CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS OF CONFLICT, VIOLENCE AND PEACE

1.1. Definitions, and Basic Nature of Conflict

The word “conflict” comes from the Latin

word confligere, which means collision or Page | 1
clash. Nevertheless, considerable
disagreement exists over how to define
conflict. Many attempts to define conflict
in a way that best sums up its major
aspects have been made. People who
work in the field continue to work on
developing definitions of conflicts
according to their various features. For
example, definitions exist based on the
major causes of conflict, such as material
resources, power, values or feelings
(these are sometimes called “causative agents”). There are also definitions based on the nature
of the conflict parties, such as individuals, organizations or states. These definitions have
developed along with what is today known as conflict theory, taking into account newly
emerging practices of conflict analysis and intervention.
Defining conflict also depends on the concept one has of the nature of conflict as something that
takes place in society and between people. For example, conflict is commonly understood as:
• a form of opposition between parties;
• an absence of agreement between parties;
• a way to solve social contradictions;
• a natural process in human social interaction.
However, the recent general trend has been to consider conflict as something normal, an
everyday social phenomenon, and a simple and natural characteristic of human social systems.
Society by its very nature, as human beings themselves, is not perfect, so disharmony and
contradictions are inevitable parts of social development. The distinction that has to be made is
between conflict itself and the negative consequences that some ways of dealing with conflicts
have, such as war. In this perspective, a war is not the conflict, but rather the negative result of
how the conflict was dealt with.
One or two definitions which we find useful for understanding the basic elements and factors
involved in conflict is:
1. “An actual or a perceived incompatibility of actions and/or goals in a relationship between
two or more parties (individuals or groups). It is a dynamic process where attitudes,
behaviors, contexts and structures are constantly changing and influencing one another.
2. “A disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs,
interests or concerns.”
Identifying the major elements of these definitions is crucial for understanding conflict factors,
regardless of the conflict type, as the first step towards analyzing conflicts and managing them.
Introduction to Peace & Conflict CESt-2025 Bekalu W 2023 @WKU
 Table 1The most recognized definitions of conflict, in chronological order.

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Using the above definitions as a basis, factors of a conflict are:

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 Disagreement: people often have disagreements (differences of opinion regarding
certain facts, different interpretations of reality, etc.). Nevertheless, they manage to
work and live together. A disagreement is only one factor of a conflict. Conflict is
a situation in which people perceive a threat to their physical or emotional well-
being. In fact, conflict tends to be accompanied by significant levels of
misunderstanding that exaggerate the importance given to the disagreement. An
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understanding of the “real” nature of a disagreement will help parties to identify their
true needs.
Parties involved: at first sight, one might think that it is easy to identify the parties
to a conflict. People are often surprised to find out that they are also a party to a
conflict they may not have even heard about. This is common in international and
historical conflicts. For example, an ordinary citizen of a certain country might
not realize that they are considered the enemy by a certain political or religious
group of which they may have little or no knowledge.
Perceived/actual threat: there is a difference between a perceived threat and a
real threat. Perceived means that the threat is anticipated or expected. This means
the threat is thought to exist, but it does not necessarily mean it does exist (yet). In
conflict situations, people often respond to the perceived threat, rather than the real
threat facing them. Fear of a perceived threat is exceptionally powerful.
Understanding the true threat issues and developing strategies to deal with them are
essential to constructively dealing with conflict. People’s behavior and feelings change
along with the development of a sense of the threat they experience, and so do their
responses to the perceived threat.
Incompatible Needs, interests and concerns: these elements can have different
shapes, forms and importance for a conflict. They can determine the level of intensity
of a conflict. Needs, interests and concerns can be tangible/material (such as
money, food, water and other resources) or intangible/symbolic (such as feelings
of security, love or revenge).
These elements vary in their influence on a conflict depending on the conflict’s intensity
and many other considerations.

The Nature of Conflict

Conflict is a relationship between two or more individuals and groups who have (actual) or think
(perceive) that they have incompatible goals and needs. The incompatibility may thus be real or
perceived and may be over material and/or symbolic resources. Most people perceive conflict as
a negative term and ascribe negative connotations to it. However, conflict in itself (inherently)
is neither negative (bad) nor positive (good). Some of its aspects may be either positive or
negative.

Conflict has positive aspects when it directs attention to the injustices that need to be addressed, when
it promotes much needed change in organizations and systems, and especially when it leads to
creative problem solving. The negative aspects of conflict are the destructive behavior (violence
leading to loss of life and property), the pain and trauma that is a result of the violence, and the
wastage of resources that would have been better spent on creative activities. Therefore, it is the
negative aspect of conflict that can and should be avoided but conflict per se is a fact of life,
inevitable, natural, unavoidable and often creative. In other words, it is the manner in which
conflict is handled determines whether it is destructive or constructive. Thus, it is better to work
on the resolution of conflict rather than avoid it or keep suffering as a result of it.
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Typologies of Conflict
The categorization of conflicts into types can help us to understand the nature of the conflict
we are dealing with better. Categorization provides us with guidelines for the issues we should
consider when developing methods of intervention. However, many different ways of classifying
conflicts exist.
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There is often controversy over classification. Naming a conflict means making assumptions
about the nature of that conflict. In some cases, such assumptions have negative meanings. For
example, a conflict classified as “ethnic” (in other words, as one between two ethnic groups)
could also be classified as religious, political or as intra-society. The controversial question is
why the classification should be described as ethnic rather than as religious or political; naming
it ethnic could have negative associations.
The criteria used for classification vary. Among others, they include:
• the conflicting parties [this is also described as levels of conflict in other places];
• the context of the conflict or the areas of social life in which the conflict takes
place (for example, political, economic, cultural, etc.);
• the motivations or needs behind the conflict;
• the consequences of the conflict;
• the duration of the conflict;
• the intensity of the conflict;
• the absence or presence of violence in the conflict.
•

In Figure 1, you can see how these different aspects can be used to break down conflicts into
different types.

For example:
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 • If the context is taken as a basis for conflict classification, corresponding conflict
types are: political, cultural, ideological, economic, organizational and so on.
• The motivation and needs criterion produces three main types of conflict:
• conflicts based on material needs (resources);
• conflicts based on social needs (balance of power between parties, status
roles in a group); Page | 5
• conflicts based on cultural and spiritual needs (values, ideas, principles).
• In addition, many twin criteria are used in the classification of conflicts, such as:
• duration (long-term and short-term);
• intensity (slow and rapid or impetuous);
• display (manifest and latent, also known as hot/cold and open/closed);
• consequences (constructive and destructive);
• scale (micro and macro).
• Four types of conflict are identified in which the use of violence criterion is
applied: non-violent, minor armed, major armed and war.
These types can be helpful for describing conflicts, but it is important to remember that
there are many overlaps and several classification criteria which might be needed to
describe the conflict adequately.

If the basis for classification is the different kinds of conflict parties, then the conflict types
are: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, intra-society and international/global. This is
a very commonly used conflict classification.
Intrapersonal conflicts: these are conflicts
between should & want which occur within an
individual as a result of frustration they feel with
themselves over their personal goals, targets,
plans, or accomplishments, or as a result of
competing values and questions of conscience.
There are several sub-types of intrapersonal
conflict. Intrapersonal conflict can be seen as a
person’s inability to make a decision
(motivational), as an inner fight between good
and evil (moral), or as the gap between reality
and ambition (unrealized desire or
unbalanced self-
appraisal). Should (principles) is always driven by the values, religious beliefs, upbringing etc.
wants on the other hand are driven by the environment which entices humans to indulge
overlooking should.
The seriousness of an intrapersonal conflict can range from not being able to make up your
mind over whether to buy a pair of trousers or not, to whether to get into marriage.
Intrapersonal conflicts are not necessarily negative. Intrapersonal conflicts are also a sign
that a person is experiencing some sort of personal growth. An individual’s inner struggle
shows that a process of reflection is taking place.

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 Interpersonal conflicts: these are conflicts that
take place between two individuals, which reoccur on
a regular basis during their relationship. Examples
include conflicts between couples in relationships,
between superiors and subordinates in a work
context, between students and teachers, or between
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representatives of two or more cultural groups.

Interpersonal conflict has been described as:

… a situation in which one or both persons in a
relationship are experiencing difficulty in working or living with each other. This
usually occurs due to different or incompatible needs, goals or styles.20
Conflicts of this kind are usually associated with negative personal feelings such as
hate, betrayal, distrust or anger. Whether power is shared equally or unequally
between conflict parties plays an important role for the parties in considering different
approaches to dealing with conflicts of this type.
For example, a manager and a secretary are in conflict over responsibilities. The manager
has more power because he or she is higher up in the hierarchy of the company than the
secretary, who according to the rules should take instructions from the manager. The
manager decides to use this power, and disciplines the secretary for not doing what he or
she was told to do. The power dynamics – the power symmetry – would be different,
and so would the outcomes, if the conflict took place between two secretaries, or if the
manager and secretary were of the same sex, or for that matter, if it took place between
two managers.

Intergroup conflicts: take place between various

formal and non-formal groups. For example, between
the government and trade unions, between groups that
form one class (for example, different elements within
the working class), between departments within an
organization, or between cultural groups in a
community. These conflicts often take place in
organizations (for example, a conflict between the
representative of
the union and the management in a particular factory over working hours), or in
educational institutions (between lecturers and students, or between the class and a single
student in the class).

Intra-society/social conflicts: most often refer to

conflicts of a larger scale that have a strong public
resonance. For example, these include confrontations
between the ruling political elite and the opposition,
or between the government and NGOs on issues of
social importance. It can be difficult to make
distinctions between intergroup conflicts and intra-
society conflicts. For example, conflicts between
the top management of a big company

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 and a trade union over pay conditions for employees might at first sight seem like a simple
intergroup conflict. The same can be said for a conflict between a student group and the
administration of a university over access to decision making in the university. However,
these have serious consequences for the wider society because they raise important
debates about worker pay conditions or about the rights of students to be involved in
university decision making. These are issues that many people in society find important
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and want to take a stand on (that is, they have strong social resonance). When this is the
case, the conflict can be considered an intra-society conflict rather than an intergroup
conflict.
The main factor for distinguishing between intergroup and intra-society conflicts is the importance
of the conflict issue for the society concerned, its consequences for the society, its public resonance
and its scale. This type of conflict is very much associated with power and competition.
When members of a certain group think that members of another group are a threat to
their sources of power (for example, values, resources, legitimacy or protection) and start
seeing any gain to the other as a loss to them, conflicts of this type will tend to escalate.
Violence between groups of students from different ethnic or political groups, fighting
between youth gangs, discrimination and/or violence against ethnic minorities are
examples of intra-society conflicts.
Intergroup and intra-society conflicts have often been instrumentalized politically. Those in
positions of power manipulate the group feelings that these conflicts stir up, rallying the masses
in order to achieve their goals or to serve their personal, hidden agendas. Civil wars and
“ethnic cleansing” have been the result of the instrumentalization of intra-society conflicts.

International/global conflicts: these include

conflicts between nation states, global and regional
competition over natural resources, conflicts in
various international organizations over political
issues, armed interventions involving significant loss
of life, ethnic or religious conflicts, wars for self-
determination and/or the creation of new nation
states.
NB: Increasingly, however, it also applies to intergroup/
intra-society conflicts within one country when one group is fighting for independence or
increased social, political or economic power.
A distinction is made between armed conflicts and international conflicts. This is
because international conflicts can be monetary/economic and/or political, but are not necessarily
armed, even if the public perception of international conflicts often involves violence or terrorism.
An important aspect of international conflicts is that they can become intractable.
Intractable conflicts are long-standing conflicts that take place between individuals,
groups, communities or nation states that resist all attempts at management, and continue
escalating towards ever-higher levels of hostility and intensity. There are many
contemporary intractable conflicts. Some of these conflicts take place within states and
some take place between states.
There is no doubt that they are amongst the most dangerous conflicts in the world today.
They threaten not only their immediate environment, but entire regions and large parts
of the world too. These conflicts have dominated the international arena and have
spawned much of the violence and terrorism that we witness today.

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 International and global conflicts are also considered to be macro-level conflicts. In
other words, they have significance that goes beyond the individuals concerned, having
consequences for the wider society, for example. In contrast, so-called micro-level
conflicts do not have important consequences for people beyond those directly involved.
Interpersonal conflicts are well-classified as micro-level conflicts, because even though
they have important effects on the individuals taking part, these effects do not influence
the course of the development of the wider society. Intergroup conflicts, especially those Page | 8
that involve groups of different sizes with different levels of power, may be classified as
either micro-or macro-level conflicts, because their outcomes will have effects on the
individuals, but might also have longer-lasting consequences in terms of how those groups
are perceived or treated in a society. This distinction is important when it comes to
deciding on how to intervene, and which methods to use when intervening.

SOURCES OF CONFLICT

Sources of conflicts are sometimes also referred to as issues involved in a conflict or issues at stake
in a conflict.
Information [Data]
Lack of information, misinformation and different interpretations of information can lead to
conflict. Disputants may not have sufficient information or even the same information about a given
situation. In other instances, groups and individuals may interpret the same data or information in
differing ways or they may assign different levels of importance to the same data. Control and
manipulation of information is a major weapon in conflict situations.
Miscommunication
Ineffective communication is another source of conflict. Even if there are no basic
incompatibilities between groups and individuals, miscommunication and misunderstanding can lead to
conflict. Moreover, stakeholders may have different perceptions about the facts in a situation and
until they are clarified, there can be no resolution. Self-centeredness, selective perception, emotional bias
and prejudices lead to differing perceptions between the stakeholders of a conflict. Lack of skill in
communicating one’s viewpoint in a clear and respectful manner often results in confusion, hurt and
anger, all of which fuel the conflict further. Whether the conflict has objective sources or has arisen due
to perceptual or communication problems, the people involved experience it as very real.
Resources
This relates to conflict over material resources such as land, money or objects, which are
evidently identifiable and can be negotiated. Historically, disputes over access to and control of
territory, material, economic and scarce natural resources have been one of the dominant sources of
conflict. One major element in the colonial empire building of the 19th and 20th century was the
competition for resources and defense of national economic interests which were defined in
territorial terms. Here each faction wanted to grab as much as it could; its behavior and emotions
were directed towards maximizing gain. In extreme cases, disputants may resort to military action or
the threat of it to gain or defend access to resources perceived as vital for survival.
In the twenty-first century, demands for land, fresh water and other natural resources are growing
rapidly due to increase in population as well as consumption. But these resources are limited and
Gandhi had very aptly said, “Earth provides enough to satisfy every [person’s] need but not for every
[person’s] greed.” Besides, environmental degradation has further complicated the situation and the
consequences are being felt the world over.

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Relationships
Relationships are an important facet of human life. As human beings, we have personal (family) and
social (community) and/or organizational (business) relationships. In these relationships, people
have disagreements over a variety of issues, which is very normal. However, sometimes the
interdependence created by these relationships introduces a destructive dimension to these differences,
for example, a wife is repeatedly subjected to abuse and domestic violence but is unable to walk out Page | 9
of the relationship because (apart from other social and cultural pressures) she may be economically
dependent on her husband, who is aware of this interdependence and uses it to his advantage.
Interests and Needs
Non-fulfillment of interests and needs are a major source of conflict. The non-fulfillment of these needs
may be either a reality or just a perception. In fact, important needs for identity, respect or
participation are often at the heart of conflicts that ostensibly seem to be a contest for material
things. Conflicts usually arise because of the denial of following needs:
⚫ Unfulfilled needs for economic resources or the perception that economic resources are not
distributed fairly;
⚫ Unfulfilled needs for safety, respect and participation in social life or a perception of unjust
relationships and humiliation; and
⚫ Unfulfilled needs for identity, culture, religious values or a perception that these are threatened.
When the needs of individuals, communities and nations are denied in the above-mentioned areas,
it leads to structural violence. Vertical structural violence can operate in the following arenas insulting
the respective needs:
⚫ Repression – political – the insulted need is freedom;
⚫ Exploitation – economic – the insulted need is well-being; and
⚫ Alienation – cultural – the insulted need is identity.
Exploitation could be the essence of violence. We can see violence as anything that impeded individual
self-realization and that violence could be either direct or structural in nature. Dehumanization is a
case in point.
Structures
Structures- both social and organizational- determine who has access to power and resources,
who has the authority to make decisions and who is afforded respect. Conflicts about or within structures
often involve issues of justice and competing goals.
Power
Power can mean different things – legitimacy, authority, force, or the ability to coerce. It is a vital
ingredient in conflict situations; conflicts either center on the search for more power or a fear of
losing the same. However, power is intangible; it cannot be counted. But power does not exist in a
vacuum; it is present in, and based on, relationships. Besides, one should look at resources as a key
area that determines the actual location of power or the need for power.
Power conflicts can occur between individuals, groups or nations, when one or both sides choose to take
a power approach to the relationship and wish to maintain or maximize the amount of influence that

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 they exert in the relationship and the social setting. It is impossible for one side to be stronger
without the other being weaker, at least in terms of direct influence over each other. Thus, a power
struggle ensues which usually ends in victory for one side and defeat for the other, or in a ‘stand-off’
with a continuing state of tension.
Power can be either hard (coercive) or soft (persuasive). Hard power consists of the ability to
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command and enforce while soft power comprises of the ability to bring about cooperation, provide
legitimacy and inspire. In violent conflict situations, hard power dominates, as armies and militias
grapple for victory. On the other hand, soft power is essential for peacemaking and peace-building.
Power should necessarily be accompanied by accountability; otherwise, it tends to give rise to
more conflicts. Being accountable would mean finding ways to report to others and being open to
be questioned by others.
Governance
Governance relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power or verify performance. It is
concerned with the way in which society is governed, the distribution of authority and resources within
it, and the legitimacy of these in the eyes of the members of society. Governance, basically, is a
process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented or (not
implemented). In simple terms, ‘governance’ is what a ‘government’ does. Politics provides the
means by which the governance process operates.
‘Good governance’ is an indeterminate term used in development literature to describe how public
institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources in order to guarantee the realization
of human rights. Good governance is considered to be integral to economic growth, the eradication
of poverty and hunger, and sustainable development. It makes violent conflict less likely. If governments
reflect the values and satisfy the needs of those over whom they exercise authority, they will be
legitimized. When the legitimacy is lacking or there is a doubt a b o u t its existence, the demands for
social change can result in political turmoil and social unrest. If these demands are suppressed or
ignored, violent conflict may arise. In contemporary times, the major governance issues relate to
greater autonomy (political, economic and/or cultural), representative forms of government and equitable
distribution of resources.
Rights
Denial or violation of rights and the struggle for elimination of these violations are at the heart of many
conflicts. Civil and political rights are often called ‘first generation rights’ and include rights of the
individual in society to life, liberty and freedom of opinion and expression. It can be said that society
could not be built on a denial of individual freedom. Economic, social and cultural rights are known as
‘second generation rights’ that comprise of rights to basic necessities such as food, shelter, health and
education. The ‘third generation rights’ refers to collective rights like those of minorities and
marginalized groups. Human rights are thus necessary for individuals to lead a dignified life.
Rights may theoretically be guaranteed by the constitution of a state but in practice may not be
accessible to the marginalized or they may be intimidated by powerful people from claiming their rights.
Ultimately, the repeated denial of rights may lead to violent conflict. Thus, while analyzing conflicts, it is
necessary to look at structural violence and explore the position and perception of stakeholders
with regard to rights and freedoms.

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Culture
Culture is an important factor in social conflict. It is learnt from the family, community, school, and
media; it is not something human beings are born with. Culture determines the way individuals and groups
act, the manner in which they relate to others and the way they think about and perceive events
happening around them. Thus, it is necessary to understand the cultural contexts of the
individuals and groups involved in a conflict especially in situations where the contending sides are Page | 11
from different cultures. In fact, Marc Ross argues that there is a ‘culture of conflict’, which he defines
as “a society’s configuration of norms, practices and institutions that affect what people enter into disputes
about, with whom they fight, how disputes evolve, and how they are likely to end.”
Ideology
Ideology is mostly used in reference to the public world of politics. Political ideologies such as
Fascism, Nazism, and Marxism involve a set of fundamental beliefs about economic organization or
governance of society. One of the most famous ideological conflicts of the 20th century was the one
between the Capitalist Bloc and the Communist Bloc popularly termed as the Cold War, which
manifested in ways such as the formation of economic and military blocs, and proxy wars between
client-states at the regional and local level. The Cold War ended with the disintegration of the former
Soviet Union and withering away of the Communist Bloc.

Religion
Religion refers generally to the private world of spirituality. It is particularly relevant to conflict
because it may contain strong claims to exclusivity; the faithful are considered to constitute distinct,
exclusive communities. Besides, religious belief can become a motivation in political action, and can be
used by leaders for selfish political ends or as means towards those ends. Moreover, scriptures have
at various points in history been interpreted and misinterpreted to justify slavery, racism and women’s
subordination.
Conflict between religions has occurred throughout history but in the contemporary period some of the
major religions of the world are witness to a surge in fundamentalist elements. Fundamentalists have
attempted to extend their sphere of influence from places of worship to the state and the society as a
whole leading to escalation of conflicts not only between religions but also within the moderate and
extremist sections within religions as well as with the state and society at large. However, religion
need not always be a source of conflict; it can also be a resource for peace.
Identity
The often-asked question of the Cold War era, ‘what is your ideology’ has been replaced in the
post-Cold War era by the question ‘who are you’. People are increasingly conscious of ‘who they
are’ and asserting their cultural and social identity. They are realigning themselves on the basis of
ancestry, religion, language, values and institutions, and are rejecting distant and alien rule. This is an
indication of the growing importance of identity consciousness in the post-Cold War era.
Identity is used to describe a person’s sense of self and the relation of the self to the world. It is a
basic human need that provides meaning and a sense of security as well as predictability for the
individual and the group within a given social context. Without a strong sense of “who we are” and
how we can “be” and continue to exist and feel safe in our surroundings, our relationship of the self
or group to the world is threatened.

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 There are multiple identities- as broad as ‘woman’ or ‘man’ or a member of collectives such as ethnic,
religious, or racial groups or as narrow as a member of one particular family. Identities concern
people’s existential needs and values. They can be inclusive as well as exclusive; they can endure for
generations or change with shifting situations (in response to threats, which may be either real or
perceived, forcing people to adopt labels because identity markers such as ethnicity and religion may be
exploited for selfish ends). Some identities are more important than others depending on how one Page | 12
perceives one’s identity but also depending on place, times and circumstances. Some identities are
nested within each other, usually compatibly, for example, an individual can identify with both one’s
locality/birth place and one’s country.

However, some identities may compete with each other, as in the case of former Yugoslavia. In
the 1950s and 1960s of the former Yugoslavia, many people felt pride in having stood up to the Soviet
Union in 1948 and creating a new economic system. But the scenario changed in the 1990s, when
most people in the former Yugoslavia started feeling that their identities as Serbs, Croats, Slovenes,
Muslims, or Bosnians were much more important than their Yugoslav identity. The process of
disintegration of the former Yugoslavia into several small states (such as Serbia and Montenegro,
Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina) was precipitated apart from other reasons due to large-
scale ethnic killings and ‘ethnic cleansing’.
With the rise in identity consciousness, religion, language and ethnicity are increasingly serving as fault
lines for conflict. In contemporary times, ethnicity is seen as one of the most important elements of
identity and the underlying cause of most ongoing conflicts. However, it must be clarified that many
conflicts that are labeled as ‘ethnic’, suggesting that ethnicity is the cause. In reality ethnicity has been
used there as a ‘method’ by which people have been mobilized in support of a particular leader or
movement. This happens when a group or community first feels insecure or afraid and is then
persuaded that a particular group or leader can offer them safety.
Values
Values are dear to individuals and groups – these are the beliefs that shape their identity and faith
perspectives that give meaning to their lives. Incompatibility in ways of life and ideologies such as preferences,
principles and practices that people believe in can lead to value conflicts. When states, groups and
individuals assert the rightness and superiority of their way of life and their political-economic system
vis-à-vis other states, groups and individuals, values can then become a major component in such
conflicts. Values are often seen as a part of one’s identity; and thus, challenge to values is often seen
as a threat to identity, resulting in defensive reactions by individuals and groups since they assume that
resolution of the conflict will require a change in values.

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