DISCUSSION LAB REPORT 4

Blood physiology I: Function of blood

ACTIVITY 1: BLOOD HEMOCTOCRIT

A haematocrit (HCT) test, also known as a packed-cell volume (PCT) test, quantifies
the proportion of red blood cells in your blood (Tresca A. 2022). The body receives oxygen
from the lungs through red blood cells. If someone has too few or too many red blood cells, it
might be a symptom of leukaemia, lymphoma, polycythaemia vera, dehydration, anaemia, a
vitamin, or mineral deficiency, recent or chronic blood loss, or another illness. According to
Nal R. (2018), Haematocrit is measured in the lab using a centrifuge, which spins rapidly to
separate the blood's components where a specific anticoagulant is added to prevent blood
clotting. Red blood cells, anticoagulants, and plasma, or the fluid in the blood, will have
separated into their respective portions by the time the test tube is removed from the
centrifuge. Red blood cells will go to the bottom of the tube, with the other components
settling in various tube regions. Then, the red blood cells are compared to a chart indicating
what blood percentage each one makes up. This activity was completed by four people,
consist of two female and two male whose haematocrit percentages for the female is ranged
from 40% to 44% while male haematocrit range is between 48% to 50%. Healthline (2018)
shows that adult men have an average haematocrit level of 38.8 to 50%, while adult women
have a level of 34.9 to 44.5 per cent. Children under the age of 15 have a different range
since their haematocrit levels fluctuate quickly as they age. The specific lab that examines
the results will determine the normal haematocrit range for a particular age group of children.
Haematocrit levels that are abnormally low or high can signify several issues. Low
hematocrit values could indicate hemolytic anaemia, internal bleeding, chronic inflammatory
disease, iron, folate, vitamin B12 deficiency, bone marrow disorders, or chronic inflammatory
diseases: sickle cell anaemia, leukaemia, lymphoma, and kidney failure while high
hematocrit levels can signal polycythemia vera, dehydration, kidney tumours, lung illnesses,
and congenital heart disease (Nal R. 2018). A hematocrit test is not linked to any substantial
hazards or negative effects. The area where the blood was extracted from the subject could
bleed or hurt.
Activity 3: Red Blood Cell Counting

A blood test called a red blood cell count, also known as an erythrocyte count, is
used to figure out how many red blood cells (RBCs) the body contains (Cafasso J, 2022).
Because RBCs contain haemoglobin, which transports oxygen to the body's tissues, the test
is crucial. Since tissues require oxygen to operate, the number of RBCs can impact how
much oxygen the bodily tissues receive. Red Blood Cells make up a significant portion of the
blood specimen. The red blood cells are counted using a unique chamber created to count
blood cells inside the specimen because it is impossible to count RBC under the microscope
(Editor M, 2022). Hemocytometer or Neubauer's chamber is the name of this space. The red
blood cells in the blood sample are first preserved and fixed by diluting them (1:200) in a
fluid called Hayem Fluid, which also dilutes RBCs. The Hayem fluid does not harm the red
blood cells. Standard saline solutions can also be used in this experiment. However, doing
so results in a very modest synthesis of red blood cells and permits the formation of
rouleaux, which could result in mistakes. The specimen is diluted, and the contents are then
charged in Neubauer's chamber. Unfortunately, while conduct this experiment, we are
unable to produce a high-quality image for the microscope as a final product. Since the
amount of red blood cells is unknown, we must substitute other classes' results. The normal
RBC value for male is 5.4 – 0.8 M/mm 3 and for female is between 4.8 – 0.6 M/mm 3. From
the result obtain from the other class, show that all students have a normal RBC count
except for Anis which is 3.4 M/mm 3. Decrease RBC count is occur because of anaemia,
acute and chronic haemorrhage, iron and vitamin B12 and many more related disease
(Editor M, 2022).
WBC DISCUSSION

Our immune system, also known as our immunity, serves as a defence mechanism
for our bodies against poisonous substances, unfriendly microbes, and even cancer. The
early focus of research on the immune system was on its ability to fight off infections, but as
knowledge has grown, so has our understanding of blood transfusion, cancer, and genetics
(Raymaakers, K, 2022) . Our white blood cells (WBCs), a component of our immune system,
are heavily involved in the bone marrow and blood malignancies. Since leukaemia is
associated with excess white blood cells, its name translates as "white blood."

The first activity in this experiment is to count the white blood cells. This method can
be compared to RBC and red blood cell counting in lab operations, albeit it differs slightly in
several areas. Leukocytes, commonly known as white blood cells, are a crucial immune
system component. They come from the bone marrow and circulate all through the body. By
targeting bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that penetrate the body, these cells aid in
the battle against illness. A white blood cell count can identify undetected illnesses such as
autoimmune diseases, immunological deficiencies, blood abnormalities, and concealed
infections within the body. Additionally, this test aids medical professionals in assessing the
efficiency of cancer patients' chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and other therapies. The
subjects of this experiment for activity 1 are Umi and Aizal. The average WBC count in the
blood typically ranges between 4,000 and 11,000/microliter, according to Sharma R. (2022).
The outcome of this experiment reveals that the white blood cell counts of both participants
are typical.

Activity 2 a differential leukocyte count. Leukocytes, commonly known as white blood

cells, are a crucial immune system component. They come from the bone marrow and
circulate all through the body. By targeting bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that
penetrate the body, these cells aid in the battle against illness. The human body can harbour
hidden infections such as autoimmune diseases, immunological deficiencies, and blood
disorders, which a white blood cell count can identify. Additionally, this test aids medical
professionals in assessing the efficiency of cancer patients' chemotherapy, radiation
therapy, and other therapies. The outcome of this experiment demonstrates how various
WBCs have a distinct leukocyte count. There are five types of WBCs, each with a unique
function and presence. Neutrophils are more prevalent than any other form of WBC in a
typical setting. By absorbing and digesting pathogens, primarily bacteria but occasionally
fungi, neutrophils defend against them. Phagocytosis is the name of this process. They
frequently go hand in hand with recent or acute illnesses. Eosinophils come in second.
WBCs called eosinophils are primarily in charge of battling parasitic illnesses. Additionally,
they control allergic reactions and the strength of the immunological response. And finally,
basophils. The WBCs with the smallest circulating populations are basophils. They are
thought to be crucial in triggering an allergic reaction. Granulocytes include neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils collectively. The WBCs, called granulocytes, have granules in
their cytoplasm. When the immune system responds, these granules release chemicals. The
monocyte is the fourth WBC. Like neutrophils, monocytes are white blood cells (WBCs) that
phagocytose infectious microorganisms to guard against them. However, chronic or ongoing
infections are more frequently linked to monocytes. Finally, there are lymphocytes. These
are specialized WBCs that are in charge of identifying and eliminating cancer cells and
foreign (non-self) cells from the body. There are three different types of lymphocytes, and
they are all differentiated from T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, which are created in
the bone marrow and reach maturity in the thymus gland. They distinguish between the
body's cells and those that are not. T cells are also in charge of the beginning and
development of the immune response and the deliberate elimination of viruses and
cancerous cells. By manufacturing antibodies against antigens present in foreign cells and
pathogens like bacteria and viruses, B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, regulate
acquired immunity. Additionally, natural killer cells, also known as NK cells, phagocytose and
kill all foreign cells identified by antibodies, cancer cells, and virus-infected cells.

Activity 3 involves utilizing the Eldon card to ascertain the subject's blood type. Red
blood cells may aggregate into an agglutinate, a grainy structure when they come into
contact with the reagent. The subject's blood type is revealed by the presence or lack of will.
Based on the results, the ABO system divided blood into four types: A, B, AB, and O. Hairun,
who has A blood type, shows an agglutination reaction when mixed with anti-A reagent as it
has A antigen and anti-B antibodies. Nobody from the experiment is in group AB, which has
both Antigen-A and Antigen-B, and Nuramira with blood group O has neither Antigen-A nor
Antigen-B. Madam Faikah and Mirzaieman have the protein known as Antigen-B. The card
must be tilted for at least 40 seconds to produce all potential agglutinates. One or neither of
the anti-A and anti-B antibodies may be present in the blood plasma. The blood of the same
people never has the corresponding antibodies and antigens.

The cell-like platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are smaller than red or white
blood cells. One platelet for every twenty red blood cells is the ratio between platelets and
red blood cells. By accumulating at a bleeding site and clumping together to form a plug that
aids in sealing the blood vessel, platelets aid in clotting. They also produce chemicals that
support in promoting more clotting at the same time. Bruising and unusual bleeding is more
frequent when platelets are too low, or a patient has thrombocytopenia (Sarode R, 2022). An
overly high platelet count, or thrombocythemia, can cause blood to clot excessively and
block blood vessels, leading to diseases such as transient ischemic stroke. When platelets
are abnormally abundant, they can paradoxically absorb clotting proteins and lead to
bleeding. According to Brown, J (2021), An average bleeding time lasts one to eight
minutes. Results that fall outside of that range can point to a platelet problem and call for
more testing. From the result of activity 4, both subject, Intan and Faiz show a normal
bleeding time.

Hemostasis depends on fibrinogen and fibrin, which are also crucial for thrombosis,
wound healing, and several other biological processes and pathological diseases.
Fibrinolysis controls fibrin production, which involves the enzymatic breakdown of fibrin and
fibrinogen by plasmin. A glycoprotein complex called fibrinogen is created in the liver. A
plasma glycoprotein with a molecular weight of about 340 kDa is soluble (Hosseinzadeh, H.,
& Nassiri-Asl, M. 2021). Plasmin, factor 13a or XIIIa, and thrombin are three enzymes that
use it as a physiological substrate. It is enzymatically changed to fibrin and blood clot by
thrombin during tissue and vascular damage. To stop bleeding, fibrin clots predominantly
occlude blood arteries. Additionally, fibrin binds to thrombin and inhibits its activity,
commonly known as antithrombin activity. Sodium chloride can be partially saturated with
blood plasma to precipitate fibrinogen. It is recommended for treating acute bleeding
episodes, including fibrin anaemia and hypofibrinomia, in patients with congenital fibrinogen
insufficiency. In activity six, test called bleeding time is used to assess platelet function. It
entails making a consistent incision and timing when the bleeding stops (B.R, 2022). All
subjects who experimented with activity 6 have the standard bleeding time, which is still in
the range of 1 to 3 minutes.
Reference

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 Nall, R. (2018, September 29). Hematocrit test: Uses, procedure, and results. Retrieved
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 Sarode, R. (2022, December 14). Components of blood - blood disorders. Retrieved

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 Brown, J. (2021, July 22). What is the normal bleeding time and clotting time? Retrieved
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 Raymaakers, K. (2022, February 08). What should you know about white blood cells
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 Weisel, J., & Litvinov, R. (2017). Fibrin Formation, structure and properties. Retrieved
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