SECOND ORDER EFFECTS

Subthreshold Current: Ids in the cutoff region is non-zero except when Vgs = 0. As long
as Vgs is non-zero for only a short period this does not cause problems. However, over
time, the subthreshold current can drain batteries and drain on-chip parasitic capacitors
being used for storage .
In general, the subthreshold current affects power consumption.

Channel Length Variations: The channel length decreases as Vds increases. This is not
significant for large feature sizes, but feature sizes are smaller for newer technologies.
As the channel length decreases, the W/L ratio of the transistor increases, increasing the
b of the transistor. The transistor does not appear as a pure current source in saturation,
because the current source appears to have a finite impedance.

Mobility Variations: Electrons have a higher mobility than holes. Mobility decreases
with increasing doping concentration. Mobility decreases as temperature rises. This can
affect how fast the circuits can switch from a high to low output, for example.

Tunneling: Electrons can "tunnel" through very thin oxide layers in active areas when an
electric field is applied. This can result in current flow between the gate and either the
source or the drain in a transistor. This can actually be used to advantage when
"programming" a device electronically.

Punchthrough: When the difference between the source and drain voltages is very
great, the depletion region around the drain may increase in radius, and extend to the
source. For NMOS transistors, holes are depleted around the drain, because they are
attracted to the source, ground in the case of an inverter.. For PMOS transistors,
electrons are depleted around the drain, because they are attracted to the source, Vdd
in case of an inverter. Current then flows between the source and drain, independent of
the gate voltage. This can be used to advantage in protection circuits used at the inputs
to an integrated circuit.
Hot Electrons: As gate lengths decrease in newer technologies, the electric field can
increase. Sometimes electrons become "hot" and possess enough energy to dislodge
holes (impact ionization) that are swept to the substrate, causing a substrate current.
Hot electrons can also cause gate currents. This can lead to latch up and other forms of
circuit failure. Lower supply voltages help prevent hot electrons.