Food Control 25 (2012) 211e215

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Food Control
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Assessment of trans fatty acids in edible oils in China

Jun-Cai Hou*, Fang Wang, Yu-Tang Wang, Jian Xu, Chun-Wei Zhang
College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Trans fatty acid (TFA) is commonly present in edible oils. TFA has been proven to have adverse effects on
Received 2 August 2011 blood lipids, including increasing the LDL-cholesterol concentration and decreasing the HDL-cholesterol
Received in revised form concentration. The aim of our study was to determine the levels of TFA in edible oil samples consumed in
19 October 2011
Harbin, China. In this study, 93 samples of soybean oil (SBO) (n ¼ 29), rapeseed oil (RSO) (n ¼ 23),
Accepted 19 October 2011
sunflower oil (SFO) (n ¼ 22), and corn oil (CO) (n ¼ 19) were analyzed between October 2010 and January
2011, using a gas chromatograph (GC) with a flame ionization detector (FID). TFA (>2%) was detected in
Keywords:
17 (18%) samples, ranging from 0.14% to 4.76%. The overall TFA content was 1.15  0.12% for SBO,
Edible oil
Trans fatty acid
1.37  0.23% for RSO, 1.41  0.10% for SFO, and 2.01  0.24% for CO. Trans C18:2 and C18:3 fatty acids were
Soybean oil normally predominant in the investigated edible oils. The variance in the percentage of TFA in the edible
Rapeseed oil oils probably resulted from differences in the quality, processing technique, and storage condition of the
Sunflower oil edible oils. The results indicated that, in China, TFA is widely present in edible oils at low levels.
Corn oil Therefore, it is important to assess the content of TFA in edible oils in China.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Based on epidemiologic and clinical studies, trans fatty acid
(TFA) intake has been convincingly associated with the risk of heart
disease (Hu, Manson, & Willet, 2001; Oh, Hu, Manson, Stampfer, &
Willet, 2005; Oomen et al., 2001). TFA can increase the concen-
tration of low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and decrease
the concentration of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol,
both of which are risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). TFA
has been found to be the most harmful macronutrient, influencing
the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL (Total: HDL) cholesterol, a key
risk factor for CHD (Mensink, Zock, Kester, & Katan, 2003). A 2%
increase in TFA intake has been calculated to increase the risk of
CHD by 23% (Mozaffarian, Katan, Ascherio, Stampfer, & Willett,
2006). Based on isoenergenic consumption, current evidence
suggests that TFA increases the risk of CHD more than any other
macronutrient (Mozaffarian et al., 2006). A TFA intake of 5 g per day
is associated with 25% increase in the risk of ischemic heart disease
(Stender, Dyerberg, & Astrup, 2006). The food industry has
increased efforts to reduce TFA amounts, especially in processed
foods, due to the damaging health effects of TFA intake (EFSA,
2010).
Previous studies suggested that low levels of TFA are found,
naturally, in dairy creams (3.02  0.22 to 4.11  0.17 g/100 g)
(Jan, Filip, Polak, Hribar, & Vidrih, 2011), bovine milk fat (0.6e3.9%)
(Månsson, 2008), and beef meat (3.6%) (Woods & Fearon, 2009) as
the result of microbial hydrogenation of cis-unsaturated fatty acids in
the stomach of ruminant animals (Bauman & Griinari, 2003).
However, the major source of TFA is products containing industrially
produced partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (Filip, Fink, Hribar, &
Vidrih, 2010; Wolff, Precht, & Molkentin, 1998). In addition, small
amounts of TFA isomers are found in refined edible oils due to the
high temperatures used during the deodorization procedure
(Ackman & Mag, 1998; Ceriani & Meirelles, 2007), which have been
shown to induce geometrical isomerization of linoleic acid
(C18:2,9c,12c) and linolenic acid (C18:3,9c,12c,15c) (Ackman, Hooper,
& Hooper, 1974; Devinat, Scamaroni, & Naudet, 1980). Tasan and
Demirci (2003) observed that the trans C18:2 isomer content was
increased 13.8-fold at the end of the refining process. In the present
study, we analyzed the content of TFA in edible vegetable oils readily
available in China. Our attention was focused on investigation of the
linoleic acid and linolenic acid geometrical isomers in these oils.
2. Materials and methods

Abbreviations: TFA, trans fatty acid; SBO, soybean oil; RPO, rapeseed oil; SFO,
sunflower oil; CO, corn oil; FAME, fatty acid methyl esters.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 451 5519 0459; fax: þ86 451 5519 0577.
E-mail address: houjc666@yahoo.com.cn (J.-C. Hou).
2.1. Samples
Pure soybean oil (SBO), rapeseed oil (RSO), sunflower oil (SFO),
and corn oil (CO) samples were purchased from a local supermarket

0956-7135/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.10.044
212 J.-C. Hou et al. / Food Control 25 (2012) 211e215

in Harbin, China. Samples were stored in dark bottles without Table 1

headspace at room temperature for analysis. Detection of TFA in oil samples.

Oil sample Number of samples Detection rate (>2%) (%)

2.2. Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters Tested <2% >2%

Soybean oil 29 25 4 14
Liu, Stephen Inbaraj, and Chen’s (2007) method was used, with Rapeseed oil 23 19 6 26
Sunflower oil 22 17 4 18
minor modification. Before saponification and the formation of
Corn oil 19 16 3 16
methyl ester in the soybean oil, the reaction vessel was filled
with N2 in order to prevent the formation of isomers of poly- Total 92 77 17 18

unsaturated oils (Park & Goins, 1994). Heptadecanoic acid methyl

ester (5 mg/mL) was used as the internal standard for the GC
2.4. Statistical analysis
analysis.

All values are shown as the means and standard deviations for
2.3. GC analysis of FAMEs three replicates. The statistical analyses were performed using the
ANOVA function of SPSS 13.0 for Windows software. Statistical
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were separated and quantified significance was determined as P < 0.05 using Duncan’s multiple
using an Agilent model 6890 GC instrument (Palo Alto, CA, USA) range test.
equipped with a flame ionization detector. A highly polar capillary
column (100 m  0.25 mm i.d.  0.2 mm film thickness) of CP-Sil
88 (Varian, USA) coated with a 100% cyanopropyl polysiloxane Table 2
The trans fatty acid composition of edible oils in China.
stationary phase was used to separate the FAMEs. GC oven
parameters and gas variables previously described by Bansal, Fatty acid (g/100 g) Mean SEMa Minimum Maximum
Zhou, Tan, Neo, and Lo (2009) were used in the present study, Soybean oil
with minor modification. The temperature program was as C18:1, 9t 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.09
C18:2, 9c,12t 0.34 0.06 0.01 1.44
follows: 1) 140  C for 5 min; 2) increase to 240  C at a rate of 5  C/
C18:2, 9t,12c 0.31 0.06 0.01 1.38
min; 3) 240  C for 25 min. The temperature was set at 250  C for Total trans C18:2 0.66 0.12 0.07 2.82
the injector and at 260  C for the detector. Helium was used as the C18:3, 9t,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.18
carrier of the gas and perfused at a flow rate of 1.4 mL/min. A split 9t,12c,15t
ratio of 40:1 was used and 1 mL of the sample was injected into the C18:3, 9c,12t,15t 0.27 0.05 0.00 0.88
C18:3, 9c,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.14 0.02 0.05 0.43
GC for analysis. TFA isomers in the oil were identified by
9t,12c,15c
comparing their retention time to that of the corresponding Total trans C18:3 0.46 0.06 0.05 1.17
reference sample. Linoleic acid methyl ester isomer mix (Catalog Total trans fatty acids 1.15 0.12 0.23 3.11
No. 47791) and linolenic acid methyl ester isomer mix (Catalog No. Rapeseed oil
47792) were purchased from Supelco (Bellefonte, PA, USA). C18:1, 9t 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.09
Quantification of the fatty acids was carried out by calculating the C18:2, 9c,12t 0.53 0.11 0.05 1.73
response factors of individual fatty acid isomers. Better separation C18:2, 9t,12c 0.54 0.11 0.06 1.66
Total trans C18:2 1.07 0.22 0.11 3.39
was achieved in the trans C18:1, trans C18:2 and trans C18:3
C18:3, 9t,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.14
regions at the temperature described above (Fig. 1). 9t,12c,15t
C18:3, 9c,12t,15t 0.15 0.02 0.00 0.23
C18:3, 9c,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.09
9t,12c,15c
Total trans C18:3 0.26 0.02 0.03 0.43
Total trans fatty acids 1.37 0.23 0.14 3.82

Sunflower oil
C18:1, 9t 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.11
C18:2, 9c,12t 0.60 0.05 0.10 0.92
C18:2, 9t,12c 0.55 0.06 0.06 0.96
Total trans C18:2 1.18 0.10 0.17 1.81
C18:3, 9t,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.08
9t,12c,15t
C18:3, 9c,12t,15t 0.16 0.03 0.00 0.48
C18:3, 9c,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.18
9t,12c,15c
Total trans C18:3 0.24 0.04 0.00 0.63
Total trans fatty acids 1.41 0.10 0.28 2.10

Corn oil
C18:1, 9t 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.20
C18:2, 9c,12t 0.22 0.04 0.08 0.74
C18:2, 9t,12c 0.22 0.03 0.12 0.68
Total trans C18:2 0.44 0.07 0.20 1.42
C18:3, 9t,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.09
9t,12c,15t
C18:3, 9c,12t,15t 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.04
C18:3, 9c,12t,15c þ C18:3, 0.51 0.10 0.05 1.44
9t,12c,15c
Fig. 1. Partial chromatogram of fatty acid methyl esters of standard mixture. t,
Total trans C18:3 1.49 0.17 0.33 3.15
C18:1,9t; c, C18:1,9c; tt, C18:2,9t,12t; ct, C18:2,9c,12t; tc, C18:2,9t,12c; cc, C18:2,9c,12c;
Total trans fatty acids 2.01 0.24 0.56 4.76
ttt þ tct, C18:3,9t,12t,15t þ tct, C18:3,9t,12c,15t; C18:3,9c,12t,15t; ctt, C18:3,9c,12t,15t; cct,
a
C18:3,9c,12c,15t; ctc þ tcc, C18:3,9c,12t,15c þ C18:3,9t,12c,15c; ccc, C18:3,9c,12c,15c. SEM: standard error of the means.
J.-C. Hou et al. / Food Control 25 (2012) 211e215 213

3. Results and discussion

Among 93 samples analyzed, TFA (>2%) was detected in 17 (18%).

The number of TFA positive samples were 4 (14%) for SBO, 6 (26%)
for RSO, 4 (18%) for SFO, and 3 (16%) for CO (Table 1). The TFA
composition of SBO, RSO, SFO and CO are shown in Table 2. The
major TFA isomers found in SBO, RSO, SFO and CO were C18:1,9t,
C18:2,9c,12t and C18:2,9t,12c, C18:3,9t,12t,15c/C18:3,9t,12c,15t,
C18:3,9c,12t,15t and C18:3,9c,12t,15c/9t,12c,15c. In Wolff (1992), two
trans isomers (C18:2,9c,12t and C18:2,9t,12c) of linoleic acid and four
trans isomers (C18:3,9t,12c,15t, C18:3,9c,12c,15t, C18:3,9c,12t,15c,
and C18:3,9t,12c,15c) of linolenic acid were identified in soybean oil
and rapeseed oil. Romero, Cuesta, and Sánchez-Muniz (2000)
discovered the abundance of trans linoleic acids in sunflower oil.
The TFA concentrations observed in SBO, RSO, SFO and CO were
1.15  0.12, 1.37  0.23, 1.41  0.10, and 2.01  0.24 g/100 g, ranging
between 0.23 and 3.11, 0.14 and 3.82, 0.28 and 2.10, and 0.56 and
4.76 g/100 g, respectively (Table 2). In a previous study, the amount
of TFA was 0.26e0.82 g/100 g in soybean oil and 1.63e3.46 g/100 g
in rapeseed oil (Wolff, 1992). Higher amounts of TFA have also been
reported in soybean oil (2.06%) (Karabulut, Kayahan, & Yaprak,
2003) and (1.48%) (Baylin, Siles, Donovan-Palmer, Fernandez, &
Campos, 2007). Furthermore, the TFA content was 0.91% in
sunflower oil (Filip, Hribar, & Vidrih, 2011), 2.11% in sunflower oil
(Baylin et al., 2007), and 0.54e0.88% in other edible oils (palm olein
and cooking oil) (Bansal et al., 2009). The TFA content of edible oils
was reported to be 0.90e2.93% in Mexico (Medina-Juárez, Gámez-
Meza, Ortega-García, Noriega-Rodriguez, & Angulo-Guerrero,
2000), and 0.9e3.5% in Belgium (Kellens, 1997). De Greyt, Kint,
Kellens, and Huyghebaert (1998) suggested that the total TFA
content in refined oils (soybean oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, high
oleic sunflower oil, low erucic rapeseed oil and high erucic rape-
seed oil) was between 0.15% and 6.03%. The mean concentration of
TFA (mean value, 1.04 g/100 g; range, 0.03e10.5 g/100 g) in edible
oils (olive, sunflower, peanut, rapeseed, vegetable) was reported
by Richter, Shawish, Scheeder, and Colombani (2009). Ferrari,
Schulte, Esteves, Bruhl, and Mukherjee (1996) reported that the
total TFA content in refined corn, soybean and rapeseed oils was
1.5%, 4.6%, and 2.4%, respectively. Martin et al. (2008) reported
that the mean levels of TFA ranged between 0.8% and 2.6% for
refined soybean oils. Sebedio and Ratnayake (2008) suggested
that in many types of unhydrogenated dietary fats, the contents of
two mono-trans isomers of linoleic acid (i.e. C18:2,9c,12t and
C18:2,9t,12c) were at similar levels to or even higher than that of
the trans isomer C18:2,9t,12t. Even though trans C18:1, trans
C18:2, and trans C18:3 have been found in cold pressed vegetable
oils, their amounts are very low, generally between 0.1% and 0.3%
of the total fatty acids (Bruhl, 1996). The initial amount of trans
polyunsaturated fatty acid (0.1e0.3%) in crude oils may rise to 5%
in refined oils, exclusively due to deodorization, since this reac-
tion does not occur during the preceding steps of the refining
process (Schwarz, 2000). Tasan and Demirci (2003) found that the
content of trans C18:2 acid was increased 13.8-fold by the end of
the refining process. When the deodorization step was carried out
at 230  C for 2 h it was responsible for 91.3% of the TFA produc-
tion, and when this process was conducted at 265  C for 1 h the
increase in the trans C18:2 acid content was 57.8-fold in relation
to that of raw oil, totaling an increase of 97.4% in the TFA
production.

Fig. 2. The contents of the C18:1, 9t acid (a), total trans C18:2 acid (b), total trans C18:3
acid (c), and total trans fatty acids (d) in soybean oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and
corn oil. abMeans within a column with different superscripts are significantly different
(P < 0.05).
214 J.-C. Hou et al. / Food Control 25 (2012) 211e215
Fig. 3. The percentage of C18:1, 9t, trans C18:2, trans C18:3 of the total trans fatty acids in soybean oil (a), rapeseed oil (b), sunflower oil (c), and corn oil (d).
Ackman and Mag (1998) found that small amounts of TFA
isomers were also present in refined edible oils due to the high
temperature used during the deodorization procedure. Further-
more, De Greyt et al. (1998) reported that the formation of TFA
during refining would inevitably be higher for oils rich in a-lino-
lenic acid, such as soybean oil and rapeseed oil. During the
deodorization process, TFA could form because of their low acti-
vation energy threshold (125 kJ/mol) (Gunawan, Melwita, & Ju,
2010). The deodorization of fish oil is usually conducted at
temperatures above 200  C under vacuum condition, during which
process the largest amount of trans isomers are formed (Fournier
et al., 2006). The quantity of the trans isomers formed at elevated
temperatures indicates that a specific amount of energy is required
to transfer double bonds from the cis to the trans configuration.
Wolff (1993) demonstrated that the formation of trans C18:2 and
C18:3 acids is strongly dependent on the heating time and
temperature, and that it starts around 190  C during the deodor-
ization of flaxseed oil. During this stage, other factors that also
affect the formation of TFA include heating time, pressure, and
stripping steam dosage (Bruggen, Duchateau, Mooren, & Van
Oosten, 1998; Martin et al., 2008; Wolff, 1993).
The contents of C18:1,9t, total trans C18:3 acid, and the total TFA
in CO were higher than in SBO, RPO and SFO, whereas the total
amount of trans C18:2 acid in RPO and SFO was higher than in SBO
and CO (Fig. 2). Thus, the largest difference between the total TFA
and the total trans polyunsaturated FA contents was observed in
SBO, RSO, SFO and CO. Baylin et al. (2007) also suggested that the
total amount of trans C18:2 acid (1.19% in soybean oil and 1.83% in
sunflower oil) was higher than the total amount of trans C18:1 acid
(0.29% in soybean oil, and 0.28% in sunflower oil). In the present
study, we found that the percentage of C18:1,9t in all four edible oils
was low (<5%) (Fig. 3). The percentage of total trans C18:2 acid was
highest in CO (74.13%). The percentage of total trans C18:3 was high
in SBO (57.39%), RPO (78.10%), and SFO (81.38%) (Fig. 3). Bruhl
(1996) also reported that the amounts of trans C18:2 and C18:3
acids were normally predominant.
4. Conclusion
Although the levels of TFA detected in our study were relatively
low, it is necessary to investigate the edible oils to estimate the
intake of TFA. Trans C18:2 and C18:3 acids were normally
predominant in the investigated edible oils. Further research needs
to be carried out in order to identify the factors that can influence
the content of TFA in corn oil. In addition, manufacturers should
establish a TFA monitoring program for all edible oils to control
product quality.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the National High
Technology Research and Development Program of China (863
Program) (Grant No. 2010AA101503) and the National Science and
Technology Supporting Item (Grant No. 2009BADB9B08-1).
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