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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

An article by Friess (2013) in USA Today stated that the on the

writing tests by The National Commission conducted to students, only

one out of four students were ranked as “proficient.” In fact, college

administrators say that schools spend so much money in conduct of

writing remedial courses. About 17% of college freshmen require these

remedial writing classes. These often results to corporate leaders

complain about the poor writing skills of many graduates. Moreover,

Masangya and Lozada (2009) conducted a research on high school

students in Southern Luzon. They research on the relationship between

language exposure and errors in English Essays. The findings of their

research leads to the conclusion that there is much to be regarded with

the writing skills of high school English learners in the Philippines. The

results manifested that as language learners expose themselves on other

mediums of language (media, literature and technology) and active

participation from teachers, parents as well as peers will help them in

sentence formation and standard structure thus lessening errors on their

written works.

Motivation provides learners with an aim and direction to follow.

Therefore, it has a key role in language learning. Due to the lack of

enough motivation, some difficulties may happen for learners (Alizadeh,

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2016). Without desire to learn, it is very difficult for learners to gain

effective learning. As Huitt (2011) stated that paying attention to the

importance of language will help learners improve their motivation to

learn even if they do not have enough intrinsic motivation. It can be

stated that teachers should be aware of significance of motivation in

learners’ language learning and through some changes they can help

learners increase their motivation. Al-Otaibi (2014) declared that

motivated learners spend much of their time to gain aims in learning

foreign language and motivated learners can also learn language more

effectively than unmotivated ones.

Lucas (2010) said that learners are intrinsically motivated to learn

speaking, writing and reading skills and are also intrinsically motivated

through knowledge and achievement. According to Guthrie (2017),

intrinsic motivation has a significant impact not only on reading

comprehension but on the other aspects of such as writing. Tercanlioglu

(2011) stated that Turkish learners have positive attitudes towards

writing because they write both for intrinsic and extrinsic motives.

Writing skills indeed is a very difficult ability to master. It requires

vast knowledge of words, vocabulary and even on punctuation usage. Its

importance should be given emphasis on the teaching and learning of

English as Second Language. Though plenty of research papers are

written in relation to writing skills, the researchers have not yet come

across a paper that correlates language motivation and writing skills in

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the locality especially after the pandemic. With the previously stated

reasons, the researchers are highly motivated to seek the level of writing

skills of Academic Track Students.

Statement of the Problem

The main goal of the study is to determine a significant

relationship between the level of language motivation and writing skills

among Academic Track Learners. More specifically, it seeks to answer

the following questions:

1. What is the level of language motivation among academic track

learners in terms of:

1.1 integrative motivation; and

1.2 instrumental motivation?

2. What is the level of writing skills among Academic Track

Learners in terms of:

2.1 Diction;

2.2 Grammar;

2.3 Spelling; and

2.4 punctuation?

3. Is there a significant relationship between the level of language

motivation and level of writing skills among academic track

learners?
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Hypothesis of the Study

The study will test the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance

which states that there is no significant relationship between level of

language motivation and level of writing skills among academic track

students.

Theoretical Framework

The study is anchored in the viewpoint of Lam and Law (2007)

which stated that students’ motivation contributes to the improvement of

students’ writing proficiency. Similarly, Mo (2012) found that students’

problems in English writing can be overcome by boosting students’

motivation in attending writing classes focusing on writing practices. In

the same way, LaSalle (2015) found that intrinsic motivation cultivated

in the academic writing class supported the development of students’

ability in writing a five-paragraph essay.

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study showing the

independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is

language motivation, and the dependent variable is writing skills.

The independent variable, language motivation, has the following

indicators: instrumental and integrative motivation. Integrative

motivation is defined as the desire to be a part of recognized or important

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members of the community or that society that speak the second

language. Integrative

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

WRITING SKILLS
LANGUAGE MOTIVATION Diction

Instrumental Motivation Grammar

Integrative Motivation Spelling

Punctuation

Fig. 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

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motivation involves the concepts of purely practical value in learning the

second language in order to increase learners’ careers or business

opportunities, giving them more prestige and power, accessing scientific

and technical information, or just passing a course of their study in

school.

The dependent variable, writing skills, has the following indicators:

diction, grammar, punctuation and spelling. First, diction to the

linguistic choices a writer makes to effectively convey an idea, a point of

view, or tell a story. Second, grammar is rules of a language governing

words, sentences, and other elements, as well as their combination and

interpretation. Third, punctuation is the marks, such as period, comma,

and parentheses, used in writing to separate sentences and their

elements and to clarify meaning. Lastly, spelling is the forming of words

from letters according to accepted usage.

Significance of the Study

The results of the study are deemed beneficial to the following:

Administrators. The result of the study will aid administrators in

planning and crafting seminar, workshops and trainings for teachers for

them to be aware of different strategies of motivating language learners

to be proficient in writing.

Teachers. The result of the study will inform teachers about the

level of language motivation and writing skills among their students.

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With this, they will be aided in choosing the appropriate strategies in

motivating students and teaching writing.

Students. The results of the study will inform students about their

level of writing skills. With this, they may find ways to improve their

proficiency in writing.

Scope and Delimitations

This study will use quantitative descriptive-correlation as research

design which aims to determine a significant relationship between the

level of language motivation and writing skills. This shall involve 150

Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS) and General Academic Strand

(GAS) students of Cateel Vocational High School, Cateel, Davao Oriental.

To gather data, two adapted survey questionnaires will be used. Lastly,

this shall be conducted from September 2022 to January 2023.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined operationally to have the same

manner of references:

Language Motivation. This refers to instrumental and integrative

motivation. This is also the independent variable of the study.

Writing skills. This refers to diction, grammar, punctuation, and

spelling. This is also the dependent variable of the study.

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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents discussions about the study which are taken

from various sources such as books, journals, online journals, and news

articles. Further, this section presents the discussion on the independent

variable, free voluntary reading, dependent variable, writing skills, and

correlation between measures.

Free Voluntary Reading

The main proponent of Free Voluntary Reading is a professor

emeritus of education of University of Southern California and is an

internationally renowned researcher and author, Dr. Stephen D.

Krashen. In his book, The Power of Reading, he had concluded that

reading is a very effective way for learners of a language to acquire

literacy skills in context Furthermore, he had emphasized that the term

Free Voluntary Reading or FVR needs to be “free” and “voluntary” (2004).

Moreover, he suggested that parents and teachers must provide access to

non-fictions and light reading which includes novels or books, magazines

and comics.

Krashen further suggested that teachers and parents need not just

set a conducive environment but also they need to set a comfortable time

or schedule for reading. They also need to be involved in the reading or

FVR process, thus, reading needs to be an activity for the family and
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classroom. In addition, he emphasized that reading has major effects on

the writing skills of an individual. He concluded that a learner does not

acquire the skills in writing by writing, but by reading.

As cited by Hughes-Hassell, and Rodge (2007), Krashen notes that

free voluntary reading alone is not a guarantee to reach the highest levels

of literacy among learners, but it will at least ensure an acceptable level.

According to Moyer (2005, 2007), leisure reading is a term synonymous

to fiction reading, pleasure reading, recreational reading. Moreover,

Hughes-Hassel and Rodge (2007) notes that it is also the same with

voluntary reading, independent reading, and reading outside of school

and self-selected reading. With this, there are lot of authors who have

cited various definitions of free voluntary reading under different terms.

Mellon (1990, as cited by Hughes-Hassel and Rodge, 2007) defines

leisure reading as the type of reading in which students choose a reading

material on their own, as an opposition to a reading that is given to

them.

One of the many authors that gave a detailed description of free

voluntary reading is Jessice E. Moyer. According to her, leisure reading is

any reading that is done outside of work or school, or it is any reading

that is considered as a hobby (2007). Furthermore, she emphasized that

it is the reading or listening of any reading material. The reader must

also have control over text choice and considered reading as a part of

his/her hobby.
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Moyer (2007) added further that readers who indulge themselves in free

voluntary reading chooses a variety of reading materials. These are

fiction, nonfiction, graphic novels, comic books, newspapers, magazines,

and online reading. If an individual opt to listen to a text, he/she can

choose to listen to audiobooks or any type of reading aloud, whether

verbally read by parents to children, one adult reading to his/her peer,

or a professional narrator reading an audiobook to a listener. Thus, free

voluntary reading is not just limited to silent reading, but also to reading

aloud as well.

Lisa Kragh (2008) also gave definitions of free voluntary reading.

She pointed out that is reading pleasure. It is also reading at or just

below a learner’s level or English, and also reading at an individual’s

chosen pace and time. In addition, she also listed down the advantages

of free voluntary reading. She stated that FVR improves reading

comprehension, fluency, grammar, writing and spelling, self-confidence,

vocabulary and learners learn other things while reading.

Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) have also a very comprehensive

definition of free voluntary reading in which they have stated in their

study of urban adolescents. They have counted anything which students

are reading, whether on a printed page or on a screen. This means, that

they have included the leisure time activities in which 21st century

learners teenagers regularly engaged.

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Through the theories posed by the abovementioned authors, many

researches have arisen, mostly correlational in nature. Stephen Krashen

conducted most of his studies in schools where a there is Sustained

Silent Reading (SSR). In SSR, students are given a time to do leisure

reading, and learners are free to read whatever they like and are not

tested on what they read (Krashen, 2009). His findings show that SSR

students excel in reading comprehension (Krashen, 2001). He further

added that students under the SSR do better in writing (Krashen 2004;

Hsu and Lee, 2007), spelling, vocabulary, and grammar (Krashen, 2004)

Just like Krashen, many authors have also students who undergo SSR.

They have found out that students under it are better in writing fluency

(Mason, 2007; Smith, K. 2007), and grammar (Rodrigo, 2006; Mason,

2007).

Many results of correlation researches are also consistent with the

results of SSR studies. Lee, SY (2004) stated that those who read more

write better. It was also found out that those who read more have better

vocabularies (Cho, Park and Krashen, 2008). Those who read more get

better grades in writing class (Lee, SY and Krashen, 2002). Moreover,

those who read more have less writing apprehension (Lee, SY 2001). And

lastly, those who read more suffer less from writer’s block (Lee, SY 2001,

2004).

Reading Aloud. According to Moyer (2007), reading aloud is one of

the indicators of free voluntary reading. In her description, reading aloud

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is about listening comprehension. The reader maybe a part of a book

group since he/she has the free will to choose to be in a specific group.

Furthermore, Long (2003) states that members of a book group also have

the option to what type of text they are going to read, and has the choice

to participate in a meeting and also the discussion.

Sample (2011) cited that reading aloud or reading out loud can be

traced back to history wherein a leader of a specific culture reads sacred,

scriptures and presumes to be intellectually and spiritually superior

exulting and professing before his/her people. This explains why readers

of a certain passage uses dramatic voice in reading aloud to class. He

added that oral reading by a teacher or by students who have rehearsed

ahead of time is a very simple activity that contribute to the motivation of

students. Students of all ages seem to enjoy listening to a good literature

if presented skillfully.

Although only few researches emerged about the older children’s

practices in reading aloud, studies conclude that its effects are highly

beneficial to middle school students. Few of which are students'

accessibility to texts, motivation, engagement in learning, positive

attitudes toward reading, background knowledge in content areas, and

fluency. (Ariail and Albright, 2006).

Many authors and researchers list down the importance of reading

aloud to learners of all ages. Derry Koralek (2003) stated that reading

aloud introduces written texts as sources of pleasant, exciting and

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valuable experiences. When children value books, they will be motivated

to read. Furthermore, it also gives children enough schema which helps

them makes sense of what they hear, see and read. The more adult read

aloud, the greater effect it will have in the vocabularies of young learner

(Beck, McKeown, and Kucan, 20020; De Temple and Snow, 2003;

Brabham and Lynch-Brown, 2002; Sharif, Ozuah, Dinkevich and

Mulvhill, 2003). Similarly, reading aloud to children can also increase

their listening comprehension skills (Morrow and Gambrell, 2002).

Likewise, when children see the reader being excited and motivated to

read, the reader will also catch their enthusiasm. In addition, reading

aloud makes children imaginative, it will let them meet different type of

people, travel to places, time and event beyond their own experiences. In

the same vein, because of reading aloud, the reader and the listener have

something to talk about. Lastly, reading aloud is simply fun (Koralek

2003; Reading is Fundamental, 2010) and it stimulates the interest and

sheer enjoyment of reading different types of literature and books (Van

der Pol, 2010)

Kwant (2011, as cited by EU Read, 2013) also pointed out that

reading aloud has a direct effect on the self-confidence of the listener. It

also strengthens the bond between the adult reading the story, and the

child listening to it. Moreover, the research of Van Peperstraten (2011, as

cited by EU Read, 2013) shows that children who read regularly are
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better at self-reflection. Reading aloud contributes to the shaping of

attitudes of a reader (EU Read, 2013).

Dena Crook (2010) also cited that reading aloud has benefits on

the oral language, print concept awareness and comprehension of young

learners.

Due to the positive effects of reading aloud to language learners, it

is of the essence to maximize its effectiveness (Lane and Wright, 2007).

To make it effective as possible, it is important to set a valuable amount

of time in reading aloud; it is also important to consider the quality of

books for the activity; the method of reading aloud should be taken into

account; lastly, the reader must make sure that the reading materials fit

the curriculum (Teale, 2003).

Many authors as well suggested on how to read aloud to children.

Reading is Fundamental or RIF (2007) recommends readers to read

slowly and must incorporate different expressions (Crook, 2010; Koralek

2003). It is wise to use modulate voice for different characters in the

story. Furthermore, it also help to point pictures in the reading materials

and let the listeners describe it. Also, ask the learners questions about

the story, and if they have questions, take time to answer it. In addition,

RIF suggested to readers to use variety of reading materials, though

repeating old favorites is helpful, it is also useful to try new books. In the

same vein, sharing books you enjoy reading also contributes to the

reading achievement of children (Crook, 2010). Koralek (2003) also

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recommends that every after reading there must be a follow up activities

such as art projects and stage plays.

The school is a good avenue for young learners to be engaged in

reading, especially if they are read aloud. Sample (2011) emphasized that

students will show more interest to books if teachers regularly read it

aloud to them. His research show that after the teacher had read aloud a

book, students who do not read much asks to have a copy for them to

read it silently on their own. Some educational institutions have parents

as volunteers to share a book over a specified span of time. This shows

that the community also enjoy reading and it creates opportunity for the

parent to demonstrate the value he/she places on reading. Learners of

this program have the freewill to join which group they are going to

attend to, the teacher’s or the parent’s

Silent Reading. Taylor (2002) points out that silent reading is the

skill to read with attention and concentration, ease and comfort, at

sufficient reading rate and with accurate comprehension. In the same

vein, Moyer (2007) states that it is the opposite of reading aloud because

it does not involve listening comprehension rather direct comprehension

in written text. Trelease (1995, as cited by Gardiner, 2001) even stated

that silent reading is the natural partner of reading out loud. According

to Yoon (2002) the original purpose of silent reading is to foster the love

for reading.
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Silent reading is known to be well-developed in school, especially in

programs called Sustained Silent Reading (SSR). Byran, Fawson and

Reutzel (2003) state that sustained silent reading is a period of

undisturbed silent reading. They added that this SSR is a form of school-

based reading for pleasure, where learners read silently in a given time

every day in school. Likewise, according to Gardiner (2001), sustained

silent reading programs is synonymous to free voluntary reading (FVR),

drop everything and read (DEAR), daily independent reading time (DIRT),

uninterrupted sustained silent reading (USSR), sustained silent reading

and writing (SSRW) and providing opportunities with everyday reading

(POWER). In his definition, students should read silently every day; they

also have the freedom to choose their own book, have undisturbed time

to read and can opt not to finish a certain book. They also have the

freedom not to take a test in connection to the book that they have read.

Stephen Krashen (2004) is one of the known researchers who have

conducted various studies in regards with the implementation of

sustained silent reading in schools. He stated that overall, sustained

silent reading is successful when correlated to language development.

His findings show that 51 out of 54 sustained silent readers are good at

reading comprehension. He was also able to conclude that there is a

positive correlation between silent reading and writing, writing fluency,

spelling, vocabulary and grammar.

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In a study conducted by Dwyer and West (1994, as cited by

Gardiner, 2001) on 76 college students, silent reading programs can

improve reading speed as well. Though the level of comprehension is

approximately the same, their reading rate increased 348 words per

minute from 210 wpm.

In contrast to the abovementioned positive results of silent reading

programs, there are also several researches that studied the non-

engagement of some learners in these programs. In a research conducted

by Byran, Fawson, and Reutzel (2003), eleven out of 24 students involved

in the study were considered to be unengaged with the program, while

three of the respondents are considered highly engaged and were happy

of the reading program. Fake reading is also rampant in silent reading

programs in a study conducted by Cipiti (2010). It was reported that 77%

of the students commit fake reading. Likewise, Marshall (2002) found out

in his research that majority of students enrolled in silent reading

programs were not reading at all.

Even in the study of Lee-Daniels and Murray (2000) have

concluded that some learners were just scanning the books and not

reading it. Others were bored and some cannot even comprehend what

they are reading. In a different research, some students were just holding

books and just chit chatting on what they are going to this on the next

weekend (Stahl, 2004).

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Stephen Krashen (2011) concluded that students who are in silent

reading programs are unengaged with reading because books provided

are too hard, little access, and has fear of evaluation. Moreover, readers

are also too young or too early in the school year. Lastly, there may also

be rigid conditions, distractions and books are not interesting.

Writing Skills

Communication skills compose of speaking, writing, listening and

reading. And the most exciting is writing. Writing is a process of

rewriting, rewriting and rewriting (Kent, 2003). According to Salazar (as

cited by Labarda 2002), writing requires a careful thought and thorough

planning. Hence, students need to learn and practice the processes

involve in writing. This includes mastery grammar, word usage and

proper application of punctuations. In like manner, La Pensee (2005) (as

cited by Tarzo, 2006) stated that writing provides records of events, thus

it is considered as an expanded communication and preserved the

culture of individuals.

In a survey conducted by the academic staff of the University of

Essex (2008), they have found out that writing skills and reasoning are

indicators of success in higher education students. They have also asked

on which skills students have difficulty, and concluded that writing is on

the top of the list. This survey is also backed up by another survey

conducted by Hanses (2002, as cited by Tarzo 2006) in which he

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concluded that majority of college instructors prove that writing is a

ticket to academic success. Furthermore, his research explains that

writing skills can lead to greater grades in college and leads to academic

mastery. A research of Jose (2002) had also inferred that the number of

years that students spend on education is not correlated on their skills

on writing. Jose added even students from colleges and universities write

incomprehensibly. Because writing is a very difficult activity for students,

teachers should give emphasis on the teaching of grammar that are

important for the day to day communication of students (Chin 2002, as

cited by Tarzo 2006).

Kent (2003) also stated that even professionals cannot write

perfect, flawless articles on the first go-through. They seem to have

problems going back through drafts several times before arriving to the

right one. In fact, most writers go through their draft at least three time

before they are contented on what they written.

On the same vein, Burke (2004) emphasizes that writing plays a

very important role in an individual’s life and careers. Furthermore, he

had concluded that writing is an interactive process that grows from the

interplay among the writer, text, activities in the classroom, and

awareness of audience. While making the blueprints of writing, the

author is constrained to consider its readers and to adopt a reader

oriented approach, in order to achieve an output of persuasion and

emotions
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Myles (2002) on the other hand noted that writing in the academe

requires strenuous efforts and much practice in composing, developing

and analyzing concepts. Students’ writing in the second language are

faced with challenges socially and cognitively in line with the acquisition

of the second language. Even inspired writing or literary writing ignites

the flame for imagination, taking the reader to a world of much intellect

and power of thought (La Pensee, 2005 as cited by Tarzo, 2006)

Jose (2002) stated that students that are weak in writing, novice

writers, adopt different strategies as opposed to those who are very good

in writing or expert writers. The result of his research can lead teachers

or instructors to construct activities that can help novice writers

overcome their weakness in writing. Novice writers tend to not plan very

well in constructing paragraphs and essays.

Based on the research of Kellog (2008), writing skills usually

develop over a course of more than two decades as a child grew and

learns the skill of composition through late adolescence and into early

adulthood.

Kent (2003) had mentioned five indicators that individual’s writing

process is flawed. Firstly, the writer considers composing sentences and

paragraphs as a struggle – nothing comes out easily and they don’t enjoy

writing at all. Secondly, the writer often goes back and reorganize their

work again and again. Thirdly, other people wants to change what you’ve

written. Fourthly, you caught several embarrassing mistakes in spelling,

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word usage, grammar and mechanics. Lastly, it takes the writer so much

time to write.

Because of the several problems of students, professionals or mere

individuals when it comes to composition, Kent (2003) had suggested

some helpful strategies to write effectively. First, write faster and better.

In order for someone to write with agility, he or she can prepare an

outline so that the writer is guided on where he or she is going. The

writer should write, then edit. It is better to write everything first, then go

back later to edit. There should also be write, revise and edit. Also, the

writer must at least give a day or two between rewrites and he or she can

read out loud, it is a great way of telling if the article that is written is

conversational or not. Second, the writer should design a hierarchy.

Writers should avoid heading within a section – always have two or more

headings. In addition, avoid having one heading follow another without

any intervening text. And, don’t skip levels. Third, writers should

paragraph frequently. It visually organizes the thoughts and information

together. When there is another topic, the writer must move it to the next

paragraph. Fourth, writers must use informative headings. Headings tell

readers about the information that follows. Writers should use topical

heading, keep it short, avoid numbering headings, and capitalize

appropriately. Lastly, writers must undergo review of their written work.

Diction. According to The Writing Center (2012) writing is a series

of choice. As a writer works on a paper, he is met with the choice of

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topic, approach, sources, and even thesis. And when it is time to write,

the writer must choose the words to deliberately express the thoughts

and concepts. Furthermore, the writer must then decide on how to

arrange these words into sentences and paragraphs. And even in

revisions, the writer also make choices.

It is also with the choice of words that determines whether or not

the readers understand the message of a certain written work or not as

stated by Wingersky, Boerner and Holguin-Balogh (2009). Furthermore,

they noted that there could be a huge distraction of the part of the reader

if the author has poor choice of words on his articles. On the same vein,

Trimble (2000) emphasized that through respect of words, good writing

sprouts. A writer must know the words’ connotation and denotation

meaning, their force and their rhythm. Once the learner respects them,

they will develop a love and passion for using them effectively.

According to Winkler and Metherell (2012), in word choices or

diction, bigger words are often not better. An author must never think of

using words just because it sounds big. It is better if the author

considers exactness, appropriateness and accuracy of these words.

In the same vein, Quinn and Filak (2005) stated that the word

choice and proper ordering or organizing of these words are strong

indicators of an effective writing skills. Accuracy of these words are the

first rule for word choice, this means that words are always right. Next
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rule is that the word must be appropriate on the context which where

they are used.

Krizan, Merrier, Logan and Williams (2011) had written six

principles of words choice. First, the writer must choose words that are

easy to comprehend or understand. Second, avoid using vague words, as

much as possible use specific and precise words. Third, choose words

that have strong impact on the reader. Fourth, avoid using overused

words; the author must build up a vast vocabulary knowledge. Lastly,

avoid words that are obsolete.

Myers and Charles (2003) noted that diction has four levels.

Firstly, formal in serious discourse. Secondly, the opposite of formal

which is informal, as in relaxed but polite conversation. Next, is

colloquial, as in everyday usage. Lastly, slang, as in impolite and uses

neologism or newly coined words.

The Writing Center (2012) also suggested strategies on how to

effectively use words. They have stated that learners must avoid

awkward, vague and unclear word choice. This is also connected with the

problem of clarity. Learners seem to use words that doesn’t actually

mean what the writer thinks it does. Furthermore, they even use words

with unwanted connotations or meanings, use pronouns when readers

can’t tell whom/what it refers. Some even use jargons or technical terms

just to sound smart. The learners must also avoid wordiness that result

to putting words in a sentence or paragraph which are extra or

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unnecessary. It is also wise to limit the use of clichés in academic

writing. These are words that are commonly and widely used that they

evolve into being corny, trite and even annoying. They are deemed

problematic because of its over usage; its impact has diminished.

In a rubric created by Arizona Department of Education (2010),

they have specified a writing with a very good word choice if the words

convey the intended message of the author. The words chosen must be

interesting, precise and natural to the audience as well as to its purpose.

There should be a rich, broad, range of words which brings impact to the

totality of the written output.

A good writing with a good word choice is characterized by

accurate, strong, specific words. With this powerful words, it energizes

the write ups of learners. Furthermore, it should be fresh and has

original expression. If the learner uses slang, it should be purposeful and

very effective. In addition, the vocabulary must be striking and varied but

that is natural and not overdone. Moreover, ordinary words must be

used in an unusual way. Lastly, words that evoke strong images must be

used. As much as possible figurative language must be utilized.

Kevin Winchester (2008) also stated that use of connotative and

denotative meaning of words that can improve a learner’s writing ability.

Denotation is the dictionary meaning of the word, while connotation is

what the word implies or suggest.

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Grammar. According to Crystal (2004), grammar is the structural

foundation of our ability to voice out ourselves to others. The more we

know how it works, the more we will know its meaning and effectiveness

of the way we and others use language.

Several dictionaries have also given different meanings of

grammar. According to Oxford Dictionaries (2015), it is the way in which

words are arranged together to form sentences that has meaning and

comprehensible. It has three levels. The word level which is divided into

the parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,

conjunction, determiner and interjection. Next is the sentences, clauses

and phrases. Lastly, the types of sentences: the simple, compound,

complex, and compound-complex. In the Cambridge Dictionaries (2015),

it is the study of rules about how words change their forms and combine

with other words to form sentences. In the same vein, The American

Heritage Dictionary (2011) define grammar as a study of structural

relationship in linguistics. It includes pronunciation, meaning and

linguistic history. In the same manner, according to Schleppegrell (2007)

grammar is a theory about how a language forms construe meanings of

different kinds.

Nordquist (2015) had compiled researches of different authors that

focused on different types of grammar. He listed ten varieties of grammar

– comparative, generative, mental, pedagogical, performance, reference,

theoretical, traditional, transformational and universal grammar.

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Comparative grammar is the analysis and comparison of different

grammatical structures related to language (Freidin, 1991, as cited by

Nordquist, 2015). Generative grammar, on the other hand, is a theory of

competence. This is a variety of grammar that makes the speaker utter

words unconsciously (Parker and Riley, 1994, as cited by Nordquist,

2015). Likewise, mental grammar, according to Culicover and Nowak

(2003), is a grammar formulated by a linguist. Another variety is

pedagogical grammar which is denoted as a pedagogical process, content

references sources, and combinations of process and content (Little,

1994, as cited by Nordquist, 2015). In addition, performance grammar is

the usage of words in English into context or dialogues (Caroll, 1985 as

cited by Nordquist, 2015). Furthermore, The Cambridge Grammar of the

English Language (2002) defines reference grammar as the explanations

of principles concerning the formation of words, phrases, clauses and

sentences. Moreover, Renouf and Kehoe (2003), defines theoretical

grammar as the field that is concerned with providing scientific

arguments or explanations in support of one account of grammar than

another.

Traditional grammar, on the other hand, is the usage of pre-

established standard by people who uses a specific language (Williams,

2005). Additionally, in transformational grammar, the term ‘rule’ is used

not to precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that

is unconsciously yet regularly followed in the production and

 27

interpretation of sentences (Nordquist, 2015). Lastly, Crain and Thornton

(2000) defines universal grammar as the theory of the organization of the

initial state of the mind/brain of the language learner.

Spelling. According to Norquist (2015), spelling is the choice of

arrangement of letters that forms words. Specifically, Trask (2006)

describes the English spelling as complex, irregular and eccentric.

Horobin (2013) explains the reason of the unpredictability of English

spelling. According to him, its vocabulary has many words from other

languages, which have been adopted with their original spellings intact.

Old English had already been using and borrowing words from other

language due to invasions of nations such as the Dutch and Latin before

the Norman invasion (Harper 2010).

According to Crystal (2006), there is no necessary link between

reading and spelling: there are many people who have no difficulty in

reading, but who have a major persistent handicap in spelling this may

be as many as 2% of the population. There seems moreover to be a

neuro-anatomical basis for the distinction, for there are brain-damaged

adults who can read but not spell, vice versa.

Spelling instruction in the previous educational system was not

given much emphasis (Apel and Masterson, 2001). However, according to

Graham, Harris and Chorzempa (2002), the teaching of spelling is

essential in education today.

 28

In general, spelling has been taught through rote teaching and

memorization of a weekly spelling list, with little stress on the

importance of teaching pattern (Apel, Masterson, and Hart 2004).

However, current studies concentrates on developing spelling through

understanding of how spelling develop (Bear et. al 2004).

Punctuation. According to the Grammarly Handbook (2013), the

mechanics of writing are the boring parts, the most obvious aspects of

writing. This consists of spelling and capitalization. It plays two parts of

the writing process: they help in communication, and they show how

much effort someone put into his or her writing. The reader depends on

small things like italics to identify the title of a book or a foreign word.

Mechanics is also seek to understand punctuation marks as units

affecting grammar and meaning (Schall, n.d.). According to Skills You

Need (2015), punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a

reader to show how a sentence is constructed and how it should be read.

They further listed the eleven basic signs of punctuation: the comma, full

stop, exclamation mark, question mark, semi colon, colon, apostrophe,

quotation marks, hyphen, brackets and the slash.

The comma is useful in a sentence when the author wishes to

pause before proceeding, add a phrase that does not contain any new

subject, separate items on a list and use more than one adjective. Full

stops, on the other hand, should always be used to end a sentence. The

full stop indicates that a point has been made and that you are about to
 29

move on to further explanations or a related point. Furthermore,

exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as

fear, anger or love. It is also used to accentuate feeling within the written

spoken word. In addition, question marks simply indicates that a

sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the end of the

sentence.

Moreover, semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of

punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt, avoid using it and convert the

added material into a new sentence. As a general rule, the semi-colon is

used when joining two connected sentences and can also be used to

assemble detailed lists. Colons, on the other hand, within a sentence

makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two main

uses of colon. It is commonly used when listing and used within a

heading, or descriptive title.

Apostrophes, sometimes called inverted comma has two main

uses. It indicates possession or ownership. It is also used to indicate

where a letter is omitted. Quotations or speech marks are used to mark

out speech and when quoting someone else’s speech. On a different note,

hypehns are used to link words together such as sub-part, eighteenth-

century people and week-end. Moreover, brackets always come in pairs

and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of the main

flow of a sentence. If a writer removes the words between the brackets,

the sentence should still make sense. Another form of bracket is the
 30

square brackets. It can be used to abbreviate lengthy quotations, correct

the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of sentences, and to add the

author’s own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation. Lastly, the

slash is used in lieu of or and etc., but this is not always helpful to the

reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral to use

s/he.

Correlation between Measures

(Insert previous studies that correlated your independent and

dependent variable here; minimum of two pages)

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Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research methodology that will be used

in this study. This shall include research design, research locale and

duration, sampling and sampling technique, research instruments, data

gathering procedure, and statistical treatment of data.

Research Design

This study will be using quantitative descriptive-correlational

research as research design. According to Zanoria (2013), {insert

definition of descriptive research}.

Correlational research, on the other hand, is {definition of

correlational research with source}.

Research Locale and Duration

This study will be conducted at Cateel Vocational High School,

Castro Ave., Poblacion, Cateel, Davao Oriental. Furthermore, the data

will be gathered from September 2022 to January 2023. Figure 2 shows

the map of Davao Oriental highlighting the Municipality of Cateel.

Sampling and Sampling Technique

The respondents of the study are Grade 11 students from Cateel

Vocational High School, Cateel, Davao Oriental. A total of 342

respondents
32
33
 34

will be selected through stratified random sampling technique.

According Robles (2009), {insert definition of stratified random sampling}.

There will be 300 males, and 42 females to be included in the

study. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents.

Table 1. Distribution of Respondents

Gender Number Percentage
Male 300 88%
Female 42 12%
Total 342 100%

Research Instruments

The main research instrument to be used in the study are two

adapted survey questionnaires. The questionnaire of the independent

variable, free voluntary reading, is adapted from Miguel (2003) with the

following indicators: silent reading and reading aloud.

The following Likert scale will be used to interpret the mean for fee

voluntary reading:

Range of Means Description Interpretation

The level of FVR is far above
4.20 - 5.00 Very High
the expected level
The level of FVR is above the
3.40 – 4.19 High
expected level
The level of FVR is within the
2.60 – 3.39 Moderate
expected level
The level of FVR is below the
1.80 – 2.59 Low
expected level
The level of FVR is far below
1.00 – 1.79 Very Low
the expected level
 35

The questionnaire of the dependent variable, writing skills, is

adapted from Robles (2003) with the following indicators: grammar,

diction, spelling and punctuation.

The following Likert scale will be used to interpret the mean for

writing skills:

Range of Means Description Interpretation

The extent use of writing skills is
4.20 - 5.00 Very High
manifested always
The extent use of writing skills is
3.40 – 4.19 High
manifested most of the times
The extent use of writing skills is
2.60 – 3.39 Moderate
manifested sometimes
The extent use of writing skills is
1.80 – 2.59 Low
manifested at long interval of times
The extent use of writing skills is
1.00 – 1.79 Very Low
never manifested

The research instruments to be used will undergo both validity and

reliability test. To achieve validity, a pool of experts will check the

content and language of the survey questionnaires. To achieve reliability

test, a pilot test of the questionnaires will be conducted to 20 non-

respondents of the study. Once the pilot test is done, its result shall be

computed using Cronbach’s Alpha.

Data Gathering Procedure

The following steps will be followed to collect the data:

1. Seeking permission to conduct the study. The researchers shall

send a letter asking permission to conduct the study to the

principal of Cateel Vocational High School.

 36

2. Administration and Distribution of questionnaire. Once the

letter of permission is approved by the principal, the researchers

shall administer and distribute the questionnaires to the selected

respondents of the study.

3. Retrieval of questionnaires. After the respondents are done

answering the questionnaires, the researchers will then retrieve it.

These questionnaires will be tallied and submitted to the

statistician for interpretation of results.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The following statistical tools will be used:

Mean. This statistical tool will be utilized to determine the level of

free voluntary reading and writing skills among Grade 11 learners.

Furthermore, this will be used to answer statements of the problem one

(1) and two (2).

Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. This

statistical tool will be employed to seek a significant relationship between

free voluntary reading and writing skills among Grade 11 learners. This

will also be used to answer statement of the problem number three (3).

Slovin’s Formula

n = N / 1+Ne2
n = sample
N = population
e = margin of error 0.05
e2 = 0.0025