocating motion type,

four-stage, four-cylinder non-lubricated arrangement with the direct-drive rotor
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mounted directly on the drive-shaft. As all reciprocating compressors, this unit

operates on an adiabatic principle: the gas is drawn into the first stage cylinder via
the crankcase, is compressed in the individual cylinders, is moved from stage to
stage via integrated gas passages through inlet and discharge valves, and finally is
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passed through the fourth stage discharge valve against discharge pressure into the
vehicle storage tank. The gas is cooled between stages through the integrated pas-
sages by conduction and radiation. The geometry of the compressor and the design
of the gas passages between stages will facilitate the dissipation of the heat gen-
erated by compression into the surrounding aluminum structure. In turn, the finned
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cylinder heads are cooled via forced convection with a separate two-speed fan
mounted in the enclosure below the blowdown vessel. In case of blocked vent
lines, a pressure relief valve mounted on the compressor housing will release to
atmosphere at 145 psig. A high pressure burst disc installed in the fourth stage
cylinder head will provide protection if the pressure rises above 3335 psig.
The gas is drawn into the blowdown vessel through the inlet pipe, passing
through an inlet filter and a combination valve. The blowdown vessel is an integral

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 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR VEHICLE FUELING 10.7

MOTOR TEMPERATURE
SWITCH
CTION PL
NVE AT
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LOW PRESSURE
SWITCH

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LOW PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE

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dM COMBINATION
VALVE

HIGH PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
CONVENTION PLATE
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
FIGURE 10.7 Interface between blowdown vessel and the compressor.
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VENT

GAS
INLET
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BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL
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LOW PRESSURE SWITCH

FIGURE 10.8 Low pressure switch.

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10.8 CHAPTER TEN

VENT

GAS
INLET

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BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL

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LOW PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
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FIGURE 10.9 Low pressure relief valve.
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COMPRESSION
MODULE
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BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL
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HIGH PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER

FIGURE 10.10 High pressure transducer.

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FIGURE 10.11 Electronics control schematic.

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10.9

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10.10 CHAPTER TEN

MANIFOLD BLOCK

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1ST STAGE
4TH STAGE

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2ND STAGE
3RD STAGE

MOTOR ROTOR
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component system of the unit, designed to reduce the delivery side pressure (in the
fueling hose and the space between vehicle receptacle and check valve) from op-
erating level to approximately 29 psig. ‘‘Blowdown’’ allows the nozzle to be dis-
connected from the vehicle.
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Via two holes in the compressor housing the gas enters the back end of the first
stage cylinder. The first stage piston is fitted with six valves kept closed by disc
springs and activated by differential pressure in the system. During the downstroke
of the piston, the valves open and the gas rushes into the first stage cylinder cavity.
As the piston reverses direction, the pressure increases and the valves close, and
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the compression cycle is completed. On top of the cylinder, identical valves are
installed into a valveplate. At the end of the stroke these valves will open due to
the differential pressure, and the gas is pushed through passages in the compressor
housing to stage 2 and subsequently to stages 3 and 4. In the second and third
stages, the gas enters the compression chamber via valves installed in the cylinder
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sleeves and exits through one similar but larger valve placed in the centre of the
cylinder head. Before entering the fourth stage compression chamber, the gas is
filtered again. In order to minimize pulsation, the gas is passed through a damper
before exiting through the high pressure block. The fill hose has one end attached
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to the breakaway coupling and the fill nozzle end connected to the vehicle recep-
tacle (Fig. 10.13). During the ‘‘off’’ cycle, the gas is being recirculated into the
blowdown vessel through the high pressure block and tube connected to the con-
vection plate (Fig. 10.14).
The piston-head clearance is kept to a minimum. But due to clearances necessary
to permit operation and allow valve passages to be incorporated, the piston does

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 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR VEHICLE FUELING 10.11

BREAKAWAY
FILL NOZZLE COUPLING

COMPRESSION
MODULE
INLET FILTER

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BLOW-DOWN
dM VESSEL

FIGURE 10.13 Flow during on cycle.

not sweep the entire volume of the cylinder. Hence the actual cylinder capacity is
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lower than the displacement. The volumetric efficiency of the cylinder is:
Ev ⫽ Q/Cdis
where
Ev is the volumetric efficiency
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Q is the total volume through-put per unit of time at suction conditions in CFM
Cdis is the volume swept by all pistons per unit of time in CFM
To improve efficiency, the compression ratio per each stage is kept as close to
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constant as possible. To achieve the discharge pressure necessary, the approximate

ratio/stage is four.

10.3 COMPRESSOR BALANCE

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The compressor is driven by a constant speed (1750 RPM) 1.5 HP electric motor.
The rotor is mounted directly on the drive-shaft, while the stator is mounted on
the convection plate. Constant air gap is being maintained to minimize temperature
increases and eddy current losses.

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10.12 CHAPTER TEN

BREAKAWAY
FILL NOZZLE COUPLING
MANIFOLD
BLOCK

COMPRESSION
MODULE

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dM BLOW-DOWN
VESSEL

FIGURE 10.14 Flow during off cycle.

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The drive-shaft is supported by two ball bearings. The crank end of the crank-
shaft (drive-shaft) facilitates the conversion of the rotary motion into the recipro-
cating motion of the compressor.
The pistons for stages 1 and 3 are mounted in opposite direction on the yoke.
The same is true for stages 2 and 4. The two piston/yoke assemblies are installed
on the pin end of the crankshaft 90⬚ off to each other in the horizontal plane of
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the compressor. The reciprocating motion is achieved through a set of linear bear-
ings riding on a sliding block inside the yoke assembly.
Two counterweights are installed on each side of the yokes to balance the crank-
shaft assembly. Both synchronous inertia forces originating in masses with rotating
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motion and inertia forces originating in masses with purely reciprocating motion
must be considered. Since the sum of the reciprocating masses in one direction
(stage 1 ⫹ stage 3) are equal to the sum of the reciprocating masses in the other
direction (stage 2 ⫹ stage 4), the oscillating forces of this compressor are identical
to a V2/90⬚ engine. For this kind of engine, the oscillating forces can be compen-
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sated in the counterweights. The following equation has to be satisfied:

Mosc ⫽ Mcw

where we can approximate:

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 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR VEHICLE FUELING 10.13

Mosc ⫽ (mrot ⫹ k mrec ) ⫻ dcor-cgosc

and
Mcw ⫽ mcw (top)⫻ dcor-cgcw(top) ⫹ mcw (bottom)⫻ dcor-cgcw(bottom)
where:

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Mosc is the moment produced by the oscillating masses
Mcw is the moment produced by the counterweight masses
mrot is the sum of the rotating masses
mrec is the sum of the reciprocating masses

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dcor-cgosc is the distance from the centre of rotation to the centre of gravity of the
oscillating masses
mcw is the counterweight masses
dcor-cgcw is the distance from the centre of rotation to the centre of gravity of the
counterweight masses
k is a constant percentage factor of compensation for reciprocating masses
dM and is 0.5 for V2/90⬚ engine mathematical model

10.4 COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS

The main components of the compressor are (Fig. 10.15):

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1. Housing
2. Drive unit
3. Piston assemblies
4. Cylinder head assemblies
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5. High pressure unit

The housing is made of cast aluminum and has integrated stainless steel tubes
to provide the passages from one stage to the next stage. All static seals are natural
gas compatible nitrile elastomers. The geometry and layout of the fins help air
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circulation to optimize cooling.

The drive unit has the crankshaft housed by a flange unit via two ball bearings.
The flange unit facilitates the attachment of the drive unit to the housing. The two
yoke assemblies are mounted on the pin end of the crankshaft, sandwiched between
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the two counterweights. The separated rotor is mounted at the free end of the
crankshaft (Fig. 10.16). The bearings in each yoke assembly are well protected
from dirt and are lubricated with a high viscosity synthetic grease suitable for a
service temperature range of ⫺40⬚F to ⫹300⬚F.
The four piston assembly units are mounted on the two yokes and provide the
sequential compression of the gas. The compression of the gas takes place in the

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10.14 CHAPTER TEN

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FIGURE 10.15 Exploded view of compressor.

four cylinder sleeves mounted in their respective cylinder heads. Sealing is achieved
via non-lubricated sealing elements conceived as integral part of the pistons. Dif-
ferential pressure valves for each stage are integrated at both the entry and exit of
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each individual stage to regulate the flow of the gas. All internal and external seals
are made of natural gas compatible elastomers.
These refueling appliances would typically have a service interval of 2250 hours.
At that time, the sealing and guide rings are checked and replaced when necessary,
all ‘‘O’’ rings are replaced and the drive system is verified and repacked.
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10.5 NATURAL GAS AS FUEL

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Compressed natural gas as a vehicle fuel has been accepted all over the world.
From Canada and U.S.A., where the majority of the installations exist, to Europe,
Australia, South-America and Japan, the concept of natural gas as an alternate fuel
for motor vehicles of all kinds has been embraced by more and more people.
Considering the overwhelming environmental benefits, cost and availability, this
system will expand as we approach the 21st century.

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 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS FOR VEHICLE FUELING 10.15

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FIGURE 10.16 Exploded view of drive

assembly.
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