Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36

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Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Field instrumentation for monitoring of water, heat, and gas transfers through
unsaturated soils
I Gde Budi Indrawan a, 1, Harianto Rahardjo a,⁎, Eng-Choon Leong a, Puay-Yok Tan b,
Yok-King Fong b, Eng-Koon Sim b
a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
b
Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology, National Parks Board, Singapore

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, measurement details of pore-water pressures, volumetric water contents, temperatures, and relative
Received 7 March 2011 oxygen concentrations in unsaturated soil layers under asphalt pavement, aeration slab, and turf cover, as well
Received in revised form 27 August 2012 as weather conditions are described. Measurement results show that positive pore-water pressures developed fre-
Accepted 6 September 2012
quently in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement. Volumetric water contents of the soil layers near the ground
Available online 18 September 2012
surface fluctuated highly as compared to those of the soil layers below. Magnitude and fluctuation of temperatures
Keywords:
in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement were the highest while those beneath the turf cover were the lowest.
Field instrumentation Oxygen concentrations in the soil layers under turf cover increased faster than those in the soil layers under the
Soil water content asphalt pavement and aeration slab. By conducting comprehensive and continuous measurements, relationship
Soil temperature between pore-water pressures and volumetric water contents can be obtained and mechanisms of water, heat
Oxygen concentration and gas transfers through unsaturated soil under different surface conditions can be better understood.
Unsaturated soil © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Singapore has a typical tropical climate that is characterized by
uniform temperature, high humidity, and abundant rainfalls through-
out the year. The island of Singapore consists mainly of three rock
formations: (a) the Bukit Timah Granite; (b) the Jurong Formation;
and (c) the Old Alluvium (Leong et al., 2002). The Bukit Timah Granite
consists of granitic igneous rocks, the Jurong Formation consists of a
series of sedimentary rocks, while the Old Alluvium, which underlies
the research area, is a quaternary alluvial deposit of the ancient river
system in the eastern part of Singapore.
Measurements of pore-water pressures, volumetric water contents,
temperatures, and oxygen concentrations in unsaturated soils under
various surface covers have been conducted by several researchers
using various measurement methods. For example, tensiometers have
been used to measure pore-water pressures of soil layers under road
pavements (e.g., Russam and Dagg, 1965; Pufahl and Lytton, 1991).
In a study to compare moisture and temperature distributions of soil
⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Blk N1, #1B-36, Singapore 639798,
Singapore. Tel.: + 65 6790 5246; fax: + 65 6791 0676.
E-mail addresses: igbindrawan@ugm.ac.id (I.G.B. Indrawan),
chrahardjo@ntu.edu.sg (H. Rahardjo), cecleong@ntu.edu.sg (E.-C. Leong),
tan_puay_yok@nparks.gov.sg (P.-Y. Tan), fong_yok_king@nparks.gov.sg (Y.-K. Fong),
sim_eng_koon@nparks.gov.sg (E.-K. Sim).
1
Present address: Department of Geological Engineering, Gadjah Mada University,
Indonesia.
layers under uncovered and covered road pavements, Uppal (1965)
determined soil water contents using a gravimetric method. Roy et al.
(2000) measured volumetric water contents of soil layers under grass
cover packed in field lysimeters using TDR system. Pufahl and Lytton
(1991) used thermocouples to measure temperatures of soil layers
under highway pavements, while Russam and Dagg (1965) and
Eigenbrod and Kennepohl (1996) employed thermistors to measure
temperatures of soil layers under road verges. D'Amato et al. (2002)
used an oxygen analyzer to estimate oxygen concentration under side-
walk pavement, while Hanslin et al. (2005) measured oxygen concentra-
tion in root zone under layers of compost mulch by extracting soil air with
a gas analyzer and by using oxygen sensors installed in the soil layers.
Though measurements of pore-water pressures, volumetric water
contents, temperatures, and oxygen concentrations in unsaturated
soils have been conducted by several researchers, there are not many
details associated with the measurement procedures and instruments.
Such details are useful references for other researchers. In addition,
there are not many simultaneous measurements of these parameters
that have ever been conducted in the field. Water and heat flows and
oxygen diffusion in unsaturated soils have been considered to be inter-
related. It has been commonly accepted that water flow is governed not
only by hydraulic head gradient, but also by temperature gradient. Tem-
perature gradients in an unsaturated soil lead to water vapor flow,
resulting in variations of soil water contents. Meanwhile, variations of
soil temperatures depend on soil thermal diffusivity, which is a function
of soil water content. Oxygen concentrations in the soils depend on the
amount of water filling the soil pores and the soil temperature. Such

0013-7952/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.09.004
 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36
simultaneous measurements of soil water content, temperature, and
oxygen concentration lead to a better understanding of water, heat,
and oxygen flow mechanisms.
This paper describes measurement procedures of pore-water pres-
sures, volumetric water contents, temperatures, and relative oxygen
concentrations of unsaturated soil layers below asphalt pavement,
aeration slab, and turf cover, as well as weather conditions at an
open space car park. Details of the instrumentations are highlighted
and typical monitoring results of pore-water pressures, volumetric
water contents, temperatures, relative oxygen concentrations of un-
saturated soil layers, as well as weather conditions are presented. All
trade names mentioned in this paper are only for information purpose
and do not represent endorsement.
2. Methods
2.1. Site characterization
The instrumented site was located at an open space car park with
a tree pit as a road divider. The car park area has a 10% slope. An
instrumentation hole of 1 m 2 area and 1 m depth at each of road,
parking lot, and tree pit areas was excavated. The soil profiles at the
road, parking lot, and tree pit areas are shown in Figs. 1 to 3.
The soil profile at the road area consisted of a 100 mm thick surface
cover of asphalt pavement (AP) that was underlain by a 200 mm thick
base material (BS), which consisted of aggregate layer of well-graded
gravel with sand. The aggregate layer was underlain by a 200 mm
thick subbase material (SB), which was a recycled old asphalt layer
and, subsequently, by a 500 mm subgrade layer (SG) of clay with
sand. Below the SG was the in-situ soil of Old Alluvium.
The soil profile at the parking lot area was similar to the soil pro-
file at the road area except that a 50 mm thick sand (SA) layer existed
below a 100 mm thick aeration slab surface cover (AS). Aeration slabs
have been commonly installed in car parks in Singapore to promote
more water and oxygen transfers into the underlying root zone and
to reduce the harshness of the environment by planting turf in
parking lots. The aeration slab consisted of 62% interlocking concrete
slabs and 38% top soil (TS) based on surface area. The SA was
Note: AP = asphalt pavement; BS = base material; SB = subbase material; SG = subgrade material.
Fig. 1. Soil profile at the road area.
25
subsequently underlain by a 150 mm thick base material (BS) of ag-
gregate layer that was similar to the aggregate layer at the road area.
The soil profile at the tree pit area consisted of root zone layer (RZ)
having the same properties as the SG existed at the road and parking
lot areas. The RZ was overlain by turf cover and underlain by the same
in-situ soil found at road and parking lot areas. As the ground surface
at the tree pit area was about 180 mm higher than the ground surface
at the road and parking lot areas, the total thickness of the RZ was
about 1180 mm. The SB, which existed below the road and parking
lot areas, was also found to extend to about one third width of the
tree pit. Grain-size distribution curves and basic properties of soils
from the instrumented site are summarized in Fig. 4 and Table 1,
respectively. Saturated permeability values listed in Table 1 were
measured using a flexible-wall triaxial permeameter in the laboratory
(Samingan et al., 2003).
2.2. Measuring devices
2.2.1. Pore-water pressure measurements
Soil layers below the asphalt and aeration slab covers were domi-
nated by coarse-grained materials. Several research works (e.g., Pufahl
and Lytton, 1991) show that pore-water pressures developed in the
upper parts of subgrade layers below pavements are often nearly posi-
tive. Tensiometer–transducer system was, therefore, installed in the soil
layers to measure pore-water pressures. Small tip tensiometers (Model
2100F Soilmoisture Probe, Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation, CA,
USA), which had basic components of a porous ceramic cup and a plastic
body tube (Figure 5), were employed. The porous ceramic cup, which
had a high air-entry value of 1 bar, was 6 mm in diameter and 25 mm
in length and it was attached to the plastic body tube via a 1800 mm
long coaxial polyethylene tube assembly. An additional 3048 mm long
coaxial polyethylene tube was provided to extend the length of the orig-
inal tube. The joint between the tubes was made using a brass union.
Before use, the ceramic cup was submerged in water in a vacuum cham-
ber for saturation.
Tensiometer is often equipped with vacuum or Bourdon gage
(e.g., Lowery et al., 1986) or mercury manometer (e.g., Návar et al.,
1993) as a pressure measuring device. In this study, the tensiometer
100 mm thick AP
200 mm thick BS
200 mm thick SB
500 mm thick SG
26 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36

100 mm thick AS
50 mm thick SA
150 mm thick BS
200 mm thick SB

500 mm thick SG

Note: AS = aeration slab; SA = sand; BS = base material; SB = subbase material; SG = subgrade material.

Fig. 2. Soil profile at the parking lot area.

was equipped with piezoresistive pressure transducer of SAN25 A2B
C1K V0150 type (Kristal Instrumente AG, Winterthur, Switzerland),
to allow automatic and continuous data collections. The transducer
had a pressure measurement range from − 175 to 175 kPa. Before
installation, the pressure transducer was calibrated in the field by
applying suction ranging from 0 to 80 kPa using a portable DPI 610
pressure calibrator (Druck). It was found that voltage readings of
pressure transducers were linearly related to the applied suctions,
consistent with calibration results obtained by other researchers
(e.g. Dowd and Williams, 1989; Návar et al., 1993). Typical result of
pressure transducer calibrations is shown in Fig. 6. The equations
obtained from the calibration were then used to convert the voltage
readings into pore-water pressure readings. In addition to the suc-
tion calibrations, the pore-water pressures recorded at any position
in the soil layers were also corrected for the elevation head corre-
sponding to the water column in the tensiometer as described in
Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993).
Under field conditions, the performance of the pressure transducer
was highly affected by environmental changes, mainly temperature
changes. In order to eliminate the fluctuations so that correct pore-
water pressure readings could be obtained, a reference transducer
was exposed to air and placed close to other tensiometers. The pore-
water pressure readings from the installed tensiometers were then
corrected with the reading from the reference transducer.
In addition to the tensiometer–transducer system, Model TM229-
SMM thermal conductivity sensors (ICT International Pty Ltd) were
installed at a 125 mm depth under the asphalt pavement and aera-
tion slab and at a 305 mm depth below the turf cover. The thermal
conductivity sensors were installed to anticipate development of
lower than − 90 kPa pore-water pressure, which is the limit of mea-
surement range of tensiometer. The 15 mm diameter and 60 mm
total long thermal conductivity sensor theoretically can be used to
measure pore-water pressures down to − 1000 kPa. Prior to installa-
tion, each thermal conductivity sensor was calibrated in the laborato-
ry by applying various matric suctions ranging from 0 kPa to 500 kPa
to the sensor, which was inserted into a pre-drilled 70 mm diameter
and 50 mm thick compacted kaolin specimen having about 45 kPa
air-entry value, inside a pressure plate apparatus. The calibrations
showed a highly nonlinear relationship between the applied suction
and the temperature rise (Δt) readings, especially at calibration suc-
tions of lower than 100 kPa (Figure 7).
2.2.2. Soil water content measurements
TDR method has been widely used for soil water content measure-
ments because it has an excellent accuracy of within 1 or 2% of volu-
metric water content (e.g., Ledieu et al., 1986; Jones et al., 2002) and
allows continuous and unattended measurements. A TDR system basi-
cally consists of an electromagnetic pulse generator and a waveguide,

1180 mm thick RZ

Note: RZ = root zone.

Fig. 3. Soil profile at the tree pit area.
 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36 27

Gravel Sand
Silt or Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine
100
90 SG

80
BS
Percent finer (%) 70
60 SA

50
40
TS
30 TS
SA
20
BS
10 SG
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Grain diameter (mm)
Note: TS = top soil; SA = sand; BS = base material; SG = subgrade material.

Fig. 4. Grain-size distributions.

which acts as a transmission line of the electromagnetic pulse. A
fast-rising electromagnetic pulse launched by the pulse generator is
sent to the waveguide through a coaxial cable. The travel time of the
electromagnetic pulse propagated one return trip along the wave-
guide embedded in the soil is measured and related to apparent
dielectric constant of the soil, which is subsequently related to the vol-
umetric water content.
In this study, volumetric water contents of the soils were measured
using a TDR system of Trase BE 6050X2 (Soilmoisture Equipment
Corporation, CA, USA). The TDR system had a volumetric water con-
tent measuring range from 0 to 100% with an operating temperature
range of 0 °C to 45 °C. The Trase was connected to a Multiplexer Enclo-
sure 6020B05 to allow attachment up to 16 buriable waveguides of
200 mm long (Model 6005L2) (Figure 8). The Trase system records
and stores data automatically and can be connected to a portable
computer through an RS-232 port to enable remote operation of the
system or downloading of the stored data.
Table 1
Summary of soil basic properties.
During measurement, dielectric constants of soils were converted
automatically into volumetric water contents using empirical rela-
tionships built into the Trase (Figure 9). The empirical equations pro-
duce similar results to the widely used empirical equation proposed
by Topp et al. (1980) and have been tested on sand, loam, and clay
soils at a wide range of volumetric water contents. The TDR system
was verified by inserting the waveguides into an oven-dried soil
and submerging the waveguides in water. The TDR system showed
volumetric water content readings of 0 and nearly 1 when a wave-
guide was inserted in the completely dry soil and water, respectively.
2.2.3. Soil temperature measurements
Heat transfer in unsaturated soil layers is mainly affected by soil spe-
cific heat or volumetric heat capacity and soil thermal conductivity.
Both soil thermal properties are influenced by several factors, such as
soil texture, water content, density, and organic matter content. Under
the same water content, clay soils generally have a high specific heat
or volumetric heat capacity and low thermal conductivity as compared
to sandy soils. Abu-Hamdeh and Reeder (2000) observed an increase in
thermal conductivity of sandy and clay soils with increased density.

Properties Soils

TS SA BS SG

1. USCS
Group symbol SC SW-SC GW CL
Group name Clayey sand Well-graded Well-graded Lean clay
sand with clay gravel with with sand
(or silty clay) sand
2. Specific gravity, Gs 2.50 2.64 2.58 2.52
3. Atterberg limits
Plastic limits, PL 21 – – 20
Liquid limits, LL 37 – – 41
Plasticity Index, PI 16 – – 21
4. Field density
Field dry density, 1.36 1.51 1.97 1.59
ρd (Mg/m3)
Field water content, 27.90 13.45 3.20 18.72
w (%)
5. Saturated permeability, 3.47E−03 3.51E−03 7.02E−03 3.85E−07
ks (m/s)

Note: TS = top soil; SA = sand; BS = base material; SG = subgrade material. Fig. 5. Tensiometer–transducer system.
28
-10
Pore-water pressure, uw(kPa)
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
1500 2000
Fig. 6. Typical calibration result of pressure transducer.
Meanwhile, thermal conductivity of clay soil was found to decrease
with increased organic matter content. Soil specific heat or volumetric
heat capacity has been found to increase with increased water content
(Abu-Hamdeh, 2003). While soil temperature distribution is influenced
by soil water content, temperature gradients in the unsaturated soil
layers induce water vapor transfer from soil layers of low temperature
to those of high temperature resulting in variations in soil water content
profiles. In addition to soil water content, soil temperature also influ-
ences soil oxygen concentration, where soil oxygen concentration de-
creases with an increase in soil temperature.
In this study, temperatures of soil layers were measured using Model
107 Temperature Probe (Campbell Scientific Inc.) that used a Beta Therm
100K6A Thermistor. The temperature probe was 6.75 mm in diameter
and 60 mm in length (Figure 8) and had a measuring range from −35°
to 50 °C. Prior to field installation, the temperature probe reading was
calibrated by comparing the temperature readings obtained from the
temperature sensor with average temperature readings obtained from
a Type EVJ-200S temperature calibrator (Morgenstierne Teknisk AS)
and a Traceable® digital thermometer. Typical result of temperature
sensor calibrations is shown in Fig. 11.
500
Applied matric suction, (ua - uw) (kPa)
400
300
200
100
0
0 1
Fig. 7. Typical calibration result of thermal conductivity sensor.
I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36
y = 0.05x - 163.72
R² = 1.00 Fig. 8. TDR waveguide installed in a soil layer.
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Output voltage (mV)
2.2.4. Soil oxygen concentration measurements
Relative oxygen concentration in the atmosphere is approximately
20.95%, while oxygen concentration in the soil layers varies and is
influenced by soil water content and temperature, assuming constant
barometric pressure in the soils down to subgrade layers. According
to ideal gas law, relative oxygen concentration decreases by 0.071%
for a 1 °C increase in temperature from 20 °C.
Measurements of oxygen concentration in pore-air were the main
concern for this study because dynamic processes of oxygen transfer
from the atmosphere into the soil layers were considered to occur
dominantly by diffusion processes through the pore-air (e.g., Troeh
et al., 1982; Kirkham, 1994). Diffusion rate of oxygen in the air is
about 10,000 times higher than that of oxygen in the water (Yanful,
1993). In other words, the oxygen concentration changes in the soil
layers below the surface covers were considered to be mainly caused
by the oxygen concentration changes in the pore-air.
Oxygen concentration in the pore-air can be determined by mea-
suring oxygen concentration of extracted air samples from buried
diffusion chambers or by installing oxygen sensors (Hanslin et al.,
2005). The later method allows continuous oxygen concentration
measurements (Ishii and Kadoya, 1991). In this study, oxygen con-
centrations in the soil layers were measured using Model O2S-D-
S-TM Oxygen Sensor of 31.5 mm in diameter and 60 mm in length
(Apogee Instruments) (Figure 12). Being a galvanic type, the sensor
basically consisted of a lead anode, gold cathode, acid electrolyte,
and Teflon membrane. Current flow between the anode and cathode
was linearly proportional to the absolute concentration of oxygen dif-
fused through the membrane. The voltage output was then converted
to give relative oxygen concentration readings following procedures
described in the sensor operating manual (Apogee Instruments).
The sensor was equipped with an internal micro-heater, which was
used to prevent condensation on the sensing membrane, a thermistor
of Model 109 temperature probe (Campbell Scientific Inc.), which
was used to calibrate and correct for the effect of temperature on
the oxygen readings, and a 35.5 mm diameter and 35.6 mm long dif-
fusion head, which created a pocket of air space. The sensor had a
y = 0.53e 1.74x
R² = 0.78 temperature operating range from 0° to 50 °C, a measuring range
from 0% to 20.95% relative oxygen concentration, and an accuracy of
0.001% oxygen drift per day.
2.2.5. Weather measurements
The pore-water pressure, soil water content, soil temperature, soil
oxygen concentration, air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity,
potential evaporation, and rainfall were measured automatically and
2 3 4 5 continuously during the test period. TA1 Air Temperature Probe
Temperature rise, Δt (oC) (ICT International Pty Ltd) was used to measure ambient or air tem-
perature above the ground surface. The probe was 25 mm in diameter
and 225 mm in length and had a measuring range from − 20° to 60 °C
 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36
Fig. 9. Empirical relationship used in the Trase system to determine volumetric water content from measured soil dielectric constant (Soilmoisture Equipment Corp., 1996).
and an accuracy of 0.1 °C. Relative humidity (RH) was measured using
Model HM 1500 Relative Humidity Sensor (Humirel). The 11.6 mm
diameter and 59.5 mm long RH sensor had a measuring range from
0% to 100% RH at a temperature operating range from − 30° to 40 °C.
Between 10% and 95% RH, the accuracy of the sensor was typically
3%. The air temperature and relative humidity sensors were placed in-
side a wind shield to prevent direct exposure of sunlight. Wind speed
was measured using a Model AN5 Anemometer (ICT International Pty
Ltd). The anemometer had a 195 mm total height and a 65 mm cup di-
ameter. The anemometer could be used to measure wind speed rang-
ing from 0.5 to 75 m/s (1.8 to 270 km/h) with a 0.001 m/s resolution
and a 2% accuracy.
Potential evaporation was measured using a Model EV4 Class A
Evaporation Pan that was equipped with a Model WL8 Water Level
Sensor for automatic readings and a stilling well (ICT International
Pty Ltd). The evaporation pan had a dimension of a 1200 mm in inter-
nal diameter, a 1.1 mm in wall thickness, and a 250 mm in depth. The
300 mm long water level sensor used a silicon strain gage pressure
transducer with temperature compensation and had a measuring
range from 0 mm to 200 mm with 0.1% accuracy. The sensor came
with factory calibrations. Prior to field instrumentation, the calibra-
tions were verified by placing the sensor in a chamber filled with
water of various heads. In the field, the evaporation pan was filled
with water and a reduction in the water level registered by the sensor
Fig. 10. Soil temperature sensor.
29
at a measurement interval was assigned to be a potential evaporation
rate.
A Rain-O-Matic Meteorological Rain Gauge (Pronamic Co., Ltd) was
used to measure rainfall intensity. The rainfall gage had a 20 cm 2
orifice (159.6 mm diameter) and 42 cm height. The 5 cm 3 bucket vol-
ume gave a 0.25 mm bucket capacity. The rainfall gage was calibrated
in the laboratory to correct for the recorded rainfall intensity. Tradi-
tional tipping-bucket rainfall gage is known to underestimate rela-
tively high intensity rainfalls due to the loss of rainwater during the
movement of the bucket. On the other hand, the tipping-bucket rain-
fall gage is known to overestimate relatively low intensity rainfalls as
there is often some rainwater left after the movement of the bucket
(Marsalek, 1981; Vasvari, 2005). Basic calibration principles described
in Vasvari (2005) were adopted in this research.
The tipping-bucket calibration was conducted by applying various
confining water pressures and back water pressures ranging from
20 kPa to 210 kPa into a lightly compacted sand specimen in order
to produce considerably low water outflow rates ranging from 0.3
to 2.5 mm/min. Each of the confining water pressure and back
45
Readings from sensor (oC)
40
35
30
y = 0.981x + 0.629
R² = 0.999
25
25 30 35 40 45
Average readings from calibrators (oC)
Fig. 11. Typical calibration result of temperature sensor.
30
Fig. 12. Oxygen sensor installed in a soil layer.
water pressure was supplied from a Digital Pressure and Volume Con-
troller (DPVC) that could also measure the volume of water from the
system. Water flowing out the specimen was directed to the tipping
bucket through a small tube. Under a steady-state condition, the vol-
ume of water flowing into and out from the specimen is the same and
the rate of water flowing out of the specimen is constant. The volu-
metric rate of water flowing into the specimen (or flowing out from
the DPVC) divided by the orifice area of the rain gage was assigned
to be the actual flow rate or actual rainfall intensity. Meanwhile,
the recorded flow rate or recorded rainfall intensity was determined
from the number of bucket tips of a known volume divided by the
orifice area of the rain gage per measurement interval. The plot
of the recorded intensity versus the actual intensity shows that the
recorded intensity was higher than the actual intensity as there was
some water left in the bucket between the bucket tips (Figure 13).
The calibration equation was then used to correct the recorded rain-
fall intensity obtained from the field measurements.
2.2.6. Data acquisition system and power supply
Two units of data loggers were used in the field due to incompat-
ibility of sensors and data loggers. The pressure transducers of tensi-
ometers, rainfall gage, and soil temperature, soil oxygen, and relative
humidity sensors were connected to a Model CR1000 Data Logger
(Campbell Scientific Inc.). The anemometer and thermal conductivity,
air temperature, and water level sensors were equipped with an
interface which only allowed connection to a SL5 Smart Logger (ICT
3.5
3.0
Actual intensity, Io (mm/min)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Recorded intensity, Ir (mm/min)
Fig. 13. Typical calibration result of tipping-bucket rainfall gage.
I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36
International Pty Ltd). The Model CR1000 Data Logger was connected
to two units of Model AM16/32A Multiplexers to increase channel
capacity. The data logger can be operated at a temperature range
from − 25° to 50 °C and from 0% to 95% relative humidity. The mea-
sured real time data from the sensors were transferred and stored
into the data logger and were further processed in a personal com-
puter connected via RS232 communications through a communica-
tion software LoggerNet (version 3.4; Campbell Scientific Inc.)
under Microsoft® Windows® environment. The SL5 Smart Logger
had an operating temperature range from − 20° to 60 °C with
16-bits resolution. The measured real time data from the sensors
were transferred and stored into the data logger and were further
processed in a personal computer through a communication soft-
ware of HyperTerminal under Microsoft® Windows® environment.
The access to the smart logger was achieved through direct RS232
communications.
A unit of 12 V, 100 Ah rating Model UXH 100-12N rechargeable
battery (Yuasa) was provided to power electric fans that were
installed to reduce air temperature inside the data logger enclosures.
Power for the sensors and the data loggers were supplied from two
units of 12 V, 92 Ah rating at 25 °C Model PRC-12100S rechargeable
battery (Power Battery Co., Inc.). The batteries was recharged using a
Model SX20M (BP Solar) and Solarex Solar Panels (Solarex Pty Ltd.).
Photograph of the instrumentation set up is shown in Fig. 14.
2.3. Field instrumentations
As the excavated soils at the road, parking lot, and tree pit areas
were to be compacted to the initial densities, field density tests
were conducted at every soil layer during soil excavations. The field
density was measured using the sand replacement method in accor-
dance with ASTM D 1556 (2000). In addition to the sand replacement
method, the field density of the root zone and subgrade layers was also
measured from the undisturbed soil sample obtained using Shelby
tube.
During soil excavations, all sensors and data acquisition system
were checked before installation. Each ceramic tip of tensiometer–
transducer system, waveguide of TDR system, and soil temperature
sensor was inserted into a pre-drilled hole of the same size as the sen-
sor diameter. To create a better contact between the sensor and the
soil, each sensor was submerged in soil slurry (Figure 10). In addition,
the pre-drilled hole was drilled at a dip angle of about 10° to allow
soil slurry to be poured into the hole. Once the sensors were installed,
the excavated holes at the road, parking lot, and tree pit areas were
backfilled and compacted to the initial densities using a mechanical
compactor. Schematic diagram of the sensor installations is shown
in Fig. 15.
y = 0.809x + 0.044
R² = 0.998
2 2.5 3 3.5
Fig. 14. Instrumentation set up.
 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36 31

Road Parking lot Tree pit

Elevation (mm)
0
AP AS
S1 P1 W2 T1 T11 W7 P6 S2 S3 P11 W12 T6
-125 SA
BS P2 W3 T2 O1 O5 T12 W8 P7 BS P12 W13 T7 O9
-250
P3 W4 T3 O2 O6 T13 W9 P8 P13 W14 T8 O10
-400 SB SB
RZ
P4 W5 T4 O3 O7 T14 W10 P9 P14 W15 T9 O11
-700
SG SG

P5 W6 T5 O4 O8 T15 W11 P10 P15 W16 T10 O12

-900

Note: AP = asphalt pavement; BS = base material; SB = subbase material; SG = subgrade material; AS = aeration slab; SA =
sand; RZ = root zone; S = thermal conductivity sensor; P = tensiometer; W = TDR system; T = soil temperature sensor; O =
oxygen sensor.

Fig. 15. Side views of sensor installations.

Measurements of pore-water pressures, soil water contents, soil
temperatures, soil oxygen concentrations, and weather conditions
were conducted for 1 year from May 2008 to April 2009. However,
only typical measurement results obtained from December 2008 to
April 2009 are presented in this paper as the selected measurement
period covers wet and dry periods. In addition, daily sensor readings
at 6 pm were selected as most rainfalls occurred in the afternoon.
evaporate water in the evaporation pan. The wind speed at the
instrumented site could reach up to 2.8 m/s. Meanwhile, the air tem-
perature ranged from 22 °C to 36 °C and the relative humidity ranged
from 49.8% to 100%. Typical variations of air temperature and relative
humidity are shown in Fig. 17. Relative humidity decreased with an in-
crease in ambient temperature. Ambient temperatures were relatively
low during rainfall events.

3. Performance of measuring devices 3.2. Tensiometer and thermal conductivity sensors

3.1. Weather station
Daily cumulative rainfall depth and potential evaporation are shown
in Fig. 16. The sensors used to measure weather conditions functioned
well during the monitoring period. High rainfall periods occurred in
December 2008 and late February 2009 to April 2009, while significant
dry period occurred in January 2009. In general, daily cumulative poten-
tial evaporations decreased to lower than 4 mm during days with long
duration rainfall events, such as on 4 and 8 December 2008 and
remained higher than 4 mm during days with short duration rainfall
events. This is related to the amount of solar energy available to
Typical pore-water pressures below the asphalt pavement, aeration
slab, and turf cover are shown in Figs. 18 to 20. One tensiometer–
transducer system installed at an elevation of 250 mm under the asphalt
pavement malfunctioned after the installation. The other tensiometer–
transducer systems appeared to have worked well throughout the
measurement periods. In general, tensiometer–transducer measure-
ment results show that the pore-water pressures in the soil layers
decreased during periods of less rainfall and increased during periods
of more rainfall events. Positive pore-water pressures developed fre-
quently in the middle and upper parts of the soil profile under the
asphalt pavement (Figure 18). Due to its thermal properties, the asphalt

70 8

60
Potential evaporation (mm)

6
50
Rainfall depth (mm)

40
4
30

20 Rainfall 2
Pot. Evaporation
10

0 0
01-12-08 01-01-09 01-02-09 01-03-09 01-04-09
Date
Fig. 16. Rainfall depth and potential evaporation.
32 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36

24 100

18 80

Relative humidity (%)

Rainfall depth (mm)

Air temperature (oC)

Rainfall
12 60
Air temperature
Relative humidity

6 40

0 20
04-12-08 05-12-08 06-12-08 07-12-08 08-12-08 09-12-08
Date
Fig. 17. Typical air temperature and relative humidity variations.

pavement might have induced high thermal gradient to the soil
layers below causing soil water mainly in the SG layer to move
upward. However, the soil water could only accumulate in the mid-
dle and upper parts of the soil profile because the asphalt pavement
was practically impermeable for water flow. This finding is consis-
tent with moisture concentration under pavement observed by
other researchers (e.g., Pufahl and Lytton, 1991). de Bruijn (1965)
observed relatively higher pore-water pressures developed in soil
layers under tarred roads than those under soil surfaces covered by
natural vegetation, tree, grass, and bare gravel surface.
The thermal conductivity sensors installed near the surface covers
registered less than − 1 kPa pore-water pressures. The relatively low
negative pore-water pressures in the soil layers and the highly non-
linear calibration curves lead the measurement results to be beyond
the accuracy of the sensors since the sensors are more suitable for
measurements of highly negative pore-water pressures. Nevertheless,
the low temperature rises of the thermal conductivity sensor measure-
ments confirmed the relatively low negative pore-water pressures
developed near the surface covers as measured by the tensiometer–
transducer system.
3.3. TDR system
Figs. 21 to 23 show typical volumetric water contents of soil layers
below the asphalt pavement, aeration slab, and turf cover. Two wave-
guides of TDR system, i.e., at an elevation of 0.7 m below the aeration
slab and turf cover, were damaged intermittently during the measure-
ment periods and other two waveguides, i.e., at an elevation of 0.9 m
under the aeration slab and turf cover, were completely damaged
during the installations. This might be due to short-circuit caused by
imperfect sealing of buried cable connections that allowed soil water
to enter the connections. The other eleven waveguides appeared to
have functioned well throughout the measurement periods.
In general, the TDR system readings show that volumetric water
contents in the soil layers increased during rainfall periods and
decreased during dry periods. Volumetric water contents of the soil
layers near the ground surface fluctuated greatly as compared to
those of the soil layers below, indicating that moisture exchanges
occurred mainly in the upper parts of soil profiles under all surface
covers. The change in the volumetric water contents of the SA layer
under the aeration slab appeared to be larger than that of the BS

0.0 0.0
AP AS
01-12-08
SA
15-12-08
-0.2
BS

-0.2
BS

01-01-09
15-01-09
Elevation, z (m)

Elevation, z (m)

01-02-09 01-12-08
SB

SB

-0.4 -0.4
15-02-09 15-12-08
01-03-09 01-01-09

-0.6 15-03-09 -0.6 15-01-09

01-04-09 01-02-09
SG

15-02-09
SG

-0.8 -0.8 01-03-09

15-03-09
01-04-09
-1.0 -1.0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 -60 -40 -20 0 20
Pore-water pressure, uw (kPa) Pore-water pressure, uw (kPa)
Note: AP = asphalt pavement; BS = base material; SB = subbase Note: AS = aeration slab; SA = sand; BS = base material; SB =
material; SG = subgrade material. subbase material; SG = subgrade material.

Fig. 18. Pore-water pressures of soil layers below the asphalt pavement. Fig. 19. Pore-water pressures of soil layers below the aeration slab.
 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36 33

0.0 0.0
AS
01-12-08
15-12-08 SA
-0.2 -0.2

BS
01-01-09
15-01-09
Elevation, z (m)

Elevation, z (m)
01-02-09 01-12-08

SB
-0.4 -0.4
15-02-09 15-12-08

RZ
01-03-09 01-01-09
15-03-09
-0.6 -0.6 15-01-09
01-04-09 01-02-09

SG
15-02-09
-0.8 -0.8 01-03-09
15-03-09
01-04-09
-1.0 -1.0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Pore-water pressure, uw (kPa) Volumetric water content, θw
Note: RZ = root zone. Note: AS = aeration slab; SA = sand; BS = base material; SB = subbase
material; SG = subgrade material.
Fig. 20. Pore-water pressures of soil layers below the turf cover.

Fig. 22. Volumetric water contents of soil layers below the aeration slab.

layer just below the asphalt pavement due to the relatively high per-
meability of the SA layer as compared to that of the BS layer (Table 1).
The asphalt pavement was essentially impermeable for water flow
and, therefore, limited redistribution of water in the soil layers
below. Permeability of the SA layer, which was essentially coarse-
grained material, under the aeration slab might have dropped to a
low value, limiting water evaporation in the SB layer underneath dur-
ing dry period (e.g., February 2009). Meanwhile, permeability of the
RZ layer, which was essentially fine-grained material, near the turf
cover might be still relatively high as compared to the permeability
of the SA layer under the aeration slab, allowing more redistribution
of water in the RZ layer at the same elevation as the BS layers under
the asphalt pavement and aeration slab. As a result, the change in
the volumetric water content of the RZ layer at 0.4 m depth was
larger than that of the BS layers beneath the asphalt pavement and
aeration slab. This finding is similar to the field measurement result
presented by Uppal (1965), who observed that water content changes
in the soil layers under road pavement were not as large as those in the
soil layers beneath uncovered surface adjacent to the road pavement.
Under the same rainfall and evaporative fluxes, the volumetric water
content profiles, as well as pore-water pressure profiles, developed
under all surface covers were not only a function of hydraulic proper-
ties of the surface cover but also that of hydraulic properties of each
soil layer.
3.4. Temperature sensors
Typical soil temperatures under the asphalt pavement, aeration slab,
and turf covers are presented in Figs. 24 to 26. All soil temperature sen-
sors appeared to have functioned well throughout the measurement
duration to capture soil temperature variations. The temperature sensor
readings show that soil temperatures near the ground surface fluctuat-
ed highly as compared to the soil temperature at greater depth due to
the ambient temperature fluctuation effect. The magnitude and fluctu-
ation of temperatures in the soil layers below all surface covers were
different from each other, where magnitude and fluctuation of temper-
atures in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement being the highest
while those beneath the turf cover being the lowest. Under the same
thermal loading, the temperature profiles developed under all surface
covers were not only a function of thermal properties of the surface
cover but also a function of thermal properties of each soil layer.

0.0
AP
0.0
BS

-0.2
-0.2
Elevation, z (m)

01-12-08
SB

-0.4
Elevation, z (m)

15-12-08 01-12-08
-0.4
01-01-09 15-12-08
RZ

-0.6 15-01-09 01-01-09

01-02-09
-0.6 15-01-09
SG

15-02-09 01-02-09
-0.8 01-03-09 15-02-09
15-03-09 -0.8 01-03-09
01-04-09
15-03-09
-1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 01-04-09
-1.0
Volumetric water content, θw 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Note: AP = asphalt pavement; BS = base material; SB = subbase Volumetric water content, θw
material; SG = subgrade material. Note: RZ = root zone.

Fig. 21. Volumetric water contents of soil layers below the asphalt pavement. Fig. 23. Volumetric water contents of soil layers below the turf cover.
34 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36

0.0 0.0
AP

-0.2 -0.2

BS

Elevation, z (m)
Elevation, z (m)

01-12-08 01-12-08

SB
-0.4 -0.4
15-12-08 15-12-08

RZ
01-01-09 01-01-09

15-01-09 -0.6 15-01-09

-0.6
01-02-09 01-02-09
15-02-09

SG
15-02-09
-0.8 01-03-09 -0.8 01-03-09

15-03-09 15-03-09

01-04-09 01-04-09
-1.0 -1.0
25 30 35 40 45 25 30 35 40 45
Temperature, t (oC) Temperature, t (oC)
Note: AP = asphalt pavement; BS = base material; SB = subbase material; Note: RZ = root zone.
SG = subgrade material.
Fig. 26. Temperatures of soil layers below the turf cover.

Fig. 24. Temperatures of soil layers below the asphalt pavement.

4. Effects of rainfall and evaporation on pore-water pressure,

3.5. Oxygen concentration sensors
Typical measurement results of relative oxygen concentrations
in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement, aeration slab, and turf
covers are shown in Figs. 27 to 29. All oxygen concentration sensors
appeared to have functioned as expected during the measurement
periods. The oxygen concentration sensor readings show that the ox-
ygen concentrations in the soil layers under turf cover increased
faster than those in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement and
aeration slab. The increase in the oxygen concentrations under the
asphalt pavement and aeration slab mainly occurred in the upper
part of the soil profiles while that under the turf cover could reach a
deeper zone. This is likely due to the effect of water redistribution,
which mainly occurred in the upper parts of the soil profiles. Under
the same ambient oxygen flux, the oxygen concentration profiles
that developed beneath all surface covers were not only a function
of properties of the surface cover but also that of properties of each
soil layer in transmitting oxygen.
water content, temperature, and oxygen concentration
Water transfer across atmosphere–soil boundary occurs through
rainwater infiltration and water favor flow during evaporation or
evapotranspiration. Soil temperature generally decreases during rain-
fall event and increases in the event without rainfall. Meanwhile,
oxygen diffusion through the pore air decreases when the soil water
content increases and vice versa. Pore-water pressures, water con-
tents, temperatures, and oxygen concentrations of soil layers under
the asphalt pavement, aeration slab, and turf surface covers can,
therefore, be related to rainfall and evaporation processes, although
water interception and uptake and oxygen consumption by the turf
growing on the aeration slab and turf covers were not accounted in
this study.
There were frequent rainfall events during December 2008
(Figure 16). Rainwater infiltration during this period caused the
pore-water pressures and volumetric water contents in the soil layers
registered by the sensors on 01-12-08, 15-12-08, and 01-01-09 to
have relatively high values (Figures 18 to 23). Due to limited solar

0.0 0.0
AS AP

SA
-0.2
BS

-0.2
BS

Elevation, z (m)
Elevation, z (m)

01-12-08 01-12-08
SB
SB

-0.4 -0.4
15-12-08 15-12-08

01-01-09 01-01-09

15-01-09 -0.6 15-01-09

-0.6
01-02-09 01-02-09
15-02-09
SG
SG

15-02-09
-0.8 01-03-09 -0.8 01-03-09

15-03-09 15-03-09

01-04-09 01-04-09
-1.0 -1.0
25 30 35 40 45 0 6 12 18 24
Temperature, t (oC) Relative O2 concentration, C (%)
Note: AS = aeration slab; SA = sand; BS = base material; SB = subbase Note: AP = asphalt pavement; BS = base material; SB = subbase material;
material; SG = subgrade material. SG = subgrade material.

Fig. 25. Temperatures of soil layers below the aeration slab. Fig. 27. Relative oxygen concentrations of soil layers below the asphalt pavement.
 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36 35

0.0
AS the soil layers under the turf cover remained low, most likely due to
heat absorption by the turf cover (Figure 26). Oxygen concentration
SA
in the BS layer beneath the aeration slab layer started to increase
-0.2

BS
(Figure 28), even though the increase was not as much as the increase
of oxygen concentration in the BS layer under the asphalt pavement
Elevation, z (m)

01-12-08 (Figure 27). The increase in the oxygen concentrations in the soil

SB
-0.4
15-12-08 layers below the asphalt pavement and aeration slab (Figures 27
01-01-09
and 28), as well as under the turf cover (Figure 29), continued until
mid of February 2009, when evaporation was still more dominant
-0.6 15-01-09
than rainfall. The increase in the oxygen concentrations was due to
01-02-09
increased pore-air, which was indicated by the decrease in volumetric

-0.8
-1.0
0 6 12 18
Relative O2 concentration, C (%)
Note: AS = aeration slab; SA = sand; BS = base material; SB = subbase
material; SG = subgrade material.
Fig. 28. Relative oxygen concentrations of soil layers below the aeration slab.
radiation during rainfall events, the soil temperatures tended to be
relatively low (Figures 24 to 26). High soil water content reduced vol-
ume of soil pores occupied by air and created a barrier for oxygen
diffusion from the atmosphere to the soil pores. As a result, oxygen
concentrations in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement and aer-
ation slab were relatively low (Figures 27 and 28). In other cases,
oxygen concentration in the soil layers near the turf cover started to
increase noticeably on 01-01-09 as the rainfall events decreased at
the end of December 2008 causing the soils to be relatively drier
(Figure 29). This is supported by the slight shifting of volumetric
water content profile near the ground surface to the left (Figure 23).
Number of rainfall events decreased significantly in January 2009.
The pore-water pressures and volumetric water contents in soil layers
under the asphalt pavement, aeration slab, and turf covers decreased
significantly as registered by the sensors on 15-01-09 (Figures 18
to 23). In this period, water vapor transfers from the soil layers to
the atmosphere were dominant as evaporation exceeded rainfall.
Temperatures in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement and aera-
tion slab increased significantly (Figures 24 and 25), while those in
0.0
-0.2
Elevation, z (m)
SG
15-02-09
water contents of the soil layers down to a 0.4 m depth (Figures 21
01-03-09
to 23).
15-03-09
Frequent rainfall events re-occurred at the end of February 2009,
01-04-09
causing the pore-water pressures and volumetric water contents in
24 the soil layers under all the surface covers to increase, as shown by
the profiles on 01-03-09 (Figures 18 to 23). As more rainwater infil-
trated, soil temperatures and oxygen concentration profiles shifted
to the left (Figures 24 to 29). The decrease in oxygen concentration
due to increase in soil water content following rainfall events was
also reported by several researchers (e.g., Patrick, 1977; Sierra and
Renault, 1998). The rainfall events from late February 2009 to mid
March 2009, in general, kept the pore-water pressures and volumet-
ric water contents of soil layers to be relatively high (Figures 19
to 23), while the soil temperature and oxygen concentration to be rel-
atively low (Figures 24 to 29) on 15-03-09. The pore-water pressure
profile of the soil layers under the asphalt pavement, however, indi-
cates decreased pore-water pressures in the upper part of the profile
(Figure 18). This may be due to flushing of the tensiometers a few
hours before the reading was taken and the pore-water pressures
in the tensiometers had not equilibrated with the soil layers. As rain-
fall events decreased by late March 2009, the pore-water pressures
and volumetric water contents of soil layers tended to decrease
(Figures 18 to 23), while the soil temperatures and oxygen concentra-
tions tended to increase (Figures 24 to 29).
5. Summary
Field monitoring of pore-water pressures, volumetric water con-
tents, temperatures, and relative oxygen concentrations of unsaturat-
ed soil layers under asphalt pavement, aeration slab, and turf cover
at an open space car park are described in this paper. Measurements
of weather conditions were conducted to complement the measure-
ments below the ground surface. Positive pore-water pressures
were found to develop frequently in the soil layers under the asphalt
pavement. Volumetric water contents of the soil layers near the
ground surface were found to fluctuate highly as compared to those
of the soil layers below, indicating that water transfer occurred
mainly in the upper parts of soil profiles under all surface covers.
Soil temperatures near the ground surface were found to fluctuate
highly as compared to the soil temperature at greater depth due to

01-12-08
-0.4 the ambient temperature fluctuation effect. The magnitude and fluc-
15-12-08
tuation of temperatures in the soil layers under the asphalt pavement
RZ

01-01-09
were the highest while those beneath the turf cover were the lowest.
-0.6 15-01-09
The oxygen concentrations in the soil layers under the turf cover were
01-02-09
found to increase faster than those in the soil layers under the asphalt
15-02-09 pavement and aeration slab.
-0.8 01-03-09 A few sensors were damaged during installation and measure-
15-03-09 ment. However, consistent development of pore-water pressures,
01-04-09 volumetric water contents, temperatures, and relative oxygen con-
-1.0 centrations indicates that tensiometer–transducer and TDR systems,
0 6 12 18 24
and temperature and relative oxygen concentration sensors used in
Relative O2 concentration, C (%)
this study provided useful measurement data that can be used to
Note: RZ = root zone.
study water, heat, and gas transfers in unsaturated soils through var-
Fig. 29. Relative oxygen concentrations of soil layers below the turf cover. ious surface covers.
36 I.G.B. Indrawan et al. / Engineering Geology 151 (2012) 24–36
Acknowledgments
The research project was supported by the National Parks Board.
The assistance of Mr. Fakhrur Rozy Harnas and Mr. Andhika Sahadewa
in the field instrumentations and Mr. Heng Hiang Kim and Mr. Tan
Hiap Guan in Geotechnics Laboratory of NTU in the preparation
works is gratefully acknowledged. Critical reviews provided by anon-
ymous reviewers are highly appreciated.
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